Lexical Negative Transfer in English Writing
Defination
Chapter 1Lingua franca: it describes such a language, used as means of communication between speakers of other languages.Fossilize: our foreign language stops moving forwards and “sticks”.Immersion: it is based on the idea that learners can “pick up” a foreign language in much the same way as children “pick up” their native language.Grammar translation:a method of foreign or second language thaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities.Total physical response: a language teaching method developed by Asher in the early 1970s in which are presented in the foreign language as orders, commands, and instructions requiring a physical response from the learner.Audiolingualism: a method of foreign or second language teaching which emphasize the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing uses dialogues and drills discourages use of the mother tongue and in the classroom often makes use of contrastive.Community language learning:a method to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence and which seeks to make meaningful communication and language use a focus of all classroom activities.Chapter 2Communicative competence: competence is a term linguists use to describe roughly what we have so far rather ponderously been calling knowledge and skill, and this section‟s heading might therefore have read “categorizing the levels of competence involved language use”. The use of the word “communicative”allows us to avoid more restricted term like “grammatical”-worth avoiding because, as we shall see, there is much more to using a language than grammar.Systemic competence: it covers knowledge and skill related to the way the language works as a system. This involves many different levels, including pronunciation (phonetics and phonology) as well as grammar (morphology and syntax). We may also take it to include word meanings(semantics).Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in a language.Case: a grammatical category that shows the function of the noun or onun phrase in a sentence. The form of the noun or noun phrase changes to show the different functions or cases.Cohesion: the grammatical of lexical relationships between the different elements of a text. This may be the relationship between the different sentences or between the different parts of a sentence.Coherence: the relationships which link the meaning of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text.Chapter3Poverty of stimulus: a term referring to the notion that universal grammar is needed to explain language learning because the input to learners is so impoverished that it is insufficient to explain learning. in particular, the input does not provide learners with negative evidence necessary to avoid or retreat from incorrect hypothesis. Language acquisition device: this piece of machinery contains a kind of blueprint of how language works. It is the existence of this blueprint that makes it unnecessary to for the child to undertake the kind of analytic procedures the filed linguists developed. These procedures are not necessary because the child already knows a lot about language when he is born.Chapter4Transfer :(in learning theory) the carrying over of learned behavior from one situation to another. Positive transfer is learning in one situation which helps of facilitates learning in another later situation. Negative transfer is learning in one situation which interferes with learning in another later situation.contrastive analysis hypothesis: the comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, for example the sound system or the grammatical system.Intralingual: coming from within the language itselfInterlingual: coming from differences between L1 and FL.Error analysis:the study and analysis of the ERRORs made by second language learners. Error analysis may be carried out in order to:a identify strategies which learners use in language learningb try to identify the causes of learner errorsc obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as anaid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials.creative construction hypothesis: a theory about how second and foreign language learners work out language rules. The theory was proposed by Dulay and Burt, who claim that learners work out the rules of their TARGET LANGUAGE1 by:a using natural mental processes, such as GENERALIZATIONb using similar processes to first language learnersc not relying very much on the rules of the first languaged using processes which lead to the creation of new forms and structureswhich are not found in the target language.Chapter5Acquisition: Stephen Krasher describes this process as a “natural” one, where there is no “conscious focusing on linguistic forms”(of the sort you find in most classroom). It is what w have already informally called the process of “pick up” a language, just you do if you go and live in the target language environment.Learning: Stephen Krasher describes that it is a conscious process, and it usually takes place in the language classroom. For Krasher it is particularly marked by two character tics. First , there is error correction. The second is rule isolation.Input:(in language learning) language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.Output: The language a learner produces is by analogy sometimes called output. Pingin:a language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. For example, this has occurred many times in the past when foreign traders had to communicate with the local population or groups of workers from different language backgrounds on plantations or in factories. A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammatical structure which may expand when a pidgin is used over a long period and for many purposes.Creole:a PIDGIN language which has become the native language of a group of speakers, being used for all or many of their daily communicative needs. Usually, the sentence structures and vocabulary range of a creole are far more complex than those of a pidgin language. Creoles are usually classified according to the language from which most of their vocabulary comes.Chapter 61.monitoring ,the modification of speech patterns, particularly in situations wherethere is form-focusprehensible input,Krashen describes the acquirer's present level ofcompetence as I, and the level immediately following i as i + 1. The input hypothesis claims that learners progress by understanding language containing i + 1; language just above present competence. In this formulation, we may say that rough tuning consists of knowing, roughly, what a learner's i is, and hence being able to gauge i + 1.3.The affective filter hypothesis, Where the feelings of the learner are 'positive',we might say that she is more …open' to input. Her filter is clean, and language passes easily through it. A learner with 'negative' feelings will, on the other hand, be 'closed' to input.4.the Interaction Hypothesis, for FL learning, the hypothesis claims that it is, inthe interaction process that acquisition occurs: learners acquire through talking with others.5.negotiation of meaning, Because learners do not know the language perfectly , itis natural that their attempts to interact should sometimes go wrong.Misunderstandings may occur. When these happen, those interaction have to try and 'repair' it by a process known as negotiation of meaning6.fossilization,he word used to describe what happens when a leamer's FLdevelopment grinds to a halt.municative, it relates to the simple transmission of information.8.integrative, the user wants her language to mark her as a member of some socialgroup. Some aspects of Ll use are easy to associate with this function.9.acculturate, (meaning to 'become a part of a culture')Chapter 71. declarative knowledge, 'knowledge about'procedural knowledge, 'knowledge how to'.2. Automization, means 'making automatic', Shiffrin and Dumais (1981), describe it as 'a fundamental component of skill development', playing a vital role in the development of any skill (including, presumably, the skill of using a foreign language).3. channel capacity, room in the mind.4. restructuring, as people learn ,the way they view what they are learning changes.5. the …learning Pathway‟as described in Anderson's model, It starts with declarative knowledge and moves to procedural knowledge, A main process in this sequence is proceduralization or automization.6. the‘acquisition pathway , the progression here is from procedural to declarative. It is a process of declarativization.Chapter 8Language aptitude: It is the rate at which persons at the secondary school, university and adult level [will] successfuly master a foreign language.Grammatical sensitivity: it is the indivisual‟s ability to demonstrate his awareness of the syntactical patterning of sentences in language.Inductive learning ability:this is the ability to …examine language material...and from this to notice and identify patterns of correspondences and relationships involving either meaning or grammatical form.Integrative motivation: we say that someone is …integratively motivated‟ if they are learning the foreign language through a desire to learn more about a culture, its language and people ---to …integrate‟ more within the target language society.Instrumental motivation involves learning in order to achieve some other goal.Chapter 9Extrovert personality: the typical extrovert is sociable, like parties, has many friends, needs to have people to talk to, and does not like studying by himself. He craves excitment, takes chances, often sticks his neck out, acts on the spur of the moment, and is generally likes change...Introvert personality: the typical introvert, on the other hand, is a quiet, retiring sort of person, introspective, fond of books rather than people; he is reserved and distant, except with intimate friends. He tends to plan ahead...and distrusts the impullse of the moment. He doesn‟t like excitement, takes matters of everyday life with proper seriousness, and likes a well ordered mode of life...Intolerence of ambiguity: the tendency to perceive...ambiguous situations as sources