外文翻译-结构设计
2011届毕业设计外文翻译结构设计系、部：机械系学生姓名：指导教师：专业：班级：完成时间：结构设计Augustine J.Fredrich摘要：结构设计是选择材料和构件类型，大小和形状以安全有用的样式承担荷载。
一般说来，结构设计暗指结构物如建筑物和桥或是可移动但有刚性外壳如船体和飞机框架的工厂稳定性。
设计的移动时彼此相连的设备（连接件），一般被安排在机械设计领域。
关键词：结构设计；结构分析；结构方案；工程要求Abstract: Structure design is the selection of materials and member type ,size, and configuration to carry loads in a safe and serviceable fashion .In general ,structural design implies the engineering of stationary objects such as buildings and bridges ,or objects that maybe mobile but have a rigid shape such as ship hulls and aircraft frames. Devices with parts planned to move with relation to each other(linkages) are generally assigned to the area of mechanical .Key words: Structure Design ；Structural analysis ；structural scheme ；Project requirementsStructure DesignStructural design involved at least five distinct phases of work: project requirements, materials, structural scheme, analysis, and design. For unusual structures or materials a six phase, testing, should be included. These phases do not proceed in a rigid progression , since different materials can be most effective in different schemes , testing can result in change to a design , and a final design is often reached by starting with a rough estimated design , then looping through several cycles of analysis and redesign . Often, several alternative designs will prove quite close in cost, strength, and serviceability. The structural engineer, owner, or end user would then make a selection based on other considerations.Project requirements. Before starting design, the structural engineer must determine the criteria for acceptable performance. The loads or forces to be resisted must be provided. For specialized structures, this may be given directly, as when supporting a known piece of machinery, or a crane of known capacity. For conventional buildings, buildings codes adopted on a municipal, county , or , state level provide minimum design requirements for live loads (occupants and furnishings , snow on roofs , and so on ). The engineer will calculate dead loads (structural and known, permanent installations ) during the design process.For the structural to be serviceable or useful , deflections must also be kept within limits ,since it is possible for safe structural to be uncomfortable “bounce”Very tight deflection limits are set on supports for machinery , since beam sag can cause drive shafts to bend , bearing to burn out , parts to misalign , and overhead cranes to stall . Limitations of sag less than span /1000 ( 1/1000 of the beam length ) are not uncommon . In conventional buildings, beams supporting ceilings often have sag limits of span /360 to avoid plaster cracking, or span /240 to avoid occupant concern (keep visual perception limited ). Beam stiffness also affects floor “bounciness,” which can be annoying if not controlled. In addition , lateral deflection , sway , or drift of tall buildings is often held within approximately height /500 (1/500 of the building height ) to minimize the likelihood of motion discomfort in occupantsof upper floors on windy days .Member size limitations often have a major effect on the structural design. For example, a certain type of bridge may be unacceptable because of insufficient under clearance for river traffic, or excessive height endangering aircraft. In building design, ceiling heights and floor-to-floor heights affect the choice of floor framing. Wall thicknesses and column sizes and spacing may also affect the serviceability of various framing schemes.Materials selection. Technological advances have created many novel materials such as carbon fiber and boron fiber-reinforced composites, which have excellent strength, stiffness, and strength-to-weight properties. However, because of the high cost and difficult or unusual fabrication techniques required , they are used only in very limited and specialized applications . Glass-reinforced composites such as fiberglass are more common, but are limited to lightly loaded applications. The main materials used in structural design are more prosaic and include steel, aluminum, reinforced concrete, wood , and masonry .Structural schemes. In an actual structural, various forces are experienced by structural members , including tension , compression , flexure (bending ), shear ,and torsion (twist) . However, the structural scheme selected will influence which of these forces occurs most frequently, and this will influence the process of materials selection.Tension is the most efficient way to resist applied loads ,since the entire member cross section is acting to full capacity and bucking is not a concern . Any tension scheme must also included anchorages for the tension members . In a suspension bridge , for example ,the anchorages are usually massive dead weights at the ends of the main cables . To avoid undesirable changes in geometry under moving or varying loads , tension schemes also generally require stiffening beams or trusses.Compression is the next most efficient method for carrying loads . The full member cross section is used ,but must be designed to avoid bucking ,either by making the member stocky or by adding supplementary bracing . Domed and archedbuildings ,arch bridges and columns in buildings frames are common schemes . Arches create lateral outward thrusts which must be resisted . This can be done by designing appropriate foundations or , where the arch occurs above the roadway or floor line , by using tension members along the roadway to tie the arch ends together ,keeping them from spreading . Compression members weaken drastically when loads are not applied along the member axis , so moving , variable , and unbalanced loads must be carefully considered.Schemes based on flexure are less efficient than tension and compression ,since the flexure or bending is resisted by one side of the member acting in tension while the other side acts in compression . Flexural schemes such as beams , girders , rigid frames , and moment (bending ) connected frames have advantages in requiring no external anchorages or thrust restrains other than normal foundations ,and inherent stiffness and resistance to moving ,variable , and unbalanced loads .Trusses are an interesting hybrid of the above schemes . They are designed to resist loads by spanning in the manner of a flexural member, but act to break up the load into a series of tension and compression forces which are resisted by individually designed tension and have excellent stiffness and resistance to moving and variable loads . Numerous member-to-member connections, supplementary compression braces ,and a somewhat cluttered appearance are truss disadvantages .Plates and shells include domes ,arched vaults ,saw tooth roofs , hyperbolic paraboloids , and saddle shapes .Such schemes attempt to direct all force along the plane of the surface ,and act largely in shear . While potentially very efficient ,such schemes have very strict limitations on geometry and are poor in resisting point ,moving , and unbalanced loads perpendicular to the surface.Stressed-skin and monologue construction uses the skin between stiffening ribs ,spars ,or columns to resist shear or axial forces . Such design is common in airframes for planes and rockets, and in ship hulls . it has also been used to advantage in buildings. Such a design is practical only when the skin is a logical part of the design and is never to be altered or removed .For bridges , short spans are commonly girders in flexure . As spans increaseand girder depth becomes unwieldy , trusses are often used ,as well as cablestayed schemes .Longer spans may use arches where foundation conditions ,under clearance ,or headroom requirements are favorable .The longest spans are handled exclusively by suspension schemes ,since these minimize the crucial dead weight and can be erected wire by wire .For buildings, short spans are handled by slabs in flexure .As spans increase, beams and girders in flexure are used . Longer spans require trusses ,especially in industrial buildings with possible hung loads . Domes ,arches , and cable-suspended and air –supported roofs can be used over convention halls and arenas to achieve clear areas .Structural analysis . Analysis of structures is required to ensure stability (static equilibrium ) ,find the member forces to be resisted ,and determine deflections . It requires that member configuration , approximate member sizes ,and elastic modulus ; linearity ; and curvature and plane sections . Various methods are used to complete the analysis .Final design . once a structural has been analyzed (by using geometry alone if the analysis is determinate , or geometry plus assumed member sizes and materials if indeterminate ), final design can proceed . Deflections and allowable stresses or ultimate strength must be checked against criteria provided either by the owner or by the governing building codes . Safety at working loads must be calculated . Several methods are available ,and the choice depends on the types of materials that will be used .Pure tension members are checked by dividing load by cross-section area .Local stresses at connections ,such as bolt holes or welds ,require special attention . Where axial tension is combined with bending moment ,the sum of stresses is compared to allowance levels . Allowable : stresses in compression members are dependent on the strength of material, elastic modulus ,member slenderness ,and length between bracing points . Stocky members are limited by materials strength ,while slender members are limited by elastic bucking .Design of beams can be checked by comparing a maximum bending stress toan allowable stress , which is generally controlled by the strength of the material, but may be limited if the compression side of the beam is not well braced against bucking .Design of beam-columns ,or compression members with bending moment ,must consider two items . First ,when a member is bowed due to an applied moment ,adding axial compression will cause the bow to increase .In effect ,the axial load has magnified the original moment .Second ,allowable stresses for columns and those for beams are often quite different .Members that are loaded perpendicular to their long axis, such as beams and beam-columns, also must carry shear. Shear stresses will occur in a direction to oppose the applied load and also at right angles to it to tie the various elements of the beam together. They are compared to an allowable shear stress. These procedures can also be used to design trusses, which are assemblies of tension and compression members. Lastly, deflections are checked against the project criteria using final member sizes.Once a satisfactory scheme has been analyzed and designed to be within project criteria, the information must be presented for fabrication and construction. This is commonly done through drawings, which indicate all basic dimensions, materials, member sizes, the anticipated loads used in design, and anticipated forces to be carried through connections.结构设计结构设计包含至少5个不同方面的工作：工程要求，材料，结构方案，分析和设计。
建筑结构设计及材料中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Structure in Design of ArchitectureAnd Structural MaterialWe have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and space forming subsystems. Is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic,preliminary, and final.Such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at conceptual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic considerations .In fact , we can say that an architect’s ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer .The object of the schematic feed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.Then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. As an actual building configuration option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions.At the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic ofhis or her scheme .But this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme.At the preliminary level, the architect’s emphasis will shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architect’s structural needs will shift to approximate design of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification and design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. Consultants can play a significant part in this effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts.When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasiswill be on the detailed development of all subsystem specifics . Here the role of specialists from various fields, including structural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. Decisions made at this level may produce feedback into Level II that will result in changes. However, if Levels I and II are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, Rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement (or modification) of the more general properties of a total-system design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details.To summarize: At Level I, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the form of overall thinking. At Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in sufficient depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interaction . This will mean a somewhat more specificform of collaboration with specialists then that in level I .At level III ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that providing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents .Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar like substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or claps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called puzzling, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile forcewhich, as we have seen, tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then ground into a power. It is mixed at or near the construction site with sand, aggregate small stones, crushed rock, or gravel, and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients produce concrete with different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. Thus, the two substances complement each other.They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors. Steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tensions will develop. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond─ the force that unites them─ that the steel cannot slip within the concrete. Still another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid.The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction practices. It was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick for multistory buildings, and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors. Both these changes served to reduce the cost of construction. It also became possible to erect buildings with greater heights and longer spans.Since the weight of modern structures is carried by the steel or concrete frame, the walls do not support the building. They have become curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let in light. In the earlier steel or concrete frame building, the curtain walls were generally made of masonry; they had the solid look of bearing walls. Today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various combinations.Another advance in steel construction is the method of fastening together the beams. For many years the standard method was riveting.A rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw without threads. It is heated, placed in holes through the pieces of steel, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering it to hold it in place. Riveting has now largely been replaced by welding, the joining together of pieces of steel by melting a steel materialbetween them under high heat.Priestess’s concrete is an improved form of reinforcement. Steel rods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strengths. They are then used to priestess concrete, usually by one of two different methods. The first is to leave channels in a concrete beam that correspond to the shapes of the steel rods. When the rods are run through the channels, they are then bonded to the concrete by filling the channels with grout, a thin mortar or binding agent. In the other (and more common) method, the priestesses steel rods are placed in the lower part of a form that corresponds to the shape of the finished structure, and the concrete is poured around them. Priestess’s concrete uses less steel and less concrete. Because it is a highly desirable material.Progressed concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern, sports arenas, with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed.建筑中的结构设计及建筑材料建筑师必须从一种全局的角度出发去处理建筑设计中应该考虑到的实用活动，物质及象征性的需求。
道桥专业外文翻译--沥青路面结构设计的低成本农村道路
外文文献structural Design of Asphalt Pavement for Low Cost Rural Roads Yuan Goulin(袁国林)1'2' Chen Rongshen(陈荣生)1. College of Transportation, Southeast University, Nanjing 210b9b, China2. College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing University of Technology, Nanjing 210009, ChinaIn developing countries，rural road construction is mostly cumbered by shortage of funds. Engineers concerns most in rural areas is how to build roads which not only cost less but also meet the traffic demands. Especially in vast rural areas of China, there are a great variety of transportation patterns, and the traffic composition is very complex. Compared with other countries，the traffic composition in China rural areas have its own features. Therefore，there is no experience about the rural roads construction for reference. In recent years，the central government of China has increased the strength for rural road construction. At the same time，a lot of researches about rural road construction have been done by researchers in China, and some conclusions about china rural roads have been made. In the authors' opinion，the selection of the pavement structure material is the key measure to reduce the construction cost of rural roads after the route has been determined. Compared with concrete pavement，asphalt pavement relatively costs less and is the first choice for rural roads in China. And then，according to the research achievements about rural roads construction，the authors have done some preliminary researches on the structure design for low-cost asphalt pavements for rural roads.1 Traffic Composition of Rural RoadRural roads include county roads，town roads and village roads.The traffic on rural roads is usually mixed. On a county road, traffic volume is between 300 to 1500 veh/d in average，and in a county with a developed economy，it reaches 1000 to 2 000 veh/d. The traffic volume between county and town is 100 to 300 veh/d，and the traffic volume between towns is usually less than 100 to 300 veh/d. In a mixed traffic flow，trucks account for 40% to 70% of the traffic volume, which are mainly light trucks carrying less than 2. 5 tons(including agricultural vehicles such as electro-tricycles，walking tractors etc.)and medium-size trucks of 2. 5 to 5 tons. Most of these light or medium trucks are overloaded. The proportion of heavy truck is less than 9%.On some roads to counties，the proportion ofoverloaded trucks is 5% to 32 %，while on some county roads connecting to national or provincial trunk highways，the proportion of overloaded vehicles usually amounts to 20% to 32% .The traffic volume on rural roads is not heavy. However，considering the practical situation in China, as well as the exitence of overloaded vehicles，100kN，or BZZ-100 was adopted as standard axle load in the research.The pavement deflection or the flexural-tensile stress at the bottom of asphalt surface is taken as the design parameter. The axle load was calculated in和-the axle weight of an i-level axle in kN and the action frequency;-the axle weight of standard axle in 100 kN and the action frequency;If the distance between axles is less than 3 m，axle loads are calculated asa double-axle or multi-axle loads，andIf the flexural-tensile stress at the bottom of semi-rigid base is taken as the design parameter, the axle load is calculated in accordance with the following formula:If the distance between axles is less than 3m，2 Traffic V olume on Rural RoadsMinibuses are adopted as the standard vehicle for the design of rural roads. Table 1 shows its external dimensions.Table 1 External dimensions of the passenger car mLength Width Height Front overhang Distance between axles Rear overhang6.0 1.8 2.0 0.8 3.8 1.4The typical vehicle types on rural roads are listed in Table 2. And others such as non-power-driven vehicles，animal-drawn vehicles，and bicycles can be taken into account in the calculation of traffic volume on rural roads，in view of their roadside interference.In accordance with the traffic composition and volumes ，rural roads are divided into five grades. The traffic volume of each grade is shown in Table 3.Traffic volume specified in Table 3 was obtained by taking the minibus as the standard vehicle type,and converting different types vehicles according to the vehicle conversion coefficients given in Table 2.In Table 3，()[]ηγγ11365-+=t s e N NNe refers to the cumulative equivalent axle load action frequency;Ns refers to the equivalent axle load action frequency in the designed traffic lane in the beginning operation period of rural roads;y refers to the average annual growth rate of traffic volume;η refers to lane coefficient, and 1.0 for a single lane and 0. 6一0. 7 for a dual lane.3 Strength of RoadbedThe modulus of resilience of roadbed varies greatly. For convenience ，the strength of roadbed can be divided into four classes according to its moisture content and modulus of resilience ，as shown in Table 4.The parameters in Table 5 are determined by combining design principles with practical experience. By applying elastic multilayer theory to the pavement structure specified in Table 5，the influence of Ne on the pavement thickness of rural roads was analyzed ，and the result show that for given h ，h2，E0，the roadbase thickness for neighboring traffic classes changes in a range of 4-5 cm. This result indicates that the classification of traffic volume on rural roads shown in Table 3 is reasonable and feasible in terms of the design and construction of asphalt pavement structures. By using the elastic multilayer theory ，the asphalt pavement structure of ordinary rural road in Table 5 is analyzed. When Ne ，the cumulative equivalent axle load action frequency ，the thickness of road surface(h =3 cm)，and the thickness of subbase(h2 = 20 cm ) remain the same , the influence of neighboring roadbed strength classifications on the thickness of roadbase is 3 cm 一5 cm. This conclusion indicates that the strength classification of roadbed is reasonable and applicable to the design and construction of asphalt pavement structure.4 Determination of Thicknesses of Asphalt Pavement StructureSensitivity analysis of the design parameters of roadbed and pavement structures isto find out the relationship between structural strength of asphalt pavement structure and the design parameters of each layer, and determine the most sensitive layer in the pavement structure. The asphalt pavement structure of rural roads is generally composed of a road surface, a roadbase，and a subbase，as shown in Table 6. The pavement structure was analyzed according to elastic multiplayer theory under the double circular uniform load，with an assumption that there is continuous contact between the adjacent layers of the asphalt pavement structure. The basic parameters used in the calculation and analysis of asphalt pavement structure are listed in Table 7. By analyzing the effects of the change of all the parameters of pavement structure on the distortion of the road surface，roadbase，and roadbed , the following conclusions have been drawn.(1)Increasing the thickness of the road surface effectively decreases the road surface deflection，but raises the cost. The comparatively economical and effective method is to increase the thickness of the subbase, which is superior to increasing the thickness of roadbase，while increasing the thickness of the road surface is the last choice.(2)As the thickness of pavement structure increases，the change of road surface deflection will trend to be gentle. When the thickness of road surface reaches a certain value，the variance in the road surface deflection will not be obvious，and then it is ineffective to enhance the bearing capacity of asphalt pavement structure by increasing the thickness of road surface. It is recommended that the thicknesses of the roadbase and the subbase should be equal to or largerthan 18 and 20 cm, respectively，in design of asphalt pavement structures of rural roads. Fig. 1 shows the effects of the changes in the thickness of each layer on road surface deflection.(3)Road surface deflection is very sensitive to the change of modulus of the roadbed. The increase in the modulus of roadbase or subbase is also effective to decrease the deflection of the road surface. On the other hand，the deflection of the road surface decreases gradually when the modulus of the surface increases，being the least effective factor. When the modulus of the road surface increases to a certain value，decrease in road surface deflection is not apparent. Fig. 2 shows the effect of the modulus of each layer on road surface deflection. From the above discussion，we conclude that the most sensitive layer for road surface deflection is subbase，and the next is roadbase. To decrease the road surface deflection of low-cost rural roads，thestrength and stability of the roadbed should be enhanced, and the materials with a certain thickness and relatively high density should be used to pave the subbase.The traffic volume or the accumulative equivalent axle load action times(frequency)within the designed life of road is used to determine the type and thickness of the asphalt pavement road surface, and the results are listed in Table 8，where veh/d means the number of the equivalent the passenger cars per day.For a low traffic volume rural road with Ne 500 000，graded broken stones(or gravel)can be used as a flexible base. The flexible base has good strength and effectively prevents reflection cracks of the asphalt pavement road surface, provided the graded broken stones(or gravel ) meets the requirements for high density(degree of compaction ,100%. To ensure the sufficient strength and stability of the flexible base，its thickness is not less than 15 cm，the thickness of the aggregate subbase is not less than 20 cm，A semi-rigid base usually has a good bearing capacity For the rural roads with Ne)500 000，or those with low traffic volumes but relatively,the minimum thickness of semirigid base or subbase is 16-18 cm5 Calculation of the Thickness of Road Surface5.1 Deflection(1)Road surface deflectionRoad surface deflection is a vertical distortion caused by vertical load on the road surface. It not only reflects the whole strength and stiffness of asphalt pavement structure and roadbed，but also has a close internal relation with the service condition of the pavement.