(完整版)温州大学本科毕业设计(论文)外文翻译

(完整版)温州大学本科毕业设计(论文)外文翻译
(完整版)温州大学本科毕业设计(论文)外文翻译

本科毕业设计(论文)

外文翻译

题目高层建筑结构探索—住宅3

学院建工学院专业土木工程班级09土木本一学号09 (35)

学生姓名……指导教师……

温州大学教务处制

外文原文

Building Materials Selection and

Specification

Fae'q A. A. Radwan

Faculty of Engineering, Near East University, KKTC, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, Turkey Abstract:The limitations in the selection of the building materials and to the sustainability of any building construction materials that can be used are presented. The practices and techniques that can be used in reducing and minimizing the environmental impacts of building are discussed. Recommendations of using secondary and recycled materials in the construction of buildings are given. Framework for methods of assessment of the sustainability in building construction for environmental performance is presented.

Key Words:Limitations, sustainability, environmental impacts, framework, climate.

1.Introduction

There is an apparently unbounded range of possibilities for the selection of building materials for the construction of structures of almost any shape or stature. Its quality will affect the structure function and long life, and requirements may differ with climate, soil, site size, and with the experience and knowledge of the designer. The factors that , manufacturing processes, and the transportation of the materials to the project site the environment. These include the disruption of the building occupants manufacture, construction of buildings and the use of building materials make a significant environmental impact internally, locally and globally. But it is not easy to deliver information to make adequate inclusion decisions considering the whole life cycle of a building. Decisions on sustainable building integrate a number of strategies during the design, construction and operation of building projects. Selection of sustainable building materials represents an important strategy in the design of a building.

2. Sustainability

In recent years, the concept of sustainability the subject of much disputation by academics and professionals alike. In 1987, the World Conference on Environment and Development defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

(WCED, 1987).Sustainability must address ecological impacts, regardless of conflicting interpretations of the WCED definition.

A good sustainable product must give as much satisfaction as possible for the user. If not, it will be unsuccessful on the market and an economic failure.

It is also important to inform people as to what basis a certain product is considered to be sustainable or not and why they should buy it [4- 5].

When developing a new product, it is illustrative to move between the three corners Ecology, Equity and Economy in order to obtain a suitable balance so that each category can be fulfilled in the best way.

·Ecology (environmental protection).

·Equity (social equity).

·Economy (economic growth).

2.1 Materials Selection and Sustainability

Among the notable technological developments of the 20th century the development of tens of thousands of new materials for use in construction and engineering. The construction industry to the point where it is a very large consumer of energy and materials. Concern for the environment and the impact of activity on the Earth's ecological systems and the environmental consequences of their use. Environmentalists dioxide values, and so on. Engineers methods for the choice of materials. These techniques will be reviewed and explored in an attempt to provide an environmentally-aware, materials selection method- logy for use in construction.

Strictly, the term sustainable means that something is capable of being

sustained not for an is that if some process which uses materials and energy is described as sustainable, then the materials and energy which are consumed are capable of being replaced by natural or other processes as fast as they are consumed. In many cases materials and energy appear to be consumed at a faster rate than they are being replaced. However, to make a judgment, we would need to know what the respective supply and consumption rates are in other words we need some quantitative or numerical index to uses such large quantities of materials, it the environment. In order to assess and evaluate such impact, a number of criteria or indices devised by economists, engineers and environmentalists, and the more important of these are the following [2].

2.2.1 Embodied Energy

This is quite simply the amount of energy consumed in manufacturing a unit quantity of a material, and it is usually expressed in kJkg. Its value is determined by the efficiency of the manufacturing plant. Values range from 275 GJtonne for aluminum (a Dioxide

Embodied C02 is similar to embodied energy. It is the weight of C02 emitted during manufacture of unit weight of the material, and is usually expressed as kg of C02 per ton.Again, the value will depend upon the efficiency of the manufacturing plant [2].

2.2.3 Ecological Rucksack

The ecological rucksack concept was devised as a way of assessing material efficiency by F. Schmidt一Bleek [6]. He recognized that many tonnes of raw material could be extracted and processed to make just one kilogram of material. For example, the environmental rucksack for

2.3 Rational Selection Method

There are various approaches to the problem of selecting materials from the talk to their colleagues, previous, similar designs. All these are valid approaches, but they may result in the specification of a less than ideal material and overall, a less than optimal solution to the problem [3-5].