of threat.Empathy/ ego permeability: it has been defined as the act of constructing for oneself another person‟s mental state.Cognitive style: habitual modes of information processing. When we are given a problem to solve, we all have our own preferred ways of tackling it. These …ways of thinking‟ are sometime refeerred to as …cognitive style‟.Field independence: an analytical, in contrast to global, way of perceiving [which] entails a tendency to experience items as discrete from their backgrounds and reflects ability to overcome the influence of an embedding context.Learning strategies: they are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations.Chapter 10sentence patternsentence pattern are characteristic sentence types associated with grammatical structures.Primacy of speechPrimacy of speech gives importance to speech over writing, especially Audio-lingualism regards speech as …primary‟.Receptive skillsListening and writingProductive skillsSpeaking and writingIncrementalismDividing the behavior into pieces and shaping it. Shaping involves dividing the language into sentence patterns. Teaching the patterns one by one, only moving to the next when the previous one has been mastered.Minimal strategyAnalyzing the language into sentence patterns, chopping the language up into little pieces to make it more digestible for the learner. Then producing complex programmes laying down down what language item will be introduced in what order.Structural syllabusStructural syllabus is a programme plan stating which grammatical structure will be taught when. It leads to the sort of teaching in which a group of sentence patterns are covered in each lesson.Situational syllabusIn situational syllabus, the programme is stated in terms of situations, so that each lesson deals with the language associated with a different situation.Audio-visualismAudio-visualism attempts to make language memorable not just by presenting it in context, but by making the context as “vivid” as possible through the use of visual aids.Structuroglobal“structuro”indicates a connection with structural linguistics. “global”indicates that “every structure should be viewed as embedded in a situation of language use.”NotionNotions, semantico-grammatical categories can be described as …concept‟.FunctionFunctions, or functional categories, can be described as …uses‟ of the language.HumanismLanguage teaching respecting the integrity of learners, allowing for personal growth and responsibility, taking psychological and affective factors into account, and representing “whole person learning”.The silent wayThe teacher keeps silent for much of the time, withdrawing the verbal aid traditionally given to students.Community language learningA parallel is made between teaching and psychotherapeutic counselling. The teacher is thecounsellor or “knower”; the learner is a client.Total physical responseA link is made between physical action and learning.Comprehension skills are developed first. Learners do not produce language until well into the course.SuggestopediaLearning needs a stress-free environment, so attention is paid to furniture and surroundings.Use is made of background music, particularly Baroque slow movement.Task-based syllabusTask-based syllabus tells the teacher what kinds of activities she will be doing in class each day, but not what language items will come up.Chapter 11Needs analysisFinding ways of analyzing learners‟needs. It will show how much, and for what purposes, the learners will need which foreign languages.Relativism of methodologiesThere‟s no one …best‟ way of doing anything. Instead, there are many ways that may be more or less appropriate according to situation.Chapter 12-13Curriculum: the totality of content to be taught and aims to be realized within one school or educational system.Syllabus: the content of just one subject area and is centrally a statement of content, stating what a programme will cover.Teachability hypothesis: it …predicts that instruction can only promote language acquisition if the inter-language is close to the point when the structure to be taught is acquired in the natural setting‟.Language needs:the requirements which arise from the use of a language in the multitude of situations which may arise in the social lives of individuals and groups. Conveying language: all different ways of showing how a language works.M etalanguage: language about language.Non-verbal communication or body language: ways of communicating without words, gesture, facial expression and posture are all norms of non-verbal communication.Conscious raising: deliberate attempt to draw the learner‟s attention specifically to the formal properties of the terget language.。
泛义动词“做、干、弄、搞”的对外汉语教学研究
泛义动词“做、干、弄、搞”的对外汉语教学研究II摘 要泛义动词在现代汉语里是较为特殊的一类动词，特殊之处体现为它的词汇意义己经泛化，且不与某一具体动作行为相互联系。
泛义动词在句法表现和宾语搭配方面与普通动词也有一些区别。
泛义动词的特殊性质给学生在学习时带来了许多困惑。
所以，重视泛义动词的研究很有必要。
“做、干、弄、搞”在对外汉语教学中，使用偏误率较高，是重难点。
其语义抽象，用法复杂，对于汉语学习者来说，完全掌握较难。
在学术界，能直接用于指导泛义动词教学的成果十分有限。
因此，本文注重以下五项工作：（一）整理前人成果，作为本文基础。
（二）从本体角度探索 “做、干、弄、搞”。
在此基础上，分别从语义、用法、语体三个层面上对比了这四个泛义动词的用法差异。
（三）教学情况分析。
本文从对外汉语教材中”做、干、弄、搞”的用法和分布及HSK 动态作文语料库真实的偏误语料两方面入手，调查分析后，综合分析 “做、干、弄、搞”的教学情况。
（四）将碎片化教学理论融入 “做、干、弄、搞”的教学中，再通过一些案例进行分析，为之后对外汉语教学提供帮助。
（五）通过从本体到语料的分析，本文从泛义动词的教学原则、教学方法两方面探讨了泛义动词的教学策略，并且指出泛义动词的学习方法，为对泛义动词教学提供一定参考。
（六）本文针对母语为英语的高级留学生。
因为，泛义动词的共性和区别用法在高级阶段才会着重体现。
学生在学习汉语的初级阶段，由于学生的汉语水平较低，其学习重点在于日常简单的汉语知识，没有专门研究“做、干、弄、搞”这四个词如何学以及如何教的必要。
在用到的语料库中录入的大都是高级汉语水平的学生产生的偏误。
因此，本文针对的人群为英语为母语的高级留学生。
影响学生对泛义动词运用的因素可能是多方面的，有自身英语产生的负迁移、汉语教材、方面的因素，还有教学上存在的某些缺失和不足等。
在今后教学实践中，教师要正确引导学生，相关部门应积极完善教材，学生应该使用科学的学习方法，这样才能提高教师的教学水平及学生的学习能力。
英语阅读之星范文
英语阅读之星范文The Shining Star of English ReadingReading has always been a fundamental aspect of language acquisition and personal growth. In the realm of English learning, the ability to read and comprehend texts is a crucial skill that separates the accomplished from the struggling. Among the many students who embark on the journey of mastering the English language, there are those who truly shine as the stars of English reading. These individuals possess a unique set of qualities and strategies that propel them to the forefront of their peers.One of the defining characteristics of the English reading star is their insatiable thirst for knowledge. They approach each text with a sense of excitement and curiosity, eager to uncover the hidden gems of information and insights that lie within. These readers do not simply skim the surface of the material; they delve deep, engaging with the content on a profound level. They ask thought-provoking questions, make meaningful connections, and actively seek to expand their understanding of the subject matter.Alongside their intellectual curiosity, the English reading star possesses a remarkable ability to comprehend and retain information. They have a keen eye for detail, readily identifying key themes, plot points, and underlying messages within the text. Their strong analytical skills allow them to dissect complex passages, discerning the nuances and subtleties that often elude their classmates. This depth of understanding not only enhances their academic performance but also equips them with the tools to engage in rich discussions and debates.Moreover, the English reading star is a master of vocabulary development. They recognize the importance of building a robust lexical repertoire, and they employ various strategies to expand their word knowledge. These strategies may include diligent note-taking, the use of mnemonic devices, and the active incorporation of new words into their daily speech and writing. As a result, these readers are able to navigate the intricacies of the English language with ease, effortlessly comprehending and articulating even the most sophisticated concepts.One of the hallmarks of the English reading star is their unwavering dedication to the craft of reading. They do not view it as a chore or a necessary evil; rather, they embrace it as a cherished pastime and a gateway to personal growth. These individuals allocate substantialtime and effort to reading, whether it is delving into classic literature, exploring the latest non-fiction releases, or engaging with online resources. Their commitment to reading is not limited to the classroom or the confines of academic requirements; it extends into their personal lives, where they actively seek out opportunities to expand their literary horizons.Furthermore, the English reading star possesses a remarkable ability to transfer their reading skills to other areas of language learning. Their proficiency in comprehending and analyzing texts often translates into enhanced writing skills, as they are able to draw upon their reading experiences to craft well-structured, compelling compositions. Additionally, their strong command of vocabulary and language patterns can contribute to their success in oral communication, allowing them to express their ideas with clarity and confidence.Perhaps one of the most admirable qualities of the English reading star is their willingness to share their knowledge and inspire others. They understand that the joy of reading is not meant to be hoarded, but rather to be shared and cultivated. These individuals often take on the role of mentors, offering guidance and support to their peers who may be struggling with English reading comprehension. They may organize reading groups, lead discussions, or even tutor their classmates, demonstrating their commitment to the collectivegrowth and development of the English learning community.In the end, the English reading star is a true embodiment of the transformative power of reading. They have harnessed the written word as a tool for personal growth, academic excellence, and the enrichment of those around them. Their journey serves as an inspiration to all who aspire to become proficient in the English language, reminding us that with dedication, curiosity, and a love for reading, the path to becoming an English reading star is within reach.。
Contrastive Analysis语言学中的对比分析PPT
kinds
Phonological interference ----Those who cannot distinguish /n/and /l/
sound in Chinese cannot distinguish the two sounds in English , either
Contrastive Analysis
Group Member：...