(2)Design deflectionThe design deflection is the index representing the stiffness of the pavement structure. It is also the deflection of the pavement which is established according to the accumulative equivalent axle load estimated to pass over a lane in the expected design life, road types, road classification，and the types of road surface and roadbase. The design deflection is not only the main basis for the design thickness of the pavement structure，but also the necessary index for the examination and acceptance of the project. Through theoretical analysis and experimental study，formulas for the design deflection value which are applicable to the pavement structure design of lowcost rural roads are as follows:semi-rigid base:flexible base:where A, is the type coefficient of the road surface. The type coefficient of asphalt concrete road surface is 1.0;that of hot-mix asphalt macadam and that of emulsified asphalt macadam road surface are all 1. 1; and that of asphalt surface treatment road surface is1 .2.(3)Allowable deflectionAllowable deflection is the maximum deflectionallowed at the end of the road's service life under lim-iting conditions in poor season. Through thoreticalanalysis and experimental study，the calculation for-mulas for the allowable deflection of road surfacewhich are applicable to the pavement structure designof low-cost rural roads are as follows}2}:When designing the asphalt pavement structure of low-cost rural roads, we should use formula (6) or (7 ) according to the types of roadbase to determine the thickness of asphalt pavement structure.5.2 Tensile stressBecause the asphalt pavement structure of lowcost rural roads is not substantial enough and the heavy vehicles are allowed to pass over them, the maximum tensile stress should be checked by computing the stresses of the semi-rigid base and subbase. The tensile stress at the bottom of semi-rigid base or subbase，would be less than or equivalent to the allowable tensile stress of the materials of the semirigid base or subbase , namely，For the stabilized aggregate base with an inorganic binder-For the stabilized fine-grained soil base with an inorganic binder:5.3 Pavement thicknessTo make it simple and convenient for engineers to determine the desired thickness of rural road pavement, the curves of the thickness of the roadbase of low-cost rural roads according to typical pavement structures and accumulative frequency of equivalent axle load are shown in Figs. 3，4 and 5.(1)When the accumulative frequency of equivalent axle load is within 500000 times per lane，asphalttreated or asphalt penetrated surfaces with thickness of 1. 5 cm 一cm is recommended for road surface. For various accumulative equivalent axle loads and the moduli(Eo)of roadbed，the equivalent thickness of roadbase is shown in Fig. 3.(2)When the accumulative frequency of equivalent axle load is within 500 001)一1 000 000 times per lane，asphalt macadam or asphalt concrete with thickness of 3 cm -5 cm is recommended. For various accumulative equivalent axle loads and moduli(Eo)of roadbed，the equivalent thickness of roadbase is shown in Fig. 4.(3)When the accumulative frequency of equivalent axle load is within 1000 000-2 000 000 times per lane，asphalt concrete road surface of 5 cm-7 cm thick is recommended. For various accumulative equivalent axle loads and moduli(Eo)of roadbed , the equivalent thickness of roadbase is shown in Fig.S.In Figs.3-5，Ld is the designed deflection, Lo is the representative deflection of roadbed，E, is the modulus of resilience of the roadbase，in MPa , Eo is the modulus of resilience of the roadbed，in MPa ,and H, in cm，is the equivalent thickness of the base (roadbase and subbase)，which can be obtained through calculation and in-site investigation for a trilevel-pavement roads(including road surface，base and roadbed).If a designed road has four layers，i.e. a subbase is added，according to the regression analysis of the extrapolated results of a number of multi-layer flexible systems and the available research findings，the thickness of the roadbase , h,，in cm, can be calculated from the following equation:6 Concluding RemarksCompared with concrete pavement, asphalt pavements have a lowerconstruction cost, which is suitable for the roads in relatively underdeveloped rural areas in China. The research in this paper proposed a method for structural design of low cost asphalt pavements. The method is to provide an guideline for the design of asphalt pavement structure in rural areas.References[1]Yuan G L , Zhang F , Chen S W , et al. Research on technical indexes of rural highway construction in Jiangsu province [ J ].Highway, 2005(6):135一139(in Chinese).[ 2 ] Research Institute of Highway , the Ministry of Communications. Final Report on Low Cost Inter-township and Rural Road Construction Techniques 〔R].Beijing; Resdarch Institute of Highway, 2003(in Chinese).[ 3 ] Liu Q Q. How to reduce the construction cost of the rural highway [ J ] .Journal of Highway and Transportation Research and Development, 2005(2):41一44(in Chinese).[ 4 ] JTG B014-97. Specification for design of highway asphalt pavement[ S ](in Chinese ).[ 5 ] JTG BO1-2003. Technical Standard of Highway Engineering [ S ](in Chinese).[6] Deng X J. Engineering for sub-grade and pavement[ M].2nd ed. Beijing; People's Communications Press, Beijing, 2004(in Chinese ).中文译文沥青路面结构设计的低成本农村道路袁国林1，陈荣生21。
外文翻译(结构设计背景)
第三部分：外文翻译结构设计背景Background for Structural Design1. Practice versus TheoryWe hear much of the conflict between theory and practice. Actually, of course, there will be no conflict between good theory and good practice, although the two frequently seem at cross-purposes, particularly when both are bad. Bad theory develops from unjustifiably crude assumptions, while bad practice follows unjustifiably crude methods. When theory can be based upon correct premises and practice can be controlled by one who understands the theory involved, the two will agree. Nevertheless, there are certain considerations of practice that must be allowed to control design, particularly to facilitate construction. A few of the many problems that should influence the thinking of the designer and of the construction engineer will be discussed.2. Analytical CalculationsSince analysis precedes design, it will be useful to think over the process of analysis from the point of view of the practical designer. Analysis, to serve a useful purpose, must finally reach expression in terms of tons of steel, cubic yards of concrete, and board feet of structural timber. It is useless for the analyst or the designer to expect the construction engineer to worry about increasing the unit stress in a steel beam by a few hundred pounds per square inch above the allowable stress by the shifting of a partition. The field man knows that there are decisions he will have to make during erection that may influence the stress to a greater extent than the amount mentioned. For the same reason, he is not likely to be sympathetic when the blueprint carries a statement that a field connection is to be welded at a distance of 5 j ^ in. from a sheared edge.The accuracy of field work is seldom greater than a tolerance of in. and a sheared edge is far from a planed edge at best. The designer will cultivate the respect of the field man by avoiding such inconsistencies.With these considerations in mind, we may conclude that there is little reason for a designer to use log tables in making his usual calculations. A slide rule will provide all requisite accuracy; also, such calculations will actually command greater confidence. However, this does not justify the substitution of crude guesses for accurate analysis or for careful design calculations.Theory of ElasticityThere is no tool that has proved of greater value to the designer than the theory of elasticity. On the other hand, it is worth remembering that the significance of the word elasticity automatically rules out the effect of plastic flow or "yield". Hence, the distribution of stresses presented by this theory is the picture that would apply before any single particle had passed the yield point. As soon as any part of the structure begins to yield, the distribution of stress will change. Generally speaking, we find that plastic yielding tends to equalize stresses by a redistribution of moments, shears, and fiber stresses. The accomplished designer will be able to interpret and use the results of mathematical studies based upon the theory of elasticity, but he will not fail to readjust his ideas of structural action to allow for the influence of yielding beyond the elastic limit.3. DuctilityThis property has been mentioned as one which helps to reduce stress concentrations. For instance, according to the theory of elasticity, a small hole in a simple tension member will produce a stress concentration of three times the average unit stress in the member. Photo-elastically it hasbeen possible to measure stress concentrations around a hole of more than twice the average stress in the member. It is therefore surprising that rivet holes do not seem to reduce the ultimate static strength of a tension member (steel) by more than the influence of the reduction of effective area. The explanation must be that the steel around the rivet hole flows and thus permits a redistribution of stress so that the maximum unit stress at fracture is little greater than the average unit stress. There are innumerable similar conditions to be evaluated in structural design. All "stress raisers", such as notches, holes, threads, and cross-sectional changes, are best eliminated, but, if they are unavoidable, some reduction of their objectionable features will tie obtained from ductility.4. Cleavage or Brittle FractureA type of fracture not seen very frequently in buildings and bridges is a brittle running crack without visible yielding or plastic flow of the adjacent material. Many ships, tanks, and other steel plate structures, particularly when welded, have been destroyed by brittle fracture. When test coupons are cut from material adjacent to a brittle crack and pulled in uniaxial tension in a testing machine at room temperature, the material will usually stretch 20 percent or more in length before fracturing. Coupons removed from a weld adjacent to a brittle fracturing are likely to show even greater ductility than die parent metal. Hence, we can hardly blame either the weld or the plate itself for permitting the crack to progress catastrophically after its initiation. By checking the point of initiation, one invariably finds a stress concentration, such as a corner, a hole, or an arc strike in welding, but such concentrations of stress exist in other structures where brittle fracture does not occur.Lengthy investigations have isolated several factors that tend to produce a catastrophic brittle fracture if a small crack is initiated by a pointof high stress concentration. One significant embrittling factor is low temperature. Steels usually become brittle at a temperature well below zero degrees Fahrenheit. It is significant, however, that any temperature well below freezing will embrittle certain structural steels. The temperature below which given steel loses a significant fraction of its ductility or energy absorption before fracture, as measured by the Charpy test, is called its "transition temperature". We have learned that steels which have a transition temperature above the temperature of exposure in service are inherently subject to brittle fractured. The author observed a beam, attached to a wall column that fractured without visible ductile deformation when the wall was opened in winter for repair. The beam had served for thirty years while protected from winter temperatures by the heat of the building. Doubtless its transition temperature was above the temperature of the exposure.A second embrittling factor is triaxiality of tensile stresses. Theoretically a cube of any ductile material will lose all of its ductility and will fracture by pure cleavage if it is subjected to equal tensions of sufficient magnitude in any three perpendicular directions. Such perfection of triaxial tension is not likely to occur in a structure, but unequal tensions in three perpendicular directions are not uncommon. Any plate may be subject to biaxial tension; biaxial stress; in fact, is the usual reason for its existence. Then, as the author has shown, a third tension stress perpendicular to the plate at its mid-depth will develop from Poisson's ratio at the exact end of any tiny crack in the plate. Hence, at the end of any tiny crack-like imperfection in a plate or weld a condition of triaxial tension occurs that without doubt is an embrittling factor along with low temperature. If the imperfection develops into a visible crack, the triaxiality of tension