The basis of the rational selection methods devised to date is a recognition that the performance of a component, artifact or structure is limited by the properties of the materials from which it is made. It will be rare for the performance of the item to depend solely on one material property; in nearly all cases, it is a combination of properties, which is important. To give an example, in lightweight design, strength to weight ratio of, and stiffness to weight ratio Epwill be important. Ref. [3] these maps, each class of material occupies a field in material property space, and sub-fields map the space occupied by individual materials.

These materials property charts are very information-rich they carry a large amount of information in a compact but accessible form. Interestingly, they reveal correlations between material properties, which can checking and estimating data, and they can also be used in performance optimization, in a manner such as that set out as follow.

If we consider the complete range of materials, it immediately becomes apparent that for each property of an engineering material there is a characteristic range of values, and this range can be very large. For example, consider stiffness (Young's Modulus E). Materials range from jelly (very low stiffness) up to diamond (very span five decades (orders of magnitude),

A number of conclusions can be drawn, including:

(1) A rational selection method such the one put forward by Ashby is capable of incorporating environmental parameters such as embodied energy and C02 or the environmental rucksack concepts, thereby making possible rational selections based on environmental considerations.

(2) This method is not as simple to use as the environmental preference method or the environmental profiles method. However, this rational method could be used to generate data for the environmental profiles and preference methods.

(3) The construction industry needs to take steps to better integrate itself into the materials cycle. The quantity of demolition waste needs to be reduced, and more of it should be recycled. To this end, the building designers need to keep full records of materials of construction, and buildings need to be designed for easy dismantling at the end of their useful lives.

3. Foundations and Construction Component

In any consideration of which building materials and alternatives can feasibly be integrated into the foundations of a large-scale development there are several limitations that must be considered.

In terms of the actual materials that may be used, there are three main limitations. First, because of the large scale and is climate. In areas with sub-zero winter conditions, frost . For this reason, foundations must be deep enough to support the structure despite any changes in near-surface volume; shallow foundations will be insufficient unless certain innovative steps are taken. The limitation of climate also influences any decision on

insulating foundations. Finally, there is the consideration of cost. This consideration is reliant on material availability, cost per unit, and building techniques and associated labor. For these reasons, the only materials that can feasibly be used are concrete and steel. Therefore, the alternatives for minimizing impact lie more in the methods of construction and any realistic structural changes that can be made.

The three main foundation components of concrete, steel, and insulation will be examined as the only reasonable materials for the construction of a building with limitations such as the foundations [1].

3.1 Concrete

It is the fundamental component of the foundation construction, receiving the building loads through walls or posts and distributes them down and outwards through the footings. Concrete and cement general) chemical inertness [8]. The life cycle concerns of concrete are as follows. First, there is land and , transportation, and manufacture. Carbon dioxide emissions are also a negative environmental impact accrued through the production and use of concrete. Similarly, dust and particulate are emitted at most stages of the concrete life-cycle. $oth carbon dioxide and particulate matter air quality [1]. Water pollution is also another concern associated with the production of concrete at the production phase. Fly ash is by-product of the energy production from coal-fired plants and increasing its proportion in cement is environmentally beneficial in two ways. First, it reducing the amount of solid waste which requires disposal. As well, fly ash in the cement mixture reduced the overall energy use by changing the consistency of the concrete. Fly ash, increases concrete

strength, improves sulfate foundation, decreases permeability, reduced the water ratio required, and improves the pump ability and workability of the concrete [9]. Now in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency requires that all buildings that receive federa funding contain fly ash and most concrete producer: of fly ash into the cement mixture, and the use of pre-cast foundation systems to reduce resource use. Through consideration and possible integration of these alternatives, impacts could potentially be reduced.

3.2 Steel

As wood resources are becoming limited, steel is increasingly popular with builders. In the case of a large-scale building, steel reinforcement is basically a necessity for overall strength and weight distribution.