Outline
➢ What is Contrastive Analysis/ Study/ Linguistics?
➢ What is the psychological basis of CA? ➢ What procedures should we adopt while conducting CA? ➢ What do we contrast / compare?
Teaching materials based on contrastive analysis can reduce the effects of interference and difficulties , and facilitate L2 learning.
Two types of transfer
kinds
Intralingual Cross-linguistic/Interlingual Phonological interference Syntactic interference Contrastive pragmatics
Kinds
Intralingual ---Analysis of contrastive phonemes. ---Feature analysis of morph syntactic categories. ---Analysis of morphemes having grammatical
中学教师资格认定考试(初级英语学科知识与教学能力)-试卷25
中学教师资格认定考试（初级英语学科知识与教学能力）-试卷25(总分：66.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、单项选择题(总题数：20，分数：40.00)1.She tried her best to______the life there, but failed to make any______.A.adjust to; senseB.adapt to; troubleC.adapt to; effortD.adjust to; difference √解析：考查动词短语和名词短语辨析。
句意为“她尽了最大努力来适应那里的生活，但是没能带来任何不同”。
adjust to和adapt to均可表示“适应”的意思，但第二个空make difference意为“有不同之处；造成差别”，符合题意，其他均不符合。
2.While teaching, we should keep our class running smoothly and ______.A.thoroughlyB.efficiently √C.speedilyD.directly解析：考查副词辨析。
句意为“教学过程中，我们应该保持课堂活动流畅而又——地进行”。
thoroughly “彻底地”；efficiently“高效地”；speedily“迅速地”；directly“直接地”。
B项最符合句意。
3.—Are you going on a visit to New Zealand next Saturday? —I haven't decided yet. It is still______ .A.in the air √B.between the linesC.to the pointD.over the moon解析：考查短语辨析。
句意为“——你下周要去新西兰吗?——我还没决定。
这件事还未决定。
”in the air “还未决定”：between the lines“字里行间”；to the point“切题”；over the moon“欣喜若狂”，故选A。
fossilization
B We had so many works to do that we had to stay at home. C We opened the TV set and began to watch. D I entered the kitchen, trying to find some eating things.
This second position on the nature of fossilization has also been referred to by Sims as soft fossilization
or jellification.
C In terms of language aspects: phonological, lexical, grammatical fossilization
由于中国民族众多，方言复杂，各地的学习者在发 音方面各有特色，石化现象表现得很突出。
[i:] ---- [i] [θ]---- [S] [u:]----[u] [f] ---- [v] [n] ---- [l]
《语言学导论》复习思考题
《语言学导论》复习思考题《语言学导论》复习思考题Ⅰ. In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question, or best completes the sentence. Write the corresponding letter on your ANSWER SHEET.1. According to Noam Chomsky, language is the product of_______.A. an innate faculty, unique to humansB. communicationC. environmental conditioningD. all of the above2. Which of the following statements is FALSE ________.A. Language is just for communication.B. Language is one of many ways in which we experience the world.^C. Language is a sign system.D. Language is arbitrary and conventional.3. Which one of the following statements about errors in foreign language learning in FALSE _________.A. Errors can not be avoided in foreign language learning.B. Errors tell the teacher how far towards the goal the learner has progressed and consequently what remains for him to learn.C. Errors are something bad that should not be allowed in foreign language learning.D. Errors provide the researcher with evidence of how language is learned or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing is his discovery of the language.4. The English language has______.【A. morphemesB. syntaxC. number agreementD. all of the above5. “He” and “she” are not examples of gender agreement in English, because_____.A. they are pronounsB. they need not agree with other words in an English sentenceC. they mark biological/social genderD. both b and c above6. A phoneme is_____.A. the smallest meaningful unit in language—B. the smallest unit in languageC. the same as an allophoneD. both b and c above7. Of the following, what are the two types of phonetics______.A. acoustic and electricB. arbitrary and auditoryC. articulatory and acousticD. allophonic and allomorphic8. /Wik/ is a transcription of_______.A. sickB. chickC. chicD. thick、9. The Black English sentence “I don't gotta do nothing” isconsid ered incorrect because________.A. it contains a double negative and is thus inherently incorrectB. it is impossible to understandC. it is not associated with the upper class use of standard EnglishD. both a and b above10. The use of non-standard English persists because_______.A. the working class is incapable of speaking “correctly”【B. English is a complicated and therefore difficult language to masterC. subordinate groups use non-standard English to promote solidarityD. teachers do not properly stress the importance of standard English in schools11. True or false: Chinese has no inflections for grammatical case. ______.A. TrueB. False12. What is defined as 'the study of sentence structure' ______.A. MorphologyB. SemanticsC. PhonologyD. Syntax13. ______ refers to the fact that there is no necessary or logical relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. ______.%A. DisplacementB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. duality14. The study of a language at some point of time is called________.A. computational linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. diachronic linguisticsD. synchronic linguistics15. ________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech communityA. LangueB. performanceC. competenceD. parole16. Traditional grammar is ________.A. descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. non-Latin-basedD. wrong^17. ______ is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.A. PhonologyB. Phonetic alphabetC. Corpus linguisticsD. Phonetics18. _____ is the minimal unit in the sound system of alanguage, which is of distinctive value.A. AllophoneB. PhoneC. PhonemeD. Morpheme19. Which of the following factors does not help to identifya word ______.A. Relative shortness uninterruptibilityC. A minimum free formD. Stability20. Speech act theory was initially developed by _______.~A. HallidayB. AustinC. SearleD. Grice21. The four major modes of semantic change are_______.A. extension, narrowing, elevation and degradationB. extension, generalization, elevation and degradationC. extension, narrowing, specialization and degradationD. extension, elevation, amelioration and degradation22. The relation between the two words “husband” and “wife” can be described as____.A. gradable antonymyB. converse antonymy|C. complementary antonymyD. synonymy23. “friendly” is a _______.A. compoundB. inflectional wordC. derivativeD. morpheme24. The construction “honest people” is _______.A. a coordinate constructionB. an exocentric constructionC. an endocentric constructionD. an immediate constituent25. The word “brunch” and “motel” are _______.-A. formed by blendingB. acronymsC. coined by back-formationD. clipped words26. The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn’t it” is _______.A. directiveB. informativeC. performativeD. phatic27. Which of the following sounds is a voiced bilabial stop ______.A. [m]B. [v]C. [p]D. [b]28. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless affricate _______.A. [w]B. [f]C. [tF]D. [dV];29. In the sentence “Can I have a bite to drink” the speaker may not have a problem with competence, but with_______.A. performanceB. utteranceC. syntaxD. context30. The phrase “Colorful ideas sleep furiously” is an example of_______.A. rapport talkB. indexical languageC. an ungrammatical but acceptable sentenceD. a grammatical but unacceptable sentence31. There are ______ morphemes in the word “children’s”!A. sixB. twoC. threeD. four32. The words “take” and “table” are called _______ because they can stand asa word by themselves.A. inflectional morphemesB. free morphemesC. stemsD. roots33. Identify the morphemes in the word 'unimaginative':A. un-im-ag-in-at-iveB. un-imaginativeC. un-imagin-ativeD. unimagin-ative34. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementarity _______.`A. Husband/ WifeB. Alive/DeadC. Hot/ ColdD. White/ Black35. The Whorf Hypothesis claims that________.A. language is full of “rich points”, whose meanings are difficult to translate into another languageB. abstract terms are easily translatableC. accents are part of identityD. language influences culture-specific ways of knowing36. The phrase ‘time is a commodity’ is an example of_______.A. The Whorf HypothesisB. A metaphoric system'C. A non-standard varietyD. A rich point37. The last phoneme in the word “hang” is a _______.A. glottalB. palatalC. dentalD. nasal38. Three places of articulation that involve the teeth and/or the lips are:A. palatal, velar, glottalB. bilabial, labiodental, dentalC. stop, fricative, affricativeD. nasal, lateral, semi vowel39. In the sentence 'I took my big brown cat to the vet yesterday', which of the following does not appear _______.A. AdjectiveB. PrepositionC. AdverbD. Conjunction-40. What is the meaning relationship between the two words “plant/grass” ______.A. HomonymyB. AntonymyC. HyponymyD. Allomorphs41. The syllabic structure of the word “linguistics” is ______.A. CVCCVCCVCCB. CVCCCVCCVCCC. CVCCVVCCVCCD. CVCVVCCVCC42. The phonetic transcription with diacritics is called _____.A. broad transcriptionB. International Phonetic AlphabetC. American English PronunciationD. narrow transcription(43. The Black English sentence “I don't gotta do nothing” is considered incorrect because:a) it contains a double negative and is thus inherently incorrectb) it is impossible to understandc) it is not associated with the upper class use of standard Englishd) both a and b above44. According to their ______, words can classified into closed-class and open-class words.A. variabilityB. membershipC. similaritiesD. functions45. When language is used to "do things", it serves the _____ function.