continues to redevelop right at the end of theextending crack and thus encourages it to progress as a britde running fracture.A third embritting factor is any hidden stress that tends to build up the general tensile stress field since brittle fracture naturally does not occur under low stresses. Such hidden stresses are those due to changes in temperature of one part of a structure without equal temperature change for other integral parts, and also the residual stresses due to rolling, cooling, straightening, or forced fit during erection.A fourth embritting factor has been established by tests of prestrained material. It has been found by Mylonas and Drucker that a compressive prestrain of two or three percent across a notch followed by a relatively low tension in the same direction (less than one half of the yield tension) reduces residual ductility and may produce a brittle fracture.The four embrittling factors mentioned above are low temperature, triaxiality of tension, hidden stress fields that raise the anticipated level of stress, and loss of ductility due to prestraining in compression. Stress concentrations may be involved in the latter three factors. Each of these factors exists in some degree in every structure. In large plate structures, such as ships and tanks, the factors of embrittlement tend to combine to a dangerous degree. The designer needs to be aware of their inherent danger so that he may reduce by good design the possibility that such factors may combine to initiate a catastrophic fracture.5. The Factor of SafetySome writers have considered the factor of safety to be based upon ultimate strength, while others feel that the ratio of the elastic limit to the working stress is in reality the factor of safety. The latter point of view is certainly the more significant, but neither presents a correct picture. Theengineer is always willing to let the actual stress approach nearly the elastic limit. The range between the working stress and the elastic limit is mainly an allowance to cover unknown or partially unknown stresses.(1).Fabrication and Erection StressesIt is no secret that structural steel is handled rather roughly in the shop and in the field. Rivet holes seldom line up perfectly; hence they must be pulled into line. Welding warps and buckles the structure and leaves high residual stresses. During fabrication, bent shapes are straightened as a standard part of the fabrication process, and, of course, the elastic limit must be passed to accomplish this. The mere punching of a hole distorts the surrounding material and leaves high residual stresses. The writer is convinced that these processes will result in a structure having stresses, under the design loading, that reach the elastic limit over small areas. Such a structure would be highly unsafe if it were not constructed of a ductile material such as structural steel.(2).Knowledge of LoadsOne of the undeterminable factors in design may be the loading itself. Dead load can be estimated quite accurately, but live loading, wind, and impact, as well as traction, sway, and other inertia forces are extremely variable. Then there is the influence of temperature and the action of settling supports that often damage an otherwise well-designed structure. The engineering designer makes a sincere effort to evaluate the probable loads, but even his best judgment is unable to cope with the situation in all cases. One purpose, then, of the factor of safety is to provide some reasonable allowance for possible increased loading.(3).Knowledge of MaterialsMost design is based upon specifications that assume certain properties for the structural materials. The common specified minimum elastic limit for structural steel of one type is 33,000 lb/in2. This lower limit is controlled by mill tests. A batch of steel rolled into structural shapes has a number of coupons cut from it for testing. If we make thousands of such tests for a single batch of steel, a few will turn up that show a yield point considerably below 33,000 lb/in2. However, the chance is small that a limited number of mill tests will happen to locate the small amount of weak material. One who understands the theory of sampling is not surprised that constant strength of a product such as structural steel is not even approached. Many factors must be controlled in producing steel, each factor being permitted to vary within a limited range. These factors therefore combine to produce a variable product.6. Fabrication MethodsIt is the responsibility of the designer to understand fabrication methods and to fit each particular design to the fabrication facilities available. For instance, it is undesirable to select a beam that is longer than rolled sections stocked in local warehouses or longer than the possible situations that may need to be controlled for safe structure fabrication shop can handle properly. It is worth noting that each central warehouse provides the draftsmen in its vicinity with a list of maximum sizes of materials that are readily available. Special sizes may not he obtainable for months, even at an increased cost per pound. The designer should work with the shop man so that the resulting structure will be economical. An edge can often be finished by grinding, by milling, or, possibly, simply by burning. Knowledge of relative costs is necessary if one is to reach a proper decision.Field ErectionThe designer usually has more difficulty in cooperating with the field organization than with the shop. The reason is that field conditions are never under complete control. The weather, the soil, the kind of labor obtainable, and the vagaries of nature all combine at times to plague the field engineer so that he finds it difficult, if not impossible, to follow the exact plan presented to him. On the other hand, construction engineers are so versatile that they can usually accomplish the result desired even though some changes become necessary. The responsibility again falls upon the designer to consider the influence of all possible field conditions upon his design. Some designs must be made so that the structure can be erected by unskilled labor, while other structures may be dependent upon the services of welders and craftsmen of highly specialized qualifications. The writer knows of one bridge that was designed for transportation on the backs of camels and another that was brought to the site by airplanes. Even freight car or truck transportation introduces certain limitations that must be observed as to the over-all size or length of a given piece. possible situations that may need to be controlled for safe structural design. Standard sets of specifications are prepared under the sponsorship of the technical societies. Over a period of years such specifications have been written arid rewritten many times. The profession as a whole has used each specification and has either accepted or rejected it. Therefore, a standard set of specifications may be accepted to represent the best information available on the subject as of the date when it was written.7. Cost as a Major FactorThe previous discussion leads to the inevitable conclusion that only an economical design can be a good design. The designer will accomplish little if his structures are seldom built because of excessive cost. Therefore, the designer must balance himself between the danger of unsafe practiceon the one hand and over conservatism on the other. His best approach to the solution of this problem is to learn everything possible from the detailer, the shop man, and the construction engineer. If he knows the tolerances, clearances, and allowances introduced by the detailer, the sizes, tools and methods used by the shop, and the shapes, weights, and fits desired by the field organization, his designing is likely to be successful.In the study of costs, it is interesting to observe that certain structures commonly used in foreign countries are seldom used in the United States. There are the highest labor costs in the world, which explains the requirement of machine production in the United States. Slender structures are more likely to be found in Europe, where the high costs of material and low cost of labor make weight reduction important, a fact that is particularly evident in the field of reinforced concrete.8. SpecificationsAll structural design is controlled by specifications. Even if no limitation is placed upon the designer, he will still be very likely to depend upon a standard set of specifications for guidance. All large cities have building codes that specify not only working stresses and qualities of materials and workmanship, but such general features as window area, hallway widths, and fire provisions for a building, and similar features of other structures. The designer will follow the specifications of the local building code by necessity, but he will also usually follow the provisions of standard sets of specifications (AREA, AWS,ACI)for his own guidance. It is impossible for anyone designer to have experienced all of the al design. Standard sets of specifications are prepared under the sponsorship of the technical societies. Over a period of years such specifications have been written arid rewritten many times. The profession as a whole has used each specification and has either accepted or rejectedit. Therefore, a standard set of specifications may be accepted to represent the best information available on the subject as of the date when it was written.9. Structural FailuresThere are a great many minor structural failures, but unless there is loss of life or oilier newsworthy features about a particular failure, it never comes to the attention of anyone except the firm that repairs the damage. Frequently, the owner requests that no publicity be given to failure. Many failures are caused by improper details. It has been a habit of " handbook designers" to select members of ample size and then to connect them together inadequately. Most building failures due to wind can be traced to this weakness. Undoubtedly, this is due to the fact that member selection is often quite simple, while joint design requires a greater understanding of stress analysis.(1). SettlementCertainly the most common source of building failures is foundation settlement. The design problem involved is not to prevent settlement, which can never be done, but to obtain uniform settlement so that the structure will not be stressed thereby. For instance, if all footings of a building settle the same amount, the building will be uninjured. However, unless uniform settlement is certain, the designer should make an allowance for unequal settlement in his analysis. Hence, the ideal structure for such a location may be one that is flexible or deformable rather than rigid or ever stiff. For this reason, the simple span structure has long been pointed to as the ideal where unequal settlement is anticipated.(2).Excessive DeflectionA common error in design is to select a beam or truss properly for strength but to fail to check its load deflection. Excessive flexibility may produce cracked plaster, permit vibration amplitude to build up, or even lead to collapse. Complete collapse often results from excessive flexibility of flat roofs. The dead-load deflection produces a low spot in the roof that collects water or ice. The increased water or ice load produces further deflection which allows more water or ice to collect. The process of self- destruction is certain to continue to the point of collapse if the span is rather great, because a small added deflection produces a significant increase in water loading. The solution is either to increase stiffness to meet specifications or to camber the roof so heavily that water can never collect on it.10. ConclusionAll things considered, it is remarkable that catastrophic failures occur so seldom in structures. This fact has led many engineers to feel that absolute safety can be guaranteed by proper specifications. However, we have seen that both the loads and the strength of structural materials, members and joints are governed by the theory of probability. Therefore, although one might be able to design a structure with a probability of failure as low as one in a million, it is never possible to reduce the probability of failure for a complex structural assemblage to zero.。
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计