The initial life cycle impacts of steel use are similar to those of concrete. These include land and from materials acquisition and manufacture [1]. However, the largest proportion of steel used nowadays contains a percentage of recycled materials. In terms of improving environmental conditions by reducing impacts, this is the only real recommendation for the use of steel in building foundations; to purchase recycled steel products. Not only would this reduce industrial and commercial solid waste, such a decision would also reward the manufacturers of such products.

3. 3 Insulation

New and innovative pre-cast building foundations are becoming increasingly available and feasible for implementation. These new systems can reduce the overall raw material use, as well as conserve energy through

the creation of an efficient building envelope. A further used of this rigid insulation as a skirt around the building foundations systems is increased. Also, in soils where frost and drainage is a consideration additional piles in the centre of the foundation may be required to prevent movement. This increases the relative land disturbance, although it remains still much less than that of deep foundation systems. Shallow foundations are structurally sound and are becoming increasingly common in colder climates. There are strength considerations associated with these new techniques which must be addressed by someone with the technical ability to do so, before they can be feasibly recommended for the building of the new residence.

As discussed above, there are limitations to the sustainability of any foundation construction materials used. In other words, there are environmental impacts associated with all types of foundations. For these reasons, a primary recommendation is the use of secondary materials (fly ash and recycled steel) in the construction of foundations.

4. Framework

The material components of the building envelope, that is, the foundation, wall construction, insulation and roof, analyzed within a framework of primarily qualitative criteria that aim to evaluate the sustainability of alternate materials relative to the materials cited in the current foundation design. This analytical process of several construction materials that can be feasibly integrated into current design and construction standards of the building envelope.

The tools and strategies described below are useful in analyzing the

relative benefits of different materials[9-14].

Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA). LCA is a comprehensive analysis that takes into consideration all aspects of a material over its entire lifetime: raw materials extraction; manufacturing and processing; transport; use; and post-use recycling, reuse, or disposal. This approach enables a true "apples to apples" comparison between materials.The BEES system (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability) developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology is the most widely used methodology. BEES provides materials with a score that can be compared to other similar products. At this time, analysis of the short- and long-term costs associated with a material, from purchase to ultimate recycling or disposal. This includes frequency of replacement, maintenance costs, and costs that are avoided through use of the material (or system). LCC is useful in looking beyond a comparison based solely on first costs. Similar to LCA, this type of analysis is not available for all materials, but a back-of-the-envelope calculation is usually fairly easy to work up.

Certification. Many conventional building products are approved or certified by independent third party or government groups. The Forest Stewardship Council certifies the certifiers (Smart Wood and SCS) that assess whether forestry companies are using sustainable management practices to Label for carpets that meet certain low-VOC criteria. Green Guard certifies products that meet strict indoor air quality criteria. The Department of Energy's Energy Star label identifies equipment and appliances that meet or exceed standards for energy efficiency. Scientific

Certification Systems and Green Seal certify recycled-content claims and other green product claims made by manufacturers.

5. Conclusion

Over-consumption, resource utilization, pollution and over-population are examples of the perhaps most basic problems for the environment in the future. A more sustainable future can be achieved by producing more sustainable products causing less environmental impact. Materials and design are and will always be very important areas when developing more sustainable products.

The Life Cycle Assessment concept might be the most effective way of determining the environmental impacts for all product stages from extract of material to the product disposal stage. A price must be set for restoration on every environmental impact. Information can be received from official authorities pertaining to the environment in different countries. Renewable and easy recyclable materials are preferably used together with a design for easy recycling and repair of the products. Minimization of the energy connected to the product is also important. Full sustainability can never be achieved for products according to thermodynamic laws. However, the attempt to achieve more sustainability is a requisite if we want to preserve the earth for the coming generations. Education, research and spreading of information will be very important for the future in order to receive more sustainable products especially because the market demand is important in order to develop successful sustainable products.

References

[1] M. Davison, J. Persmann, J. Reid, J. Stange and T. Weins, Green Building Materials Residence, A WATgreenERS 285 study.

[2] J. L. Sturges, Construction Materials Selection and Sustainability, School of the Built Environment, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK.

[3] M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Pergamon, Oxford, 1992.