|A. evocativeB. expressiveC. directiveD. performative46. "Classroom" is a _______.A. free morphemeB. derivativeC. compoundD. root.47. The phrase “time is a commodity” is an example of_______.A. The Whorf HypothesisB. A metaphoric systemC. A non-standard varietyD. A rich point48. _______ is a type of phonological process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.A. AssimilationB. TransformationC. Code-switchingD. interference/49. _______ refers to the use of a native language pattern or rule which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language.A. InterlanguageB. Positive transferC. Negative transferD. Overgeneralization50. In the sentence “I took my big brown cat to the vet yesterday”, which of the following does not appear _______.A. AdjectiveB. PrepositionC. AdverbD. Conjunction51. _______ is that part of the meaning of word or phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible world.A. ConnotationB. Affective meaningC. DenotationD. Sense52. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as ______.|A. unnaturalB. something to be fearedC. naturalD. abnormal53. The semantic components of the word “boy” can be expressed as _____.A. +human, +male, +adultB. +human, -male, +adultC. +human, -male, -adultD. +human, +male, -adult54. Conjunctions, preposition, pronouns and articles can be classified as ____.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. pro-formsD. content words55. If two sounds are of no distinctive value, but are varieties of the same phoneme, they are called ______./A. phonesB. speech soundsC. allophonesD. morphs56. In the following sounds, _____ is a voiced stop.A. [b]B. [d]C. [p]D. [k]57. “You stand up” is transformed into “Stand up”. Whichtransformational rule is used according to TG Grammar _____.A. CopyingB. AdditionC. ReorderingD. Deletion58. The words such as TOFEL, NATO, UFO are _____.A. formed by blendingB. acronymsC. coined by back formationD. clipped words~59. The words such as “brunch”, “motel” are _______.A. formed by blendingB. acronymsC. coined by back formationD. clipped words60. ______ are produced when the obstruction is complete at first, then released slowly with friction resulting from partial obstruction.A. NasalsB. GlidesC. FricativesD. Affricatives61. “A fish is swimming in the pond” is transformed into “There is a fish swimming in the pond”. Which of the following transformational rules is used ______.A. CopyingB. AdditionC. ReorderingD. Deletion62. “The man put on his hat” is transformed into “The man put his hat on”. Which transformational rule is applied here _______.[A. CopyingB. AdditionC. ReorderingD. Deletion63. The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn’t it” is ______.A. directiveB. informativeC. emotiveD. phatic64. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop _____.A. [m]B. [f]C. [p]D. [b]65. Which of the following languages is a tone languageA. RussianB. ChineseC. EnglishD. French66. ________ speaking, no variety of language is better than or superior to others.《A. GenerallyB. SociallyC. PoliticallyD. Linguistically67. Grammar-based language learning and teaching fails partially because _____.A. still no precise information is obtained concerning how grammar can be learnedB. grammar can not be taught at allC. it is useless to teach grammar in language classesD. learners can learn better without grammarforeign language learners to achieve effective learning, the input should_____.A. not be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed@B. be interesting and simpleC. not be so close to their current stage that they are not challenged at allD. Both A and C69. Interlanguage is _____.A. is produced by every foreign language learnersB. a mixture of the learner’s mother tongue and the target languageC. imperfect compared with the target language, but it is not mere translation from the learner’s native langua geD. Both A and C》70. Error analysis may be carried out in order to______.A. identify strategies which learners use in language learningB. try to identify the causes of learner errors.C. obtain information on common difficulties in language learningD. All of the above.71. Many Chinese English learners may, at the beginn ing stage, produce “mans” and “photoes” as the plural forms of “man” and “photo”. This is most likely the result of _______ in the process of foreign language learning.A. Negative transferB. OvergeneralizationC. Positive transferD. mother tongue interference,72. Which of the following qualities is not the requirement ofa good test _______.A. ObjectivityB. ReliabilityC. ValidityD. Both A and C73. Which of the following statements about machine translation is likely to be wrong _______.A. Machine translation has always been a chief concern in computational linguistics.B. There are areas where machine translation surpasses human translations.C. Sooner or later, machine translation will replace human translation completely.D. In some areas, human translations surpasses machine translation.74. Teaching culture in our language classes can _______.；A. get the students familiar with cultural differencesB. help the students transcend their own culture and seethings as the members of the target culture willC. emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practicesD. All of the above.75. According to Grice’s theory, a conversa tional implicature arises when the cooperative principle and its maxims are _______.A. strictly observedB. secretly and deliberately violatedC. blatantly or apparently violatedD. Both A and BⅡ. Match each of the following terms in C olumn A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B. Write the corresponding letter on your ANSWER SHEET. …Part OneColumn A1. constituent2. complementary distribution3. design features4. diglossia5. displacement6. homonymy)7. language interference8. registers9. selectional restrictions10. semantic anomalyColumn BA. the phenomenon that human language can cope with any subject whatever, and it does not matter how far away the topicof conversation is in time and spaceB. the framework proposed by Hockett, which discusses the defining properties of human language as against animal communicationC. the restrictions on the type of noun that can be selected with each verb【D. the type of language which is selected as appropriate to a type of situationE. the phenomena that allophones occur in different phonetic environmentsF. a sociolinguistic situation where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to playG. the case that two, or more meanings may be associated with the same linguistic formH. the case that one of the arguments or the predicate of the main predication is self-contradictoryI. any linguistic form or group of linguistic forms that appears at the bottom of one of the lines in the tree diagram of the syntactic analysisJ. the use of elements from one language while speaking another.Part Two】Column A1. duality of structure2. free morphemes3. endocentric construction4. International Phonetic Alphabet5. Psycholinguistics6. the syntagmatic relation7. derivational morphemes"8. regional dialect9. sequential rules10. presuppositionColumn BA. the study of the relationship between language and mind.B. the bound morphemes which are conjoined to other morphemes (or words) to derive or form a new word \C. the organization of language into two levels: a lower level of sounds which combine to form a higher level of meaningful unitsD. a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.E. linguistic varieties used by people living in different regions.F. the rules which govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.G. one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituentsH. the kind of meaning which the speaker doesn't assert but assumes the hearer can identify from the sentenceI. the morphemes which can constitute words by themselvesJ. the one between one item and others in a linear sequence, or between elements which are all present.Part ThreeColumn A2. blending3. compounds4. arbitrariness5. cultural transmission6. diachronic linguistics《7. distinctive features8. standard dialect9. ultimate constituent10. CreoleColumn BA. the study of the language development or change over timeB. the features that a phoneme has and that distinguish it from other phonemesC. the words that are produced by stringing together words>D. the smallest grammatical unit obtained through binary segmentationE. a particular variety of a language, not related to any particular group of language usersF. a language formed when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech communityG. word formed by combining parts of other wordsH. the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speakerI. the oppositeness of meaning between lexemesJ. a design feature of language which refers to the fact that there is no logical connection between the signifier and thesignified of a sign.Part Four|Column A1. a proposition2. a speech community3. an utterance4. bilingualism5. constatives6. performatives7. registers8. sociolect9. the Whorf-Sapir hypothesis10. utterance meaningColumn BA. the suggestion that different languages carve the world up in different ways, and