中文3220字附录：毕业设计外文翻译院（系）建筑工程学院专业土木工程班级姓名学号导师2011年4月15日英文：High-Rise Buildings and StructuralDesignAbstract：It is difficult to define a high-rise building . One may say that a low-rise building ranges from 1 to 2 stories . A medium-rise building probably ranges between 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more . Although the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low- , medium- , or high-rise buildings , when a building gets high the vertical subsystems become a controlling problem for two reasons . Higher vertical loads will require larger columns , walls , and shafts . But , more significantly , the overturning moment and the shear deflections produced by lateral forces are much larger and must be carefully provided for .Key Words：High-Rise Buildings Structural Design Framework Shear Seismic SystemIntroductionThe vertical subsystems in a high-rise building transmit accumulated gravity load from story to story , thus requiring larger column or wall sections to support such loading . In addition these same vertical subsystems must transmit lateral loads , such as wind or seismic loads , to the foundations. However , in contrast to vertical load , lateral load effects on buildings are not linear and increase rapidly with increase in height . For example under wind load , the overturning moment at the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings may vary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal.Earthquake produces an even more pronounced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it is almost an inherent property that the columns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carry most of the horizontal forces . The problem is primarily shear resistance . Moderate addition bracing for rigid frames in“short”buildings can easily be provided by filling certain panels ( or even all panels ) without increasing the sizes of the columns and girders otherwise required for vertical loads.Unfortunately , this is not is for high-rise buildings because the problem is primarily resistance to moment and deflection rather than shear alone . Special structural arrangements will often have to be made and additional structural material is always required for the columns , girders , walls , and slabs in order to made a high-rise buildings sufficiently resistant to much higher lateral deformations .As previously mentioned , the quantity of structural material required per square foot of floor of a high-rise buildings is in excess of that required for low-rise buildings . The vertical components carrying the gravity load , such as walls , columns , and shafts , will need to be strengthened over the full height of the buildings . But quantity of material required for resisting lateral forces is even more significant .With reinforced concrete , the quantity of material also increases as the number of stories increases . But here it should be noted that the increase in the weight of material added for gravity load is much more sizable than steel , whereas for wind load the increase for lateral force resistance is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of design for earthquake forces . Additional mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force under the of seismic effects .In the case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for providing additional resistance to lateral to lateral forces and deflections in high-rise buildings without too much sacrifire ineconomy .1、Increase the effective width of the moment-resisting subsystems . This is very useful because increasing the width will cut down the overturn force directly and will reduce deflection by the third power of the width increase , other things remaining cinstant . However , this does require that vertical components of the widened subsystem be suitably connected to actually gain this benefit.2、Design subsystems such that the components are made to interact in the most efficient manner . For example , use truss systems with chords and diagonals efficiently stressed , place reinforcing for walls at critical locations , and optimize stiffness ratios for rigid frames .3、Increase the material in the most effective resisting components . For example , materials added in the lower floors to the flanges of columns and connecting girders will directly decrease the overall deflection and increase the moment resistance without contributing mass in the upper floors where the earthquake problem is aggravated .4、Arrange to have the greater part of vertical loads be carried directly on the primary moment-resisting components . This will help stabilize the buildings against tensile overturning forces by precompressing the major overturn-resisting components .5、The local shear in each story can be best resisted by strategic placement if solid walls or the use of diagonal members in a vertical subsystem . Resisting these shears solely by vertical members in bending is usually less economical , since achieving sufficient bending resistance in the columns and connecting girders will require more material and construction energy than using walls or diagonal members .6、Sufficient horizontal diaphragm action should be provided floor . This will help to bring the various resisting elements to work together instead of separately .7、Create mega-frames by joining large vertical and horizontal components such as two or more elevator shafts at multistory intervalswith a heavy floor subsystems , or by use of very deep girder trusses .Remember that all high-rise buildings are essentially vertical cantilevers which are supported at the ground . When the above principles are judiciously applied , structurally desirable schemes can be obtained by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular construction , and other vertical subsystems to achieve horizontal strength and rigidity . Some of these applications will now be described in subsequent sections in the following .Shear-Wall SystemsWhen shear walls are compatible with other functional requirements , they can be economically utilized to resist lateral forces in high-rise buildings . For example , apartment buildings naturally require many separation walls . When some of these are designed to be solid , they can act as shear walls to resist lateral forces and to carry the vertical load as well . For buildings up to some 20storise , the use of shear walls is common . If given sufficient length ,such walls can economically resist lateral forces up to 30 to 40 stories or more .However , shear walls can resist lateral load only the plane of the walls ( i.e.not in a diretion perpendicular to them ) . Therefore ,it is always necessary to provide shear walls in two perpendicular directions can be at least in sufficient orientation so that lateral force in any direction can be resisted . In addition , that wall layout should reflect consideration of any torsional effect .In design progress , two or more shear walls can be connected to from L-shaped or channel-shaped subsystems . Indeed , internal shear walls can be connected to from a rectangular shaft that will resist lateral forces very efficiently . If all external shear walls are continuously connected , then the whole buildings acts as a tube , and is excellent Shear-Wall Systems resisting lateral loads and torsion .Whereas concrete shear walls are generally of solid type withopenings when necessary , steel shear walls are usually made of trusses . These trusses can have single diagonals , “X”diagonals , or“K”arrangements . A trussed wall will have its members act essentially in direct tension or compression under the action of view , and they offer some opportunity and deflection-limitation point of view , and they offer some opportunity for penetration between members . Of course , the inclined members of trusses must be suitable placed so as not to interfere with requirements for windows and for circulation service penetrations though these walls .As stated above , the walls of elevator , staircase ,and utility shafts form natural tubes and are commonly employed to resist both vertical and lateral forces . Since these shafts are normally rectangular or circular in cross-section , they can offer an efficient means for resisting moments and shear in all directions due to tube structural action . But a problem in the design of these shafts is provided sufficient strength around door openings and other penetrations through these elements . For reinforced concrete construction , special steel reinforcements are placed around such opening .In steel construction , heavier and more rigid connections are required to resist racking at the openings .In many high-rise buildings , a combination of walls and shafts can offer excellent resistance to lateral forces when they are suitably located ant connected to one another . It is also desirable that the stiffness offered these subsystems be more-or-less symmertrical in all directions .Rigid-Frame SystemsIn the design of architectural buildings , rigid-frame systems for resisting vertical and lateral loads have long been accepted as an important and standard means for designing building . They are employed for low-and medium means for designing buildings . They are employed for low- and medium up to high-rise building perhaps 70 or 100 stories high . When compared to shear-wall systems , these rigid frames bothwithin and at the outside of a buildings . They also make use of the stiffness in beams and columns that are required for the buildings in any case , but the columns are made stronger when rigidly connected to resist the lateral as well as vertical forces though frame bending .Frequently , rigid frames will not be as stiff as shear-wall construction , and therefore may produce excessive deflections for the more slender high-rise buildings designs . But because of this flexibility , they are often considered as being more ductile and thus less susceptible to catastrophic earthquake failure when compared with ( some ) shear-wall designs . For example , if over stressing occurs at certain portions of a steel rigid frame ( i.e.,near the joint ) , ductility will allow the structure as a whole to deflect a little more , but it will by no means collapse even under a much larger force than expected on the structure . For this reason , rigid-frame construction is considered by some to be a “best”seismic-resisting type for high-rise steel buildings . On the other hand ,it is also unlikely that a well-designed share-wall system would collapse.In the case of concrete rigid frames ,there is a divergence of opinion . It true that if a concrete rigid frame is designed in the conventional manner , without special care to produce higher ductility , it will not be able to withstand a catastrophic earthquake that can produce forces several times lerger than the code design earthquake forces .Therefore , some believe that it may not have additional capacity possessed by steel rigid frames . But modern research and experience has indicated that concrete frames can be designed to be ductile , when sufficient stirrups and joinery reinforcement are designed in to the frame . Modern buildings codes have specifications for the so-called ductile concrete frames . However , at present , these codes often require excessive reinforcement at certain points in the frame so as to cause congestion and result in construction difficulties 。
外文翻译--结构设计原理
中文1717字附录Philosophy of Structural DesignA structural engineering project can be divided into three phases: planning, design, and construction.Structural design involves determining the most suitable proportions of a structure and dimensioning the structural elements and details of which it is composed. This is the most highly technical and mathematical phase of a structural engineering project, but it cannot-and certainly should not-be conducted without being fully coordinated with the planning and construction phases of the project. The successful designer is at all times fully conscious of the various considerations that were involved in the preliminary planning for the structure and, likewise, of the various problems that may later be encountered in its construction.Specially, the structural design of any structure first involves the establishment of the loading and other design conditions that must be resisted by the structure and therefore must be considered in its design. Then comes the analysis (or computation ) of the internal gross forces (thrust, shears, bending moments, and twisting moments), stress intensities, strains, deflections, and reactions produced by the loads, temperature, shrinkage, creep, or other design conditions. Finally comes the proportioning and selection of materials of the members and connections so as to resist adequately the effects produced by the design conditions. The criteria used to judge whether particular proportions will result in the desired behavior reflect accumulated knowledge (theory, field and model tests, and practical experience), intuition, and judgment. For most common civil engineering structures such as bridges and buildings, the usual practice in the past has been to design on the basis of a comparison of allowable stress intensities with those produced by the service loadings and other design conditions. This traditional basis for design is called elastic design because the allowable stress intensities are chosen in accordance with the concept that the stress or strain corresponding to the yield point of the material should not be exceeded at the most highly stressed points of the structure. Of course, the selection of the allowable stresses may also be modified by a consideration of the permissible deflections of the structure.Depending on the type of structure and the conditions involved, the stress intensities computed in the analytical model of the actual structure for the assumed design conditions may or may not be in close agreement with the stress intensities produced in the actual structure by the actual conditions to which it is exposed. The degree of correspondence is not important, provided that the computed stress intensities can be interpreted in terms of previous experience. The