[4] M. F. Ashby and K. Johnson, Materials and Design: The Art And Science of Materials Selection in Product Design, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002

[5] L. Y. Ljungberg, Materials selection and design for development of sustainable products, [6] F. Berkhout and D. Smith, Products and the environment: an integrated approach to policy, [7] F. Schmidt-Bleek, Carnoules Declaration of the FactorTen Club, Wuppertal Institute, Germany, 1994.

[8] A.Wilson,Building green on a budget,Environmental Building News8(5)(1999).

[9] G.E.Dieter,Engineering Design,McGraw-Hill,New York,l991.

[10] Sandy Patience (Ed.),The Role of Evidence in The Selection of Building Products and Materials,Constructing Excellence in The Built Environment.

[11] M.D.Bovea and R.Vidal,Increasing product value by integrating environmental impacts [12] N.S.Ermolaeva,M.B.G.Castro and P.V.Kandachar, Materials selection for an automotive structure by integrating structural optimization with environmental impact assessment,Materials and Design 25 (2004) 689.698.

[13] M.Goedkoop and R.Spiensma,The Eco-Indicator 99:A Dam age Oriented Method for Life Cycle Impact Assessment,Amersfooft:PRe consultant B.V.,2000.

中文翻译

建筑材料的选择和规格

Fae'q A. A. Radwan

Faculty of Engineering, Near East University, KKTC, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, Turkey 摘要:建筑材料选择的局限性和可利用的建筑建设材料

的可持续发展问题已经呈现出来,可以减少和降低建筑对坏境影响的实践经

验和技术已经给出。在建筑中使用多次型和可回收材料的建议已经提出。建

筑建设对坏境表现的可持续发展的评估方法框架已经提出。

关键词:限制、可持续性、环境影响、框架、气候

1、介绍

对几乎所有形状或高低结构的建设用的建筑出材料的选择,这里有一个明显确定性能。选择的好坏将影响到结构的功能和寿命,并且所做的选择将随着天气、土壤、场地大小和设计师的经验的知识不同而不同。优秀方案最突出的因素是抗渗,温度,热量和水的流动,还有结构的稳定性。[1-3]

原料的提取、制造工艺和送往项目所在地材料的运输对坏境有很大的影响。其中包括生态系统和生态栖息地的破坏,用水和通过能源的使用造成的空气污染、坏境变化气体的排放。建筑材料也对占用生产的建设、建筑物的建设和建筑材料的使用有很大的影响,这对在内部、局部和全球地

区的环境有重大的影响。

提供信息已作出考虑到建筑物全部生命周期的是当决定不是件容易的事。再设计、建设和经营建设项目期间,关于可持续发展建筑的决定整合成一定数量的战略决策。在建筑物设计中,选择可持续性建筑材料是一个重要决策。

2、可持续发展

最近几年,可持续发展的概念已成为学者和专家争论的主题。在1987年,世界环境与发展峰会把可持续发展定义为:在不影响后代人自己的情况下来满足现代人的需求(世界环境与发展委员会,1987年)。可持续发展应忽视对世界环境与发展委员会定义的争论性解释,它必须强调环境的影响。

一个好的可持续发展的产品必须给用户尽量多的满足。否则,它不会成功的推向市场,成为经济上的一个失败的例子。

让人们了解一个产品是否为可持续发展性的有和为什么人们应该买它,这是很重要的。

在研发新产品时,在生态、公平、经济之间移动以期获得一个适当的平衡以使各个策略能以最好的方式实行。

.生态(环保)

.股权(社会公平)

.经济(经济发展)

2.1、材料选择和可持续性

在20世纪值得注意的技术发展中,有成千上万的工程建设新材料的发明。建设产业已经成长到高能耗和高物耗的层次。涉及到环境和人类活

动对生态系统的影响现在已经很明显。

我们面临材料选择和材料使用产生的环境后果的问题。环境保护专家想出了许多种评定材料和能源使用产生的影响的方法,包括生态足迹、生态包袱、能源的二氧化碳值的体现等等。工程师已经提出合理的选择材料的方法,这些技术将在尝试中检查和探索,用以提供环境方面知识和加大建设中材料选择的科学化。