that as a result their speakers think about it differentlyB. something conveyed by a sentence in a context other than its literal meaningC. varieties of language that are related to useD. a piece of language actually used in a particular context:E. the linguistic variety used by people belonging to a particular social classF. a community the members of which have or believe they have at least one common variety of languageG. what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statementH. sentences which describe or state something; they are either true or falseI. the situation where at least two languages are used side by side by an individual or by a group of speakers, with each having a different role to playJ. sentences that do not describe things and cannot be said to be true or false Part FiveColumn A】1. an analytic proposition2. binary cutting3. connotation4. derivation5. lexicology6. logical semantics7. reference8. semantic feature<9. the chain relation10. the choice relationColumn BA. the relation holding between one item and others in a linear sequence, or between elements which are all presentB. the basic unit of meaning in a wordC. the study of the meaning of a sentence in terms of its truth conditionsD. one whose grammatical form and lexical meaning make it necessarily true, without reference to external criteriaE. the additional meanings that a word or phrase has beyond its central meaning 。
语言学-二语习得课件PPT
1. What is language acquisition?
the learning and the development of a person’s language.
It is studied by linguists, psycholinguists and applied linguists to enable them to understand the processes used in learning a language, help identify stages in the developmental process, and to give a better understanding of the nature of language. It focuses on the study of the development of phonology, grammar, vocabulary and communicative competence.
2. Contrastive analysis / CA
a procedure designed to find out the differences and similarities between languages in order to help teachers and learners, and not produce errors at all. It was developed and practiced in the 1950s and 1960s. It was more successful in phonology than in other areas of language, and declined in the 1970s as interference was replaced by other explanations of learning difficulties.
语言学概论总试卷
一、单项选择题（每小题1分，共20分）在下列每小题的四个备选答案中选出一个正确的答1. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?__________A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang2. ________ made the distinction between competence and performance.A. SaussureB. ChomskyC. BloomfieldD. Sapir3. Conventionally a ______ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme4. The word “hospitalize” is an example of __________.A. compoundB. derivationC. inflectionD. blending5. Constituent sentences is the term used in ___________.A. structural linguisticsB. functional analysisC. TG GrammarD. traditional grammar6. Cold and hot is a pair of ___________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. converse7. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some futurecourse of action are called________.A. commissivesB. directivesC. expressiveD. declaratives8. Speech variety may be used instead of _______.A. vernacular language, dialect, pidgin, creoleB. standard languageC. both A and BD. none of the above9.______ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. Morphology10. Discovering procedures are practiced by ________.A. descriptive grammarB. TC GrammarC. traditional grammarD. functional grammar11. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees centigrade” is _________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative12. _________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. ParoleB. LangueC. SpeechD. Writing13. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred as _________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula14. ________ refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. SemanticsD. Phonology15. “When did you stop taking this medicine?” is an example of _________in sense relationships.A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. assumptionD. implicature16. Idioms are ________.A. sentencesB. naming unitsC. phrasesD. communication units17. An illocutionary act is identical with________.A. sentence meaningB. the speaker’s intentionC. language understandingD. the speaker's competence18. In sociolinguistics, ______ refers to a group of institutionalized social situations typically constrainedby a common set of behavioral rules.A. domainB. situationC. societyD. community19. ______ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using itnaturally communicative situations.A. LearningB. CompetenceC. PerformanceD. Acquisition20. In which of the following stage did Chomsky add the semantic component to his TG Grammar forthe first time? __________A. The Classic TheoryB. The Standard TheoryC. The Extended Standard TheoryD. The Minimalist Program1. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present arelikely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy)as a means of controlling theforces which the belivers feel might affect their lives. Which function does it perform?__________A. interrogativeB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational2. Which of the following properties of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? ___________A. InterchangeableB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness.3. Which of the following is not the major branch of linguistics? ___________A. PhonologyB. PragmaticsC. SyntaxD. Speech4._______ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics5. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called_________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones6. Which one is different from the others according to manners of articulation? _________A. [z]B. [w]C. [h]D. [v]7.________ doesn’t belong to the most productive means of word-formation.A. AffixationB. CompoundingC. ConversionD. Blending8. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words9. ________ refers to the relations holding between elements replaceable with each other at particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.A. Syntagmatic relationB. Paradigmatic relationC. Co-occurrence relationD. Hierarchical relation10. According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, ________ contain all the informationnecessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.A. deep structureB. surface structuresC. transformational rulesD. PS-rules11. ________describes whether a proposition is true or false.A. TruthB. Truth valueC. Truth conditionD. Falsehood12. “John hit Peter” and “Peter was hit by John” are the same ________.A. propositionB. sentenceC. utteranceD. truth13. ________ is a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context of use.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. Semantics14. ________is the study of how speaker of a language use sentences to affect successfulcommunication.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Psycholinguistics15.______is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified byshared linguistic system.A. A speech community A. A raceC. A societyD. A country16.______variation of language is the most discernible and definable in speech variation.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal17. In first language acquisition children usually _________ grammatical rules from thelinguistic information they hear.A. useB. acceptC. generalizeD. reconstruct18. By the time children are going beyond the ______ stage, they begin to incorporate someof the inflectional morphemes.A. telegraphicB. multiwordC. two-wordD. one-word19. According to Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ________.A. ideational, interpersonal and textualB. ideational, informative and textualC. metalinguistic, interpersonal and textualD. ideational, interpersonal and referential20. The person who is often described as “'father of modern linguistics” is _______.A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky1. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language? ___________- A nice day, isn’t it?- Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PeformativeD.Interpersonal2. Unlike animal communication systems, human language is __________.A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest3. Which branch of linguistics studies the similarities and differences among language?___________A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics4. __________ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John Lyons5. Which vowel is different from the others according to the tongue position of vowels?___________A. [i]B. [u]C. [e]D.[a]6. Liquids are classified in the light of __________.A. manner of articulationB. place of articulationC. place of tongueD. none of the above7. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called _____ morphemes.