selection of the service conditions and the allowable stress intensities provides a margin of safety against failure. The selection of the magnitude of this margin depends on the degree of uncertainty regarding loading, analysis, design, materials, and construction and onthe consequences of failure. For example, if an allowable tensile stress of 20000 psi is selected for structural steel with a yield stress of 33000 psi, the margin of safety (or factor of safety) provided against tensile yielding is 33000/20000, or 1.65.The allowable-stress approach has an important disadvantage in that it does not provide a uniform overload capacity for all parts and all types of structures. As a result, there is today a rapidly growing tendency to base the design on the ultimate strength and serviceability of the structure, with the older allowable-stress approach serving as an alternative basis for design. The newer approach currently goes under the name of strength design in reinforce-concrete design literature and plastic design in steel-design literature. When proportioning is done on the strength basis, the anticipated service loading is first multiplied by a suitable load factor (greater than 1), the magnitude of which depends upon the uncertainty of the loading, the possibility of its changing during the life of the structure, and, for a combination of loadings, the likelihood, frequency, and duration of the particular combination. In this approach for reinforced-concrete design, the theoretical capacity of a structural element is reduced by a capacity-reduction factor to provide for small adverse variations in material strengths, workmanship, and dimensions. The structure is then proportioned so that, depending on the governing conditions, the increased load would (1) cause a fatigue or a buckling or a brittle-fracture failure or (2) just produce yielding at one internal section (or simultaneous yielding at several sections) or (3) cause elastic-plastic displacement of the structure or (4) cause the entire structure to be on the point of collapse.Proponents of this latter approach argue that it results in a more realistic design with a more accurately provided margin of strength over the anticipated service conditions. These improvements result from the fact that nonelastic and nonlinear effects that become significant in the vicinity of ultimate behavior of the structure can be accounted for.In recent decades, there has been a growing concern among many prominent engineers that not only is the term “factor of safety”improper and unrealistic, but worse still a structural design philosophy based on this concept leads in most cases to an unduly conservative and therefore uneconomical design, and in some cases to an unconservative design with too high a probability of failure. They argue that there is no such thing as certainty, either of failure or of safety of a structure but only a probability of failure or a probability of safety. They feel, therefore, that the variations of the load effects and the variations of the structural resistance should be studied in a statistical manner and the probability of survival or the probability of serviceability of a structure estimated. It may not yet be practical to apply this approach to the design of each individual structure. However, it is believed to be practical to do so in framing design rules and regulations. It is highly desirable that building codes and specifications plainly state the factors and corresponding probabilities that they imply.If a good alignment requires a curved bridge-over a part or the total length thenall external longitudinal lines or edges of the structure should be parallel to the curved axis, thereby following again the guideline of good order.The transverse axis of piers or groups of columns should be rectangular (radial) to the curved axis, unless skew crossings over roads or rivers enforce other directions.The requirements of traffic design result occasionally in very acute angles or in level branching which cause difficulties for the bridge engineer to find pleasing solutions for the bridges.结构设计原理一个结构设计工程可以被分为三个阶段：计划、设计、施工。
土木工程专业钢筋混凝土结构设计毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：钢筋混凝土结构设计文献、资料英文题目：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：土木工程班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14毕业设计（论文）外文参考资料及译文译文题目：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES原文：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETESTRUCTURES1. BASIC CONCERPTS AND CHARACERACTERISTICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETEPlain concrete is formed from hardened mixture of cement, water , fine aggregate , coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel ) , air and often other admixtures . The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to accelerate of the chemical hydration of hen cement mix and results in a hardened concrete. It is generally known that concrete has high compressive strength and low resistance to tension. Its tensile strength is approximatelyone-tenth of its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile reinforcement in the tension zone has to be provided to supplement the tensile strength of the reinforced concrete section.For example, a plain concrete beam under a uniformly distributed load q is shown in Fig .1.1(a), when the distributed load increases and reaches a value q=1.37KN/m , the tensile region at the mid-span will be cracked and the beam will fail suddenly . A reinforced concrete beam if the same size but has to steel reinforcing bars (2φ16) embedded at the bottom under a uniformly distributed load q is shown in Fig.1.1(b). The reinforcing bars take up the tension there after the concrete is cracked. When the load q is increased, the width of the cracks, the deflection and thestress of steel bars will increase . When the steel approaches the yielding stress ƒy , thedeflection and the cracked width are so large offering some warning that the compression zone . The failure load q=9.31KN/m, is approximately 6.8 times that for the plain concrete beam.Concrete and reinforcement can work together because there is a sufficiently strong bond between the two materials, there are no relative movements of the bars and the surrounding concrete cracking. The thermal expansion coefficients of the two materials are 1.2×10-5K-1 for steel and 1.0×10-5~1.5×10-5K-1 for concrete .Generally speaking, reinforced structure possess following features :Durability .With the reinforcing steel protected by the concrete , reinforced concreteFig.1.1Plain concrete beam and reinforced concrete beamIs perhaps one of the most durable materials for construction .It does not rot rust , and is not vulnerable to efflorescence .(2)Fire resistance .Both concrete an steel are not inflammable materials .They would not be affected by fire below the temperature of 200℃when there is a moderate amount of concrete cover giving sufficient thermal insulation to the embedded reinforcement bars.(3)High stiffness .Most reinforced concrete structures have comparatively large cross sections .As concrete has high modulus of elasticity, reinforced concrete structures are usuallystiffer than structures of other materials, thus they are less prone to large deformations, This property also makes the reinforced concrete less adaptable to situations requiring certainflexibility, such as high-rise buildings under seismic load, and particular provisions have to be made if reinforced concrete is used.(b)Reinfoced concrete beam(4)Locally available resources. It is always possible to make use of the local resources of labour and materials such as fine and coarse aggregates. Only cement and reinforcement need to be brought in from outside provinces.(5)Cost effective. Comparing with steel structures, reinforced concrete structures are cheaper.(6)Large dead mass, The density of reinforced concrete may reach2400~2500kg/pare with structures of other materials, reinforced concrete structures generally have a heavy dead mass. However, this may be not always disadvantageous, particularly for those structures which rely on heavy dead weight to maintain stability, such as gravity dam and other retaining structure. The development and use of light weight aggregate have to a certain extent make concrete structure lighter.(7)Long curing period.. It normally takes a curing period of 28 day under specified conditions for concrete to acquire its full nominal strength. This makes the progress of reinforced concrete structure construction subject to seasonal climate. The development of factory prefabricated members and investment in metal formwork also reduce the consumption of timber formwork materials.(8)Easily cracked. Concrete is weak in tension and is easily cracked in the tension zone. Reinforcing bars are provided not to prevent the concrete from cracking but to take up the tensile force. So most of the reinforced concrete structure in service is behaving in a cracked state. This is an inherent is subjected to a compressive force before working load is applied. Thus the compressed concrete can take up some tension from the load.2. HISTOEICAL DEVELPPMENT OF CONCRETE STRUCTUREAlthough concrete and its cementitious(volcanic) constituents, such as pozzolanic ash, have been used since the days of Greek, the Romans, and possibly earlier ancient civilization, the use of reinforced concrete for construction purpose is a relatively recent event, In 1801, F. Concrete published his statement of principles of construction, recognizing the weakness if concrete in tension, The beginning of reinforced concrete is generally attributed to Frenchman J. L. Lambot, who in 1850 constructed, for the first time, a small boat with concrete for exhibition in the 1855 World’s Fair in Paris. In England, W. B. Wilkinson registered a patent for reinforced concrete l=floor slab in 1854.J.Monier, a French gardener used metal frames as reinforcement to make garden plant containers in 1867. Before 1870, Monier had taken a series of patents to make reinforcedconcrete pipes, slabs, and arches. But Monier had no knowledge of the working principle of this new material, he placed the reinforcement at the mid-depth of his wares. Then little construction was done in reinforced concrete. It is until 1887, when the German engineers Wayss and Bauschinger proposed to place the reinforcement in the tension zone, the use of reinforced concrete as a material of construction began to spread rapidly. In1906, C. A. P. Turner developed the first flat slab without beams.Before the early twenties of 20th century, reinforced concrete went through the initial stage of its development, Considerable progress occurred in the field such that by 1910 the German Committee for Reinforced Concrete, the Austrian Concrete Committee, the American Concrete Institute, and the British Concrete Institute were established. Various structural elements, such as beams, slabs, columns, frames, arches, footings, etc. were developed using this material. However, the strength of concrete and that of reinforcing bars were still very low. The common strength of concrete at the beginning of 20th century was about 15MPa in compression, and the tensile strength of steel bars was about 200MPa. The elements were designed along the allowable stresses which was an extension of the principles in strength of materials.By the late twenties, reinforced concrete entered a new stage of development. Many buildings, bridges, liquid containers, thin shells and prefabricated members of reinforced concrete were concrete were constructed by 1920. The era of linear and circular prestressing began.. Reinforced concrete, because of its low cost and easy availability, has become the staple material of construction all over the world. Up to now, the quality of concrete has been greatly improved and the range of its utility has been expanded. The design approach has also been innovative to giving the new role for reinforced concrete is to play in the world of construction.The concrete commonly used today has a compressive strength of 20~40MPa. For concrete used in pre-stressed concrete the compressive strength may be as high as 60~80MPa. The reinforcing bars commonly used today has a tensile strength of 400MPa, and the ultimate tensile strength of prestressing wire may reach 1570~1860Pa. The development of high strength concrete makes it possible for reinforced concrete to be used in high-rise buildings, off-shore structures, pressure vessels, etc. In order to reduce the dead weight of concrete structures, various kinds of light concrete have been developed with a density of 1400~1800kg/m3. With a compressive strength of 50MPa, light weight concrete may be used in load bearing structures. One of the best examples is the gymnasium of the University of Illinois which has a span of 122m and is constructed of concrete with a density of 1700kg/m3. Another example is the two 20-story apartment houses at the Xi-Bian-Men in Beijing. The walls of these two buildings are light weight concrete with a density of 1800kg/m3.The tallest reinforced concrete building in the world today is the 76-story Water Tower Building in Chicago with a height of 262m. The tallest reinforced concrete building in China today is the 63-story International Trade