严格的讲,可持续发展的定义是一个食物有能力维持无尽的时间,而不是一个小时、一天、一周、一个月、或者一年。

它的含义是如果一个消费材料和能源的过程被认为是可持续发展的,那么消费的材料和能量有自然补充或被其他过程补偿其消耗量的能力。许多情况下,材料和能源的消耗速率等于其补充速度。然而,我们来做个判断,我们需要知道各自的补充和消耗速率。换句话说,我们需要定质定量的资料来帮助我们。

2.2 环境标准

建设使用数量巨大的材料,因此它对环境有重大的影响。为了估算评价这种影响,经济学家、工程师和环境保护专家想出了许多校准和方法。下面是最主要的几种。

2.21 能源体现

这种方法相当简单,生产单位数量材料所消耗的能量通常用千焦每千克表示。它的值取决于加工厂的生产效率。数值在275Kkjt与0.1kjt之间变化。

2.22 二氧化碳体现

二氧化碳体现与能量体现类似,它是加工单位重量的材料所释放二氧

化碳的质量,通常表达为千克二氧化碳每千克。同样,它的值也由加工厂效率决定。

2.23 生态包袱

生态包袱作为一种评估材料生产率的方法是被F.Schmidt-Bleek定义的。他指出若干吨原材料通过深加工能生产仅仅一千克材料。例如,珍贵材料白金的生态包袱是250000 :1。

2.3 合理的选择方式

在现有可及的材料中选择材料有各种各样的方法,设计者可依赖于材料性能和资料的书籍。向同事询问讨论,以此来拓展知识,从而使自己不遗漏重要的材料组,这也是一种选择。另一种方法是把以前用过的相同或者相近的材料分类,做到近似设计。所有这些都是合理的方法,但是它能导致方法种类与理想的和最佳的方案的偏差与不足。

到目前为止所作出的合理的选择方法的基础是,一个合成物、人工制品或者结构的性质能被制造它的材料的性能所限制。一个产品的性能取决于单一一种材料的现象时很少发生的,几乎在所有情况下,他都是各种材料特性的联合所决定的,这种联合是很重要的。做个例子,在轻型设计中,强度与重量的比例与硬度与重量的比例是至关重要的。Ref提出划分材料的性能以区分彼此的想法,此次创作材料图。在材料图中,没胆原材料在材料特性空间占用一个空间,每种材料占用此空间的子空间。

材料性能表信息非常丰富,紧密但以理解的表格中携带了大量信息。有趣的是,它们揭露了材料性能间的关系,这有助于检查和估计资料,也能通过陈列的规矩优化性能。

加入我们考虑到所有材料的变化,每个工程材料特性有一个特征变化

不同的值是很明显的,并且这种变化是很大的。例如,考虑胶状物道金刚石,性能可以跨越50个量级。以此做出了许多结论,包括:Ashby提出了一个合理的选择方法,他能把各种环境参数,如能量和二氧化碳体现或生态包袱的概念整合起来,从而基于对坏境因素的考虑作出合理选择。

有一种方法,不像坏境倾向法或环境剖面法用起来简单,但是这种合理的方法能用于生成关于坏境剖面法和环境倾向法的资料数据。

建设产业应该采取措施来整合材料周期。破坏和损耗应该减少,更重要的是能被回收利用。为了这个目的,建筑设计师对建设材料作下全面记录,并且建筑物应设计得在寿命结束期时一语拆除。

3. 基础与建筑构件

在考虑哪种建筑材料和两种中的哪一种能将大尺寸建设项目基础整合到一体时,有若干限制要素需要考虑。

目前使用的材料中主要存在三种限制。第一,因基础需要支撑大尺寸工程和大荷载,所以强度是必需的。任何材料必须要连续一致的结实,并且能支撑并分配的重量;第二个限制是天气,在冬天零度以下的地区,冻胀是主要考虑因素。因为这个原因,支撑结构额的基础必须足够深,以此来使地面基础的体积的影响可以忽略。浅基础是不能胜任的,除非新的确定的技术得到应用。天气的影响对保温层基础的决定产生可影响;最后一个限制是花费,这个因素取决于材料利用率、单位产品花费和建筑技术与相应的劳动力。由于这些原因,唯一可行的原料是混凝土和钢筋。因此,减小影响的可选择的方法主要依靠建设方法和真实结构的改变。