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational8. There are _______ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six9. In English, theme and rhyme are often expressed by ________ and ________.A. subject, objectB. subject, predicateC. predicate, objectD. object, predicate10. The semantic triangle holds that the meaning of a word ________.A. is interpreted through the mediation of conceptB. is related to the thing it refers toC. is the idea associated with that word in the minds of speakersD. is the image it is represented in the mind.11. “John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die” is a (n) ___________.A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. anomalyD. contradiction12. ________ found that natural language had its own logic and concludes cooperativeprinciple.A. John AustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William Jones13. _______ proposed that speech acts can fall into five general categories.A. AustinB. SearleC. SapirD. Chomsky14. ______ is not a typical example of official bilingualism.A. CanadaB. FinlandC. BelgiumD. Germany15. The most recognizable difference between American English and British English are in_____ and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending16. ______ transfer is a process that is more commonly known as interference.A. AcquisitionB. PositiveC. NegativeD. Interrogative17. In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the _____ half of the child’s secondyear.A. earlyB. lateC. firstD. second18. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it seeslanguage in terms of ________.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system19. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is________.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris20. At the _______ stage negation is simply expressed by single words with negativemeaning.A. prelinguisticsB. multiwordC. two-wordD. one-word1. Which of the following is the most important function of language? ___________A. Interpersonal functionB. Performative functionC. Informative functionD. Recreational function2. In different languages, different terms are used to express the animal "狗", this shows thenature of ______ of human language.A. arbitrarinessB. cultural transmissionC. displacementD. discreteness3. The study of language as a whole is often called ____________.A. general linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics4. The study of language meaning is called __________.A. syntaxB. semanticsC. morphology D pragmatics5. In English, there is one glottal fricative. It is _______.A. [I]B. [h]C. [k]D. [f]6. The phonetic symbol for “voiced bilabial glide” is _________.A. [v]B. [d]C. [f]D. [w]7. In English -ise and -tion are called ________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. free morphemes8. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of word-formation and ______.A. affixationB. etymologyC. inflectionD. root9. The sense relationship between “John plays the violin”and “John plays a musicalinstrument” is ________.A. hyponymyB. antonymyC. entailmentD. presupposition10. Conceptual meaning is ________.A. denotativeB. connotativeC. associativeD. affective11. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the_______.A. declarationsB. directivesC. sociolinguisticsD. Chomsky12. The violation of one or more of the conversational _______ (of the CP) can, when thelistener fully understands the speaker, create conversational implicatures, and humor sometimes.A. standardsB. principlesC. levelsD. maxim13. _______variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where aspeaker comes from.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Register variety14. In a speech community people have something in common ______ -a language or aparticular variety of language and rules for using it.A. sociallyB. linguisticallyC. culturallyD. pragmatically15. The optimum age for SLA is _______.A. childhoodB. early teensC. teensD. adulthood16. In general, ________ language acquisition refers to children's development of theirlanguage of the community in which a child has been brought up.A. firstB. secondC. thirdD. fourth17. Children follow a similar ________ schedule of predictable stages along the route oflanguage development across cultures.A. learningB. studyingC. acquisitionD. acquiring18. The theory of _______ considers that all sentences are generated from a semanticstructure.A. Case GrammarB. Stratificational GrammarC. Relational GrammarD. Generative Semantics19. _______ grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussingIndo-European language.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative20. Hjelmslev is a Danish linguist and the central figure of the ______.A. Prague SchoolB. Copenhagen SchoolC. London SchoolD. Generative Semantics21. The relation between form and means in human language is natural.22. Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.23. Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.24. Phonology is the study of speech sounds of all human languages.25. All consonants are produced with vocal-cord vibration.26. Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.27. The structure of words is not governed by rules.28. If a word has sense, it must have reference.29. “He didn't stop smoking” presupposes that he had been smoking.30. A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.31. A text is best regarded as a semantic unit, a unit not of form but of meaning.32. Although the age at which children will pass through a given stage can vary significantfrom child to child, the particular sequence of stages seems to be the same for all children acquiring a given language.33. It’s normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an operating vocabulary of more2,000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.34. “Tom hit Mary and Mary hit Tom”is an exocentric construction while “men andwomen” is an endocentric construction.35. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued thatphonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.36. The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and functional linguistics.37. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.38. Consonant sounds can be either voiced or voiceless, while all vowel sounds arevoiceless.39. The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.40. An illocutionary act is identical with the speaker’s intention.21. When language is used to get information from other, it serves an informative function.22. All the English words are not symbolic.23. All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistics symbols.24. There are 72 symbols for consonants and 25 for vowels in English.25. The sound [z] is an oral voiced post-alveolar fricative.26. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.27. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.28. The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality.29. There is only one argument in the sentence “Kids like apples”.30. While conversation participants nearly always observe the CP, they do not alwaysobserve these maxims strictly.31. Inviting, suggesting, warning, ordering are instance of commissives.32. Cohesion and coherence is identical with each other in essence.33. It has been recognized that in ideal acquisition situation, many adults can reachnative-like proficiency in all aspects of a second language.34. All roots are free morphemes while not all free morphemes are roots.35. In the Classical theory, Chomsky’s aim is to make linguistics a science. This theory ischaracterized by three features: emphasis on prescription of language, introduction of transformational rules, and grammatical description regardless of language formation. 36. Generative grammar is a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined wayassigns structural descriptions to sentences.37. All words may be said to contain a root morpheme.38. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand how words and phrases formsentences, and so on.39. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the psycholinguistics.40. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behindhis Function Grammar is systemic.21. Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.22. Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable.23. General linguistics deals with the whole human language.24. Auditory phonetics investigates how a sound is perceived by the listener.25. In English, there are two nasal consonants. There are [m] and [n].26. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.27. The meaning of the word we often used is the primary meaning.28. Meaning is central to the study of communication.29. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act becausethis kind of speech is identical with the speaker’s intention.30. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in acertain context, pragmatics can also be considered as a kind of meaning study.31. If a text has no cohesive words, we say the text is not coherent.32. The optimum age for SLA always accords with the maxim of “the younger the better”.33. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language,that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.34. The London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.35. Coarticulation refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence oftheir neighbors.36. Band morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.37. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also knownas the Bloomfieldian Age.38. Paul Grice found that artificial language had its own logic and conclude cooperativeprinciple.39. Cultural transmission refers to the fact that language is cultural transmitted. It is passedon from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.40. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s performance.21. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.22. Competence is more concrete than performance.23. Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory which accounts for the rules oflanguage in general.24. The space between the vocal cords is called glottis.25. Stops can be divided into two types: plosives and nasals.26. All roots are free and all affixes are bound.27. The sentence “Tom, smoke!” and“Tom smokes” have the same semantic predication.28. The sentence that contains the same words is the same in meaning.29. A sentence is a grammatical unit and an utterance is a pragmatic notion.30. “John has been to Asia” entails “John has been to Japan”.31. Coherence is a logical, orderly and aesthetical relationship between parts, in speech,writing, or argument.32. Language acquisition is in accordance with language learning on the assumption thatthere are different processes.33. SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquire or learn an additional language afterthey acquired their first language.34. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play atsome point in a linguistic structure.35. American structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independentlyin the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.36. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the sounds and soundpatterns of his language.37. Phonetics has three sub-branches: acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics andarticulatory phonetics.38. The paradigmatical relation shows us the inner layering of sentences.39. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experiencedsome sort of social isolation, such as racial discrimination.40. Searle proposed that speech act can fall into six general categories.41. _______ is the actual realization of one's linguistic knowledge in utterances.42. Combining two parts of two already existing words is called ________ inword-formation.43. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with _______.44. A ________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of wordsto form a complete statement, question or command.45. _______ studies the sentence structure of language.46. In semantic analysis, ________ is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.47. A speech _______is a group of people who share the same language or a particularvariety of language.48. In learning a second language, a learner will subconsciously use his L1 knowledge. Thisprocess is called language _______.49. The development of a first or native language is called first language________.50. ________ is a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context of use.41. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed _________ or creative.42. The description of a language as it changes through time is a ___________ study.43. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the _________ and the lips.44. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without___________.45. ________________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process ofshortening.46. For ______________________ antonyms, it is a matter of either one or the other.47. A ___________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a nativelanguage in some speech community.48. A linguistic _____________ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the“polite” society from general use.49. For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously andrequires little conscious _____________ on the part of adults.50. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) _________________ oriented functionallinguistics approach.41. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of _______ over writing.42. ___________ is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.43. A word formed by derivation is called a ____________, and a word formed bycompounding is called a ___________.44. ____________ is a science that is concerned with how words are combined to formphrases and how phrases are combined by rules to form sentences.45. The ________________ relation is a kind of relation between linguistic forms in asentence and linguistic forms outside the sentence.46. The various meanings of a _____________ word are related to some degree.47. The pre-school years are a ____________ period for first language acquisition.48. Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on ____________.49. _______________ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.50. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be definednot in terms of meaning but in terms of ________________.41. Language is a system of arbitrary _________ symbols used for human communication.42. Langue or competence is _________ and not directly observable, while parole orperformance is concrete and directly observable.43. The vocal tract can be divided into two parts: the oral cavity and the __________.44. The combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words incalled _____________.45. The words of English are classified into native words and __________ words.46. Language itself is not sexist, but its use may reflect the ______________ attitudeconnoted in the language that is sexist.47. _____________ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in thefirst language by using it naturally communicative situations.48. In first language acquisition children usually __________ grammatical rules from thelinguistic information they hear.49. The starting point of Chomsky's TG Grammar is his ___________ hypothesis.50. A ____________ analysis of an utterance will reveal what the speaker intends to dowith it.51. discreteness52. competence53. triphthongs54. bound morpheme55.syntax51. design features52. performance53. minimal pair54. morpheme55. polysemy51. arbitrarinessngue53.vowel54. affixs55. reference51. language52. phonemes, phones53. backformation54.lexical semantics55.speech community56. How does a linguist construct a rule?57. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?58. Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.59. List the differences between surface structure and deep structure of a sentence.60. How does competence differ from performance?56. Explain the differences between langue and parole.57. Use examples to illustrate the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional constituent.58. Define the two terms: phonemes and allophones.59. What are the three types of distribution?60. How many types of linguistic knowledge does a native speaker possess? What are they?56.What are the five sub-branches of linguistics?57. What are the suprasegmental features are?58. What is the difference between cohesion and coherence?59. What is ethnic dialect?60. What is learner language and target language?56. What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?57. What are the functions of language?58.Explain the relationship between speech and writing.59. Analyze the word “disestablishment” by IC analysis:60.What does morphology study?61. What are the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in terms of both function and position?61. List the differences between surface structure and deep structure of a sentence.61. Define the three types of distribution respectively.61. Describe with examples various types of morpheme used in English.。
中国学生的英语发音问题浅析
中国学生的英语发音问题浅析摘要：中国学生在学习英语发音的过程中往往会产生问题，这是因为学生所熟悉的汉语与英语属于两种不同的语系，在语音系统上存在很大差别，而第二语言学习过程中普遍存在着语言迁移现象，于是学生在发音上容易受他们的母语，即汉语的影响，从而形成发音错误和偏差。
根据语言迁移理论，通过汉语和英语发音的对比，分析常见的中国学生英语发音错误，可以针对这些问题提出一些可行的解决方法。
关键词：发音问题语音系统对比不同点语言迁移IntroductionAccurate pronunciation and intonation are the basic quality of a language user. However, there are many problems in Chinese students’ pronunciation of English, resulting from the negative transfer of their mother tongue—Chinese. Examples of errors made by English learners in pronunciation are common, displaying on both segmental and suprasegmental levels.The slight differences between Chinese and English in pronunciation which are not so obvious can easily cause negative transfer. By contrasting the sound systems of the two languages, learners will be clear about the causes of theproblems and learn some skills to avoid or tackle these problems.1. Problems in Pronouncing Segmental PhonemesDifferent languages have different phonemic systems. Still, there exist true linguistic universals and near universals in all languages. An awareness of the differences between the new and the native language can help students realize which of their native language speech habits can be transferred to the new language and which can not.Problems for Chinese students at segmental level can mainly be divided into two kinds:Problems with Sounds Totally New to Chinese StudentsSome English sounds do not exist in the Chinese sound system, which leaves a gap between the two language sound systems. Thus it imposes certain limitations on the Chinese students’ English pronunciation learning. As a result, Chinese learners of English are always trying to find a similar sound in Chinese language to substitute for the English sound, which causes deviation:(1)Many Chinese learners ignore the difference between /w/ and /v/. Because in Chinese the distinction between [w] and [v] is not phonemic, . sound substitution of the two soundscannot cause differences in meaning. As a result, although the students may clearly know the manner of articulation, they still wouldn’t like to make effort to distinguish the two sounds. For example, the phrase ‘very well’is always wrongly pronounced as /veri vel/ or /weri wel/.