Center in GuangZhou with a height a height of 200m. The tallest reinforced concrete construction in the world is the 549m high International Television Tower in Toronto, Canada. He prestressed concrete T-section simply supported beam bridge over the Yellow River in Luoyang has 67 spans and the standard span length is 50m.In the design of reinforced concrete structures, limit state design concept has replaced the old allowable stresses principle. Reliability analysis based on the probability theory has very recently been introduced putting the limit state design on a sound theoretical foundation. Elastic-plastic analysis of continuous beams is established and is accepted in most of the design codes. Finite element analysis is extensively used in the design of reinforced concrete structures and non-linear behavior of concrete is taken into consideration. Recent earthquake disasters prompted the research in the seismic resistant reinforced of concrete structures. Significant results have been accumulated.3. SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE COURSEReinforced concrete is a widely used material for construction. Hence, graduates of every civil engineering program must have, as a minimum requirement, a basic understanding of the fundamentals of reinforced concrete.The course of Reinforced Concrete Design requires the prerequisite of Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, and some if not all, of Theory of Structures, In all these courses, with the exception of Strength of Materials to some extent, a structure is treated of in the abstract. For instance, in the theory of rigid frame analysis, all members have an abstract EI/l value, regardless of what the act value may be. But the theory of reinforced concrete is different, it deals with specific materials, concrete and steel. The values of most parameters must be determined by experiments and can no more be regarded as some abstract. Additionally, due to the low tensile strength of concrete, the reinforced concrete members usually work with cracks, some of the parameters such as the elastic modulus I of concrete and the inertia I of section are variable with the loads.The theory of reinforced concrete is relatively young. Although great progress has been made, the theory is still empirical in nature in stead of rational. Many formulas can not be derived from a few propositions, and may cause some difficulties for students. Besides, due to the difference in practice in different countries, most countries base their design methods on their own experience and experimental results. Consequently, what one learns in one country may be different in another country. Besides, the theory is still in a stage of rapid。
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计
附录：毕业设计外文翻译院（系）建筑工程学院专业土木工程班级 070710班姓名张波学号 070710317导师周雪峰2011年 4月15日英文：High-Rise Buildings and Structural Design Abstract：It is difficult to define a high-rise building . One may say that a low-rise building ranges from1 to2 stories . A medium-rise building probably ranges between3 or4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more . Although the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low- , medium- , or high-rise buildings , when a building gets high the vertical subsystems become a controlling problem for two reasons . Higher vertical loads will require larger columns , walls , and shafts . But , more significantly , the overturning moment and the shear deflections produced by lateral forces are much larger and must be carefully provided for . Key Words：High-Rise Buildings StructuralDesign Framework ShearSeismic SystemIntroductionThe vertical subsystems in a high-rise building transmit accumulated gravity load from story to story , thus requiring larger column or wall sections to support such loading . In addition these same vertical subsystems must transmit lateral loads , such as wind or seismic loads , to the foundations. However , in contrast to vertical load , lateral load effects on buildings are not linear and increase rapidly with increase in height . For example under windload , the overturning moment at the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings may vary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal. Earthquake produces an even more pronounced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it is almost an inherent property that the columns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carry most of the horizontal forces . The problem is primarily shear resistance . Moderate addition bracing for rigid frames in“short”buildings can easily be provided by filling certain panels ( or even all panels ) without increasing the sizes of the columns and girders otherwise required for vertical loads.Unfortunately , this is not is for high-rise buildings because the problem is primarily resistance to moment and deflection rather than shear alone . Special structural arrangements will often have to be made and additional structural material is always required for the columns , girders , walls , and slabs in order to made a high-rise buildings sufficiently resistant to much higher lateral deformations . As previously mentioned , the quantity of structural material required per square foot of floor of a high-rise buildings is in excess of that required for low-rise buildings . The vertical components carrying the gravity load ,such as walls , columns , and shafts , will need to be strengthened over the full height of the buildings . But quantity of material required for resisting lateral forces is even more significant .With reinforced concrete , the quantity of material also increases as the number of stories increases . But here it should be noted that the increase in the weight of material added for gravity load is much more sizable than steel , whereas for wind load the increase for lateral force resistance is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of design for earthquake forces . Additional mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force under the of seismic effects .In the case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for providing additional resistance to lateral to lateral forces and deflections in high-rise buildings without too much sacrifire in economy .1、Increase the effective width of the moment-resisting subsystems . This is very useful because increasing the width will cut down the overturn force directly and will reduce deflection by the third power of the width increase , other things remaining cinstant . However , this does require that vertical components of the widened subsystem be suitablyconnected to actually gain this benefit.2、Design subsystems such that the components are made to interact in the most efficient manner . For example , use truss systems with chords and diagonals efficiently stressed , place reinforcing for walls at critical locations , and optimize stiffness ratios for rigid frames .3、Increase the material in the most effective resisting components . For example , materials added in the lower floors to the flanges of columns and connecting girders will directly decrease the overall deflection and increase the moment resistance without contributing mass in the upper floors where the earthquake problem is aggravated .4、Arrange to have the greater part of vertical loads be carried directly on the primary moment-resisting components . This will help stabilize the buildings against tensile overturning forces by precompressing the major overturn-resisting components .5、The local shear in each story can be best resisted by strategic placement if solid walls or the use of diagonal members in a vertical subsystem . Resisting these shears solely by vertical members in bending is usually less economical , since achieving sufficient bending resistance in the columns and connecting girders will require more material and construction energy than using walls or diagonal members .6、Sufficient horizontal diaphragm action shouldbe provided floor . This will help to bring the various resisting elements to work together instead of separately .7、Create mega-frames by joining large vertical and horizontal components such as two or more elevator shafts at multistory intervals with a heavy floor subsystems , or by use of very deep girder trusses .Remember that all high-rise buildings are essentially vertical cantilevers which are supported at the ground . When the above principles are judiciously applied , structurally desirable schemes can be obtained by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular construction , and other vertical subsystems to achieve horizontal strength and rigidity . Some of these applications will now be described in subsequent sections in the following .Shear-Wall SystemsWhen shear walls are compatible with other functional requirements , they can be economically utilized to resist lateral forces in high-rise buildings . For example , apartment buildings naturally require many separation walls . When some of these are designed to be solid , they can act as shear walls to resist lateral forces and to carry the vertical load as well . For buildings up to some 20storise , the use of shear walls is common . If given sufficient length ,such walls can economically resist lateral forces up to 30 to 40 stories or more .However , shear walls can resist lateral load only the plane of the walls ( i.e.not in a diretion perpendicular to them ) . Therefore ,it is always necessary to provide shear walls in two perpendicular directions can be at least in sufficient orientation so that lateral force in any direction can be resisted . In addition , that wall layout should reflect consideration of any torsional effect .In design progress , two or more shear walls can be connected to from L-shaped or channel-shaped subsystems . Indeed , internal shear walls can be connected to from a rectangular shaft that will resist lateral forces very efficiently . If all external shear walls are continuously connected , then the whole buildings acts as a tube , and is excellent Shear-Wall Systems resisting lateral loads and torsion .Whereas concrete shear walls are generally of solid type with openings when necessary , steel shear walls are usually made of trusses . These trusses can have single diagonals , “X”diagonals , or“K”arrangements . A trussed wall will have its members act essentially in direct tension or compression under the action of view , and they offer some opportunity and deflection-limitation point of view , and they offer some opportunity for penetration between members . Of course , the inclined members of trusses must be suitable placed so as not tointerfere with requirements for windows and for circulation service penetrations though these walls .As stated above , the walls of elevator , staircase ,and utility shafts form natural tubes and are commonly employed to resist both vertical and lateral forces . Since these shafts are normally rectangular or circular in cross-section , they can offer an efficient means for resisting moments and shear in all directions due to tube structural action . But a problem in the design of these shafts is provided sufficient strength around door openings and other penetrations through these elements . For reinforced concrete construction , special steel reinforcements are placed around such opening .In steel construction , heavier and more rigid connections are required to resist racking at the openings .In many high-rise buildings , a combination of walls and shafts can offer excellent resistance to lateral forces when they are suitably located ant connected to one another . It is also desirable that the stiffness offered these subsystems be more-or-less symmertrical in all directions .Rigid-Frame SystemsIn the design of architectural buildings , rigid-frame systems for resisting vertical and lateral loads have long been accepted as an important and standard means for designingbuilding . They are employed for low-and medium means for designing buildings . They are employed for low- and medium up to high-rise building perhaps 70 or 100 stories high . When compared to shear-wall systems , these rigid frames both within and at the outside of a buildings . They also make use of the stiffness in beams and columns that are required for the buildings in any case , but the columns are made stronger when rigidly connected to resist the lateral as well as vertical forces though frame bending .Frequently , rigid frames will not be as stiff as shear-wall construction , and therefore may produce excessive deflections for the more slender high-rise buildings designs . But because of this flexibility , they are often considered as being more ductile and thus less susceptible to catastrophic earthquake failure when compared with ( some ) shear-wall designs . For example , if over stressing occurs at certain portions of a steel rigid frame ( i.e.,near the joint ) , ductility will allow the structure as a whole to deflect a little more , but it will by no means collapse even under a much larger force than expected on the structure . For this reason , rigid-frame construction is considered by some to be a “best”seismic-resisting type for high-rise steel buildings . On the other hand ,it is also unlikely that a well-designed share-wall system would collapse.In the case of concrete rigid frames ,there isa divergence of opinion . It true that if a concrete rigid frame is designed in the conventional manner , without special care to produce higher ductility , it will not be able to withstand a catastrophic earthquake that can produce forces several times lerger than the code design earthquake forces . Therefore , some believe that it may not have additional capacity possessed by steel rigid frames . But modern research and experience has indicated that concrete frames can be designed to be ductile , when sufficient stirrups and joinery reinforcement are designed in to the frame . Modern buildings codes have specifications for the so-called ductile concrete frames . However , at present , these codes often require excessive reinforcement at certain points in the frame so as to cause congestion and result in construction difficulties 。