基础的三个主要组成部分:混凝土、钢筋和保温层,将被认定为在众多限制因素下建造建筑物基础的唯一可行材料。

3.1 混凝土

混凝土被定义为一种有一定比例的水泥、骨料和水混合并在一定条件下保养而成的结构材料。它是基础的基本组成部分,接受墙或柱传来的建筑荷载并通过基脚向下或向外分配。混凝土和粘结剂有生态上的优点,其中包括耐久性、寿命长、吸热能力和(通常的)抗腐蚀性。混凝土的生命周期如下:首先,采矿活动造成土地动物栖息地的减少。然后,空气和水质量遭受到采矿、运输和加工的破坏,二氧化碳的侵蚀也是在生产和应用中产生的不利环境因素。同样,灰尘和微粒释放存在与混凝土生命周期的大部分时间。二氧化碳和微粒问题都不利于空气质量。水污染是另一个与混凝土制品在生产阶段相关的问题。粉煤灰是燃煤厂能源产品的副产品,增加水泥中煤灰的比例对环境有两个方面的好处:第一,它有助于减少需要消除的物质的数量,水泥中加入灰烬能通过改变混凝土的一致性来减少能源消耗。粉煤灰能加强混凝土的强度,改善酸化地基,减少渗透性,减少蓄水量和提高吸水能力以及工作性能。现在,在美国,环境保护局要求联邦投资的所有建筑必须加入粉煤灰,大部分混凝土生产商有权使用这种工业废料。预制混凝土选择权应该作为一种减少环境危害的方法途径。高级墙体股份有限公司生产的整合的基脚基础墙保温层的体系,使用较少的原始材料,因此减少了对自然资源的需求。

用这种混凝土制作混凝土结构和建造建筑物基础,两种中任何一种都对坏境有意,并且不用考虑结构尺寸和天气的影响。这种混凝土有蒸压加气混凝土,他增加水泥中粉煤灰的含量,用这种水泥制作方法来减少资源使用。通过思考和对这些可选择方法的整合,影响可能会减少。

3.2 钢筋

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外文翻译 专业机械设计制造及其自动化学生姓名刘链柱 班级机制111 学号1110101102 指导教师葛友华

外文资料名称: Design and performance evaluation of vacuum cleaners using cyclone technology 外文资料出处:Korean J. Chem. Eng., 23(6), (用外文写) 925-930 (2006) 附件: 1.外文资料翻译译文 2.外文原文

应用旋风技术真空吸尘器的设计和性能介绍 吉尔泰金,洪城铱昌,宰瑾李, 刘链柱译 摘要:旋风型分离器技术用于真空吸尘器 - 轴向进流旋风和切向进气道流旋风有效地收集粉尘和降低压力降已被实验研究。优化设计等因素作为集尘效率,压降,并切成尺寸被粒度对应于分级收集的50%的效率进行了研究。颗粒切成大小降低入口面积,体直径,减小涡取景器直径的旋风。切向入口的双流量气旋具有良好的性能考虑的350毫米汞柱的低压降和为1.5μm的质量中位直径在1米3的流量的截止尺寸。一使用切向入口的双流量旋风吸尘器示出了势是一种有效的方法,用于收集在家庭中产生的粉尘。 摘要及关键词:吸尘器; 粉尘; 旋风分离器 引言 我们这个时代的很大一部分都花在了房子,工作场所,或其他建筑,因此,室内空间应该是既舒适情绪和卫生。但室内空气中含有超过室外空气因气密性的二次污染物,毒物,食品气味。这是通过使用产生在建筑中的新材料和设备。真空吸尘器为代表的家电去除有害物质从地板到地毯所用的商用真空吸尘器房子由纸过滤,预过滤器和排气过滤器通过洁净的空气排放到大气中。虽然真空吸尘器是方便在使用中,吸入压力下降说唱空转成比例地清洗的时间,以及纸过滤器也应定期更换,由于压力下降,气味和细菌通过纸过滤器内的残留粉尘。 图1示出了大气气溶胶的粒度分布通常是双峰形,在粗颗粒(>2.0微米)模式为主要的外部来源,如风吹尘,海盐喷雾,火山,从工厂直接排放和车辆废气排放,以及那些在细颗粒模式包括燃烧或光化学反应。表1显示模式,典型的大气航空的直径和质量浓度溶胶被许多研究者测量。精细模式在0.18?0.36 在5.7到25微米尺寸范围微米尺寸范围。质量浓度为2?205微克,可直接在大气气溶胶和 3.85至36.3μg/m3柴油气溶胶。