(2)/θ/ and / / are sounds which fail to find their Chinese counterparts. Students usually produce /s/ and /z/ because alveolar causes less effort and is easier to pronounce than dental. Much practice is needed for Chinese students to get used to the special way of pronouncing.(3)Vowel length does not cause differences in Chinese. Different tones are used to distinguish sounds of the same quality. For example, mā, má, mǎ, mà represent four different words. In Chinese, since there are tones, the meanings of words can be told easily. Although students are told in English there is difference between short vowel and long vowel, they don’t thoroughly know the way of articulation. In English the short vowels do not need much muscular tension; the tongue should be held loosely. In Chinese there are no such lax and tense pairs, thus they become difficult for Chinese students. Actually few Chinese students can clearly distinguish short vowels from long vowels.(6)The pronunciation of the diphthongs in English vowels has an obvious process of glide from one sound to another with certain length and degree, and the shape and width of mouth, but the diphthongs in Chinese do not have these characteristics. When pronouncing a diphthong in Chinese, the shape of mouth is relaxed, and there is no obvious process of gliding.(7)/i/ is sometimes pronounced by Chinese students as /ei/ when following an “h”. That is because /h/ and /i/ never appear together in Chinese. What’s more, “h”(/x/) in Chinese is a velar fricative while /h/ in English is a glottal. Thus history (/`hist ri/) is often pronounced by some Chinese students as/`heist ri/ and he (/hi:/) as /hei/(like “嘿” in Chinese).2. Suprasegmental Analysis on Pronunciation ProblemNunan argues that suprasegmental contrast is particularly important when moving from a non-tonal language like English, in which pitch changes indicate attitudinal and emotional meaning, to a tonal language like Thai in which changes in intonation and pitch mark phonemic differences. This part is to discuss the Chinese students’pronunciation problems by analysis from suprasegmental aspects—stress, intonation and liasion:Analysis in StressStress patterns are vital in English pronunciation, and sometimes the stress alteration will result in the change of part of speech such as nouns and verbs which is confusing to the beginning learners. For instance, record /ri`k d/ is a verb with its stress on the second syllable, while record /`rek d/ is a noun with its stress on the first syllable, and content /k n`tent/ is a verb, while /`k nt nt/ is a noun. The beginning learners cannot distinguish this because in Chinese tone is used to distinguish words and it only has sentence stress, while English has primary stress and secondary stress both in words and sentences.The beginning learners tend to stress each syllable when reading an English word and stress each word when reading an English sentence. For example, they usually pronounce greenhouse /`gri:nhaus/ as /`gri:n `hause/, blackboard /`bl kb :d/ as /`bl k `b :d/. And because in their native speech each word is read with almost equal stress, they tend to stress each word in a sentence.Students should know that English is timed by stress; when reading an English sentence, we do not consider how many syllables in a sentence, and the non-stressed words are usuallyread vaguely.Analysis in IntonationEnglish is generally regarded as an intonation language, while Chinese is a tone language. In English, the change of intonation in a sentence can be used to express different meanings and different emotions of the speaker. English has a number of intonation patterns which add conventionalized meanings to the utterance: question, statement, surprise, disbelief, sarcasm, teasing. The most active elements of intonation are the tones, which always occur in association with stress.Although both Chinese and English have tones, there are differences in the functions of the tones between the two languages. In a tone language like Chinese, the tone system is an integral part of the vocabulary. There are four tones in Chinese. English is quite different in this respect. The English tones are used according to the contexts. They function at the level of utterances (or discourse), not at lexical level as in Chinese. Students should have such knowledge about intonation and tone. They should know a certain tone in English expresses a certain meaning or attitude and arbitrarily using tones is not accepted when speaking English.Analysis in liaisonLiaison means the linking of sounds or words in connected speech. If we want to speak English fluently, we must try to link words together smoothly and naturally. In other words, we should learn to produce connected speech without gaps between words: the end of one word should flow straight on to the beginning of the next in the same sense group.Although both Chinese and English sentences are made up of syllables, the juncture between syllables and words are quite different. In Chinese each character is a syllable, we pronounce them one by one with clear division. But in English there is no clear division between syllables in the same sense group.3. ConclusionTo erase these problems all is impossible, but in practice negative transfer does reduce with the increase in the learner's proficiency in the target language. Imitation is necessary; and the phonetic knowledge as well as some phonological rules should be learned systematically which will be helpful to reduce the errors.References[1] He, Shanfen. Practical English Phonetics [M]. Beijing Normal University Press, 1992.[2] Nunan, D. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers [M]. New York: Prentic Hall, 1991.[3] 戴建东. 谈谈英语语音与英语学习[J]. 太原师范学院学报(社会科学版)，2003:104-105.[4] 洪明. 英汉语音差异与英语语音习得产生的母语负迁移作用[J]. 浙江师范大学学报(社会科学版)，2004:108-111.[5] 王桂珍．英语语音教程[M]. 北京：高等教育出版社，2002.[6] 张大均．教育心理学[Z]．北京：人民教育出版社，2001．[7] 赵帆声，王庆祥. 英语语音释疑[M]. 郑州：河南教育出版社, 1991.[8] 赵德梅．英汉比较语音学[M]．青岛海洋大学出版社，1995．。
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Lexical Negative Transfer in English Writing
Abstract：English writing，which shows students’ comprehensive competence
of language, requires students to master the ability of applying language by using
some strategies and skills. The negative transfer of native language is a phenomenon
that can not be neglected in English writing ，it is the main obstacle to improving the
level of English writing for Chinese students. To improve the quality of students’
English writing and eliminate or minimize the interference of the negative transfer of
native language in English writing, the author discusses the lexical negative transfer
in English writing from three types, namely erros in word choice, erros in collactions
and errors in different word classes and proposes four corresponding strategies in
English writing.
Key words：lexical negative transfer；English writing；strategies
1 Introduction
Writing is very important because one’s overall abilities in language learning
can be shown in writing. However, writing is a complicated process, the act of writing
is different from other skills for it is less spontaneous and more permanent. A learner’
s mother tongue, which is also called first language (L1), always has great impact on
his or her second language (L2). It has been realized that language transfer has an
important impact on second language acquisition (Ellis, 1994). There are two different
underlying learning processes, one is positive transfer (also known as facilitation) and
the other is negative transfer (also known as interference). These terms refer
respectively to whether transfer results in something correct or something incorrect.
The phenomenon of mother tongue transfer is also evident in second language
writing. In recent years there have been some researches which focus on the negative
transfer in English writing at syntax angle, but seldom at lexical level. The study,
therefore, is in an attempt to analyze the transfer errors made by Chinese students in
English writing from lexical level and propose effective and appropriate strategies to
avoid Chinese negative transfer in writing process.
2 Negative transfer at lexical level
2.1 Definition of negative transfer
Negative transfer, also known as interference, is the use of an L1 pattern or rule
which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the L2. It occurs “when learners
transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages”, and it is
believed that “the greater the differences between the two languages, the more
negative transfer can be expected” (Odlin, 1989).
2.2 Types of lexical negative transfer
Lexical negative transfer in this thesis mainly refers to the semantic or
conceptual errors in lexis where the forms used by the subjects exist in the target
language, but these forms did not represent the meanings they wished to express.
Lexical errors mainly involve three types, namely errors in word choice, errors in
collocations and errors in different word class. 2.2.1 Errors in word choice