本科生外文译文课程设计
本科生外文译文课程设计一、课程目标知识目标：1. 学生能够理解并掌握外文课文中的主要知识点，包括专业词汇、语法结构和文章组织。
2. 学生能够准确翻译外文课文，理解其深层含义，并能进行相关领域的知识拓展。
3. 学生能够对外文课文进行批判性阅读，分析文章的论证方式和逻辑结构。
技能目标：1. 学生能够运用所学翻译技巧，对外文课文进行准确、流畅的翻译。
2. 学生能够通过小组讨论、课堂展示等形式，提高自己的表达能力和团队合作能力。
3. 学生能够运用批判性思维，对外文课文进行深入分析，提高自己的思辨能力。
情感态度价值观目标：1. 学生能够增强对所学专业的兴趣和热情，培养自主学习的能力。
2. 学生能够尊重不同文化背景，培养跨文化交际的意识。
3. 学生能够通过外文译文的学习，拓宽国际视野，增强国家意识和责任感。
课程性质：本课程为专业选修课，旨在提高学生的外文翻译能力和跨文化交际能力。
学生特点：本科生已经具备一定的外语基础，但翻译技巧和批判性思维能力有待提高。
教学要求：教师应注重理论与实践相结合，充分调动学生的主观能动性，引导学生进行自主、合作、探究式学习。
同时，关注学生的个体差异，因材施教，提高课程教学效果。
通过本课程的学习，使学生达到上述课程目标，并为后续相关课程的学习打下坚实基础。
二、教学内容本课程教学内容主要包括以下几部分：1. 外文课文翻译基本技巧：包括词汇、语法、句型结构等方面的翻译方法，以及翻译过程中的常见问题与对策。
2. 外文课文分析与解读：对教材中的精选文章进行深度剖析，理解文章的论证方式、逻辑结构和作者观点。
3. 批判性阅读与思考：培养学生对外文课文进行批判性思考，分析文章的优点和不足，提高学生的思辨能力。
4. 跨文化交际能力培养：通过对比分析中外文化差异，提高学生在实际翻译中的跨文化交际能力。
教学内容安排如下：第一周：外文课文翻译基本技巧介绍与练习。
第二周：分析教材第一章文章，进行翻译实践和讨论。
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计High-rise XXX to define。
Generally。
a low-rise building is considered to be een 1 to 2 stories。
while a medium-rise building ranges from 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more。
While the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low-。
medium-。
or high-rise buildings。
the vertical subsystems XXX high-XXX requiring larger columns。
walls。
XXX。
XXX.The design of high-rise buildings must take into account the unique XXX by their height and the need to withstand lateral forces such as wind and earthquakes。
One important aspect of high-rise design is the framework shear system。
XXX。
braced frames。
or XXX the appropriate system depends on the specific building characteristics and the seismicity of the n in which it is located.Another key n in high-rise design is the seismic system。
外文翻译：栏板起重装置的结构与设计
附录Steeplechase lifting device structure and design Lifting Gear steeplechase and design of the structure of the lifting mechanism is relatively traditional, the tail plate lifting mechanism using only a single fuel tank, so that the hydraulic system of the pipe is simple, convenient control and high reliability of the hydraulic system, and and ease of installation. The above analysis and calculation of the institutions such as the structure and properties of the mathematical relationship between parameters. To promote inter-related with the sleeve of the friction and wear, the sleeve guide groove angle and flip angle and a high degree of adaptability, such as lifting will be subject to further research and the analysis of the structure of hair.Lifting Gear steeplechase vehicle movements in foreign countries as the rear door (end plate), its installed in the car named after the tail. In this paper, according to national standards call a lifting gear steeplechase. Steeplechase a lifting device installed on the van in the carriage of goods, not only to demonstrate its proprietary water-resistant dust-proof function, but also in the loading and unloading of goods mechanization achieved.1 steeplechase development Lifting GearLifting Gear steeplechase development, largely in foreign countries can be divided into four periods. The first generation of products in the 30's at the end of this century, characterized mainly lifting cylinder, and the steeplechase manually turned on, from or about the quality of 500kg, steeplechase (also known as loading platforms) touchdown angle 9 ° ~ 10 °. At present, this product in South-East Asia, Japan still in use, 90 years, is still the United States by the new development. Second-generation products in the early 50's the European market, in the first generation of products based on the increase of turnover to close the fuel tank. Lift and flip the fuel tank by two to achieve independence. The most common is a type 4 tank, but also of the double. Lifting the quality of more than 500 kg, platform loading touchdown angle 10 °, flip action control based on the experience of the operator. The products are mainly used in the Americas and Southeast Asia. Third-generation products in the 70's at the end of the European market is the second generation of products based on the increase in the fuel tank of the fifth. Only the fuel tank of the hydraulic system in the relative positions of the main effect of memory function, so that touchdown to loading platform, off the flip action is no longer controlled by the operator by the hydraulic control system itself, so that the process is relatively smooth take-off and landing and security. Touchdown angle is generally 8 ° ~ 10 °. If it doubles as a car door, and a result of increased platform size, angle may also be less than 8 °. At present these products to Europe and America in general. Fourth-generation products during the early 90s, and its hydraulic system and function of principles with the third-generation products, only an increase of the fuel tank the size of memory, somemory and increase the scope of action. It is different from the third generation of the product lies in the loading platform to increase its special structure, from one body to two activities connected to the platform after the touchdown, not only can automatically flip, but there is a sinking action to achieve the touchdown angle 6 °, even in 6 below. At present, the products in the Netherlands, Yugoslavia and China has applied for a utility model patent. The domestic market has been stereotyped. From the performance, security, reliability results, the fourth-generation products will be gradually replaced the second and third generation products. The first generation of products, because of its simple structure, light weight, although the technical content, but with the advantages of easy maintenance, etc., in developing countries will still have a certain market. Lifting Gear steeplechase development in China only a few things more than a decade. The former Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications in 1985 imported from Japan with a number of lifting devices steeplechase van. Since then, by the Special Purpose Vehicle Institute of Hanyang, Hubei auto parts plant and Communication Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications Machinery Factory Mingshui three cooperation made the research and development, which lasted more than two years, due to various reasons can not be put into use. In early 1988, Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications Communications Machinery Factory Mingshui technical staff, continue to develop. Post Office in Beijing to help the strong, thanks to the efforts of the past four years, increasing product quality stabilized. Early use of domestic products as a driving force for car engines. To achieve in 1992 a car battery as the driving force of the hydraulic pump station. After 1992, lifting gear steeplechase van due to the development of domestic and began to develop, the skill level is gradually close to the international. According to the current understanding of the situation, the domestic production steeplechase of the enterprises, including Lifting Gear Mingshui, such as posts and telecommunications equipment factory at least five, the product structure have a single-cylinder, four-cylinder, five-cylinder and the early 90's and the latest U.S. technology-based The five-cylinder technology. Although the product mix in the form, the international four-generation products are produced in China, but its development is still in its infancy. The expansion of the domestic market, but also the need for inter-and opportunities. Speaking time may not last long, from the varieties of speaking, a short period of time will still exist a variety of forms, but in the end may be the single-cylinder and five-cylinder products.2 steeplechase of the basic principles of lifting gearLifting Gear steeplechase varieties are numerous, but the basic fundamental tenets of the original but it is the same, that is, parallel four-bar linkage of the practical application of the principle of parallel move, it is two sets of parallel four-bar linkage, sub-put longeron on both sides of car, synchronous movements, while the DCE is the above mentioned loading platform (steeplechase). Design, the following three issues to be resolved: BC under the driving force for rotation; BC under the role of rotational dynamics and the role of the form of points; CD under the C-point after touchdown, there must be a rotation around the point D moves to E end of touchdown to facilitate loading and unloading of goods.2.1 Power SystemSteeplechase early in the development of lifting devices for the automotive engine through the oil pump driven from power-driven devices. Working hours as a result of the need to idle the engine running, is now seldom used. At present, the basic use of micro-driven hydraulic pump station, a car battery for power source. Micro-pump station has the basic components of DC motors (with the car battery voltage to match), control valves, gear pumps, combination valve (overflow, cutting one-way), and the fuel tank, electric start switch, control switch and so on. According to different vehicle battery voltage, DC motors are 12 V, 24 V are two different power according to the weight since there are 018 kW, 110 kW, 112 kW, 115 kW, 2 kW, 3 kW and so on. Gear pump according to the number of tanks (mainly hydraulic flow) and the hydraulic system pressure to choose, there is displacement 1 ml, 112 ml, 116 ml, 210 ml, 215 ml, 410 ml wide range of specifications, the maximum output pressure gear pump up to 25M Pa. Hydraulic Pump Station has been the international product quality is stable, less quality of domestic products, mainly the quality of the solenoid valve or volume too large, however.2.2 The form and the role of driving force transmission pointBoth rely on power through the pressure of hydraulic oil system from the fuel tank to the BC transmission poles. Fuel tanks and installation of the number of different positions, and to take the DC bar the difference in the rotation, the power transmission lines are also different. a1 cylinder on the front. Hinge for a long shaft B, the two parallel four-bar linkage mounted on the shaft at both ends, a shaft connected to the middle arm, then the fuel tank of the piston rod end of the fuel tank on the other side of the fixed bracket on the transmission of power as follows: oil tumbler cylinder → → BC rod shaft, the working process in Figure 2. b1 on the rear cylinder. The fuel tank 24 is located in the middle of linkage, the two four-bar linkage in the middle of the BC bar with fixed beams together, the middle beam connecting rod and the fuel tank, fuel tank connected to the other side with the stent. c1 four-cylinder and five-cylinder type. Five-cylinder structure of the memory of the fifth hydraulic cylinder is a cylinder in the hydraulic circuit, the loading platform to participate in only touchdown after the reversal platform action, without reference platform for take-off and landing, and its basic structure with the same four-cylinder. Four-cylinder under the structure of the fuel tank of BC, which is different from the distinction between single-cylinder.2.3 CD under the rotationCD of the rotation pole, four-cylinder with five-cylinder fuel tank of the type of contraction depend on the realization of single-cylinder rear-mounted on, CD can not be achieved under rotation (but can be reversed to achieve at the highest position, because the structure of more complex, and I shall not introduce) ; for the single-cylinder front-on, based on the structural changes under BC achievable. The actual design, AD is also required under certain technical processing to meet the requirements. In addition, note that, D CE articulated only in the D point, the other type for the D, C two hinged.3 steeplechase lifting device to determine the technical parametersLifting Gear steeplechase main technical parameters: Rated lifting the quality oftravel movements, take-off and landing speed, shot size, platform size, operating voltage and power motor, gear pump row weight (rated output flow), control valves, the type and quantity of and the fuel tank of the bore and stroke, rated working pressure. Under normal circumstances, the beginning of the design parameters are known to width and height from the floor, battery voltage and capacity, beam spacing and beam auto height and size of rear overhang. Known parameters are the fundamental basis for design.栏板起重装置的结构与设计相对传统的举升机构,该尾板举升机构只采用了单油缸,使液压系统的管路简单,控制方便,液压系统的可靠性高,且安装方便。