本科毕业设计外文翻译

Section 3 Design philosophy, design method and earth pressures 3.1 Design philosophy 3.1.1 General The design of earth retaining structures requires consideration of the interaction between the ground and the structure. It requires the performance of two sets of calculations: 1)a set of equilibrium calculations to determine the overall proportions and the geometry of the structure necessary to achieve equilibrium under the relevant earth pressures and forces; 2)structural design calculations to determine the size and properties of thestructural sections necessary to resist the bending moments and shear forces determined from the equilibrium calculations. Both sets of calculations are carried out for specific design situations (see 3.2.2) in accordance with the principles of limit state design. The selected design situations should be sufficiently Severe and varied so as to encompass all reasonable conditions which can be foreseen during the period of construction and the life of the retaining wall. 3.1.2 Limit state design This code of practice adopts the philosophy of limit state design. This philosophy does not impose upon the designer any special requirements as to the manner in which the safety and stability of the retaining wall may be achieved, whether by overall factors of safety, or partial factors of safety, or by other measures. Limit states (see 1.3.13) are classified into: a) ultimate limit states (see 3.1.3); b) serviceability limit states (see 3.1.4). Typical ultimate limit states are depicted in figure 3. Rupture states which are reached before collapse occurs are, for simplicity, also classified and

毕业论文外文翻译模板

农村社会养老保险的现状、问题与对策研究社会保障对国家安定和经济发展具有重要作用,“城乡二元经济”现象日益凸现,农村社会保障问题客观上成为社会保障体系中极为重要的部分。建立和完善农村社会保障制度关系到农村乃至整个社会的经济发展,并且对我国和谐社会的构建至关重要。我国农村社会保障制度尚不完善,因此有必要加强对农村独立社会保障制度的构建,尤其对农村养老制度的改革,建立健全我国社会保障体系。从户籍制度上看,我国居民养老问题可分为城市居民养老和农村居民养老两部分。对于城市居民我国政府已有比较充足的政策与资金投人,使他们在物质和精神方面都能得到较好地照顾,基本实现了社会化养老。而农村居民的养老问题却日益突出,成为摆在我国政府面前的一个紧迫而又棘手的问题。 一、我国农村社会养老保险的现状 关于农村养老,许多地区还没有建立农村社会养老体系,已建立的地区也存在很多缺陷,运行中出现了很多问题,所以完善农村社会养老保险体系的必要性与紧迫性日益体现出来。 (一)人口老龄化加快 随着城市化步伐的加快和农村劳动力的输出,越来越多的农村青壮年人口进入城市,年龄结构出现“两头大,中间小”的局面。中国农村进入老龄社会的步伐日渐加快。第五次人口普查显示:中国65岁以上的人中农村为5938万,占老龄总人口的67.4%.在这种严峻的现实面前,农村社会养老保险的徘徊显得极其不协调。 (二)农村社会养老保险覆盖面太小 中国拥有世界上数量最多的老年人口,且大多在农村。据统计,未纳入社会保障的农村人口还很多,截止2000年底,全国7400多万农村居民参加了保险,占全部农村居民的11.18%,占成年农村居民的11.59%.另外,据国家统计局统计,我国进城务工者已从改革开放之初的不到200万人增加到2003年的1.14亿人。而基本方案中没有体现出对留在农村的农民和进城务工的农民给予区别对待。进城务工的农民既没被纳入到农村养老保险体系中,也没被纳入到城市养老保险体系中,处于法律保护的空白地带。所以很有必要考虑这个特殊群体的养老保险问题。

工业设计产品设计中英文对照外文翻译文献

(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 中英文翻译原文:

DESIGN and ENVIRONMENT Product design is the principal part and kernel of industrial design. Product design gives uses pleasure. A good design can bring hope and create new lifestyle to human. In spscificity,products are only outcomes of factory such as mechanical and electrical products,costume and so on.In generality,anything,whatever it is tangibile or intangible,that can be provided for a market,can be weighed with value by customers, and can satisfy a need or desire,can be entiled as products. Innovative design has come into human life. It makes product looking brand-new and brings new aesthetic feeling and attraction that are different from traditional products. Enterprose tend to renovate idea of product design because of change of consumer's lifestyle , emphasis on individuation and self-expression,market competition and requirement of individuation of product. Product design includes factors of society ,economy, techology and leterae humaniores. Tasks of product design includes styling, color, face processing and selection of material and optimization of human-machine interface. Design is a kind of thinking of lifestyle.Product and design conception can guide human lifestyle . In reverse , lifestyle also manipulates orientation and development of product from thinking layer.

毕业设计外文翻译原文.

Optimum blank design of an automobile sub-frame Jong-Yop Kim a ,Naksoo Kim a,*,Man-Sung Huh b a Department of Mechanical Engineering,Sogang University,Shinsu-dong 1,Mapo-ku,Seoul 121-742,South Korea b Hwa-shin Corporation,Young-chun,Kyung-buk,770-140,South Korea Received 17July 1998 Abstract A roll-back method is proposed to predict the optimum initial blank shape in the sheet metal forming process.The method takes the difference between the ?nal deformed shape and the target contour shape into account.Based on the method,a computer program composed of a blank design module,an FE-analysis program and a mesh generation module is developed.The roll-back method is applied to the drawing of a square cup with the ˉange of uniform size around its periphery,to con?rm its validity.Good agreement is recognized between the numerical results and the published results for initial blank shape and thickness strain distribution.The optimum blank shapes for two parts of an automobile sub-frame are designed.Both the thickness distribution and the level of punch load are improved with the designed blank.Also,the method is applied to design the weld line in a tailor-welded blank.It is concluded that the roll-back method is an effective and convenient method for an optimum blank shape design.#2000Elsevier Science S.A.All rights reserved. Keywords:Blank design;Sheet metal forming;Finite element method;Roll-back method

毕业论文 外文翻译#(精选.)

毕业论文(设计)外文翻译 题目:中国上市公司偏好股权融资:非制度性因素 系部名称:经济管理系专业班级:会计082班 学生姓名:任民学号: 200880444228 指导教师:冯银波教师职称:讲师 年月日

译文: 中国上市公司偏好股权融资:非制度性因素 国际商业管理杂志 2009.10 摘要:本文把重点集中于中国上市公司的融资活动,运用西方融资理论,从非制度性因素方面,如融资成本、企业资产类型和质量、盈利能力、行业因素、股权结构因素、财务管理水平和社会文化,分析了中国上市公司倾向于股权融资的原因,并得出结论,股权融资偏好是上市公司根据中国融资环境的一种合理的选择。最后,针对公司的股权融资偏好提出了一些简明的建议。 关键词:股权融资,非制度性因素,融资成本 一、前言 中国上市公司偏好于股权融资,根据中国证券报的数据显示,1997年上市公司在资本市场的融资金额为95.87亿美元,其中股票融资的比例是72.5%,,在1998年和1999年比例分别为72.6%和72.3%,另一方面,债券融资的比例分别是17.8%,24.9%和25.1%。在这三年,股票融资的比例,在比中国发达的资本市场中却在下跌。以美国为例,当美国企业需要的资金在资本市场上,于股权融资相比他们宁愿选择债券融资。统计数据显示,从1970年到1985年,美日企业债券融资占了境外融资的91.7%,比股权融资高很多。阎达五等发现,大约中国3/4的上市公司偏好于股权融资。许多研究的学者认为,上市公司按以下顺序进行外部融资:第一个是股票基金,第二个是可转换债券,三是短期债务,最后一个是长期负债。许多研究人员通常分析我国上市公司偏好股权是由于我们国家的经济改革所带来的制度性因素。他们认为,上市公司的融资活动违背了西方古典融资理论只是因为那些制度性原因。例如,优序融资理论认为,当企业需要资金时,他们首先应该转向内部资金(折旧和留存收益),然后再进行债权融资,最后的选择是股票融资。在这篇文章中,笔者认为,这是因为具体的金融环境激活了企业的这种偏好,并结合了非制度性因素和西方金融理论,尝试解释股权融资偏好的原因。

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