WORDS FROM PLESSY V FERGUSON
civil right
历史1861年至1910年：为争取平等普选权而斗争1861年，美国内战爆发。
为了在内战中赢得胜利，林肯在1862年发布了著名的《解放黑人奴隶宣言》，黑人在法律上成为自由人。
内战结束之后，美国黑人开始了争取获得平等普选权的艰苦斗争。
迫于压力，美国国会先后在1865年、1868年和1870年通过宪法第13、14和15条修正案，将自由权、公民权和选举权赋予黑人。
虽然各州还通过具体的选举附加条款对黑人参政加以限制，黑人仍无法取得与白人一样的平等地位，依然处处受到歧视，但是，这一时期仍然是美国黑人参政历史上具有里程碑意义的时代。
1911年至1950年：黑人的参政力量不断上升从1911年到二战结束后，美国经济有了长足的发展，在此期间，黑人的经济地位也开始有所提高，出现了一批黑人中产阶级。
在他们以及诸多黑人团体的推动下，黑人开始积极参与政治生活，他们的政治权利在这一时期得到了很大改善。
在富兰克林·罗斯福任总统期内（1933-1945），联邦政府任命了一大批黑人进入联邦各部门，担任全国青年黑人事务处、联邦内务部、联邦司法部处长或顾问的职务，黑人第一次被罗斯福称为“我们的黑人公民”。
杜鲁门接任总统后，不断敦促国会通过一揽子法案，包括尽快制定联邦反私刑法，设立公平就业委员会，制止州际交通公路上的种族隔离现象等，黑人在选举、教育等问题上的权益进一步扩大。
1951年至1970年：“我有一个梦！”上世纪五六十年代是美国黑人民权运动风起云涌的时代。
这一时期，美国黑人在经济上处境艰难，而白人对黑人的歧视与隔离使得这一问题雪上加霜。
1954年美国联邦最高法院判定教育委员会种族隔离的学校违法，以及1955年阿拉巴马州蒙哥马利市黑人公民的全面罢乘事件，开启了美国民权运动的大幕，到上世纪60年代初，以美国民权运动领袖马丁·路德·金发表著名的演说《我有一个梦想》为标志，该运动达到了高潮。
这场以非暴力的抗议行动为主要手段争取黑人民权的群众斗争，对美国黑人政治地位的进一步提高和唤醒黑人更积极地参与政治生活起到了重要的推动作用。
英语诗歌作文
In the realm of English poetry,the art of crafting verses that resonate with emotion and thought is a skill that has been honed over centuries.Writing a poem in English involves a delicate balance of rhythm,rhyme,and imagery,all of which work together to create a piece that is both beautiful and meaningful.Understanding the Basics1.Form and Structure:English poetry comes in various forms such as sonnets,haikus, limericks,and free verse.Each form has its own rules regarding the number of lines, syllables,and rhyme scheme.2.Meter:This refers to the rhythmic structure of a poem,often measured by the number of stressed and unstressed syllables in each mon meters include iambic pentameter and trochaic tetrameter.3.Rhyme:Poems can be written in various rhyme schemes,such as AABB,ABAB,or couplets AA.Some poems may not rhyme at all,which is known as free verse.Crafting Your Poem1.Choose a Theme:Your poem should have a central idea or emotion that you want to convey.This could be love,nature,loss,or any other theme that resonates with you.e Imagery:Vivid images help to paint a picture in the readers e descriptive language to create a sensory experience.3.Experiment with Language:Play with words,use metaphors,similes,and personification to add depth and richness to your poem.4.Revise and Edit:Writing a poem is often a process of revision.Read your poem aloud to hear how it sounds and make adjustments as needed.Example of a PoemHeres a brief example of a poem that captures the essence of a quiet evening:In the hush of twilights gentle sigh,Where day doth yield to nights soft guise,Stars emerge,like whispers in the sky,A tapestry of light,a cosmic guise.The moon,a sentinel in heavens keep,Cradles earth in silver beams so deep,A tranquil peace the world does steep,In slumbers arms,where dreams will leap.So let the quiet night enfold,In its embrace,the world grows bold,To dream anew,to stories told,In silence,where the heart is bold.Tips for Writing PoetryRead Widely:The more poetry you read,the better youll understand different styles and techniques.Write Regularly:Like any skill,writing poetry improves with practice.Seek Feedback:Share your work with others and be open to constructive criticism. Stay True to Yourself:Write what you feel and think,not what you think others want to hear.Remember,poetry is a personal and creative expression.There are no hard and fast rules, and the beauty of writing in English lies in its flexibility and the endless possibilities it offers to the writer.。
宪法案例研习
2. Constitutional thinking ability on political issues: reading the literature related to cases, discussing the political issues behind cases, and cultivating the ability to turn political issues into legal issues for thinking and analysis, so as to cultivate the thinking of politicians
C、课堂讲授：首先由学生做ppt,分别展示自己小组的报告，然后授课教师重点讲解法律解释和法律推理的技巧及其背后的政治问题，推进学生对宪政问题和政治哲学问题的理解。
1、每个学生按照课程进度必须课前向助教提交“案例摘要”和“读书报告”，由助教根据提交的内容，结合小组讨论的情况给出平时成绩。平时成绩占40分；
Texas v. Johnson(1989)
香港特区诉吴恭劭及利建润（HKSAR v NgKung Siu /1999）
二、授课方法：
1、方法：课程首先强调个人阅读，其次重视小组讨论，最后才是课堂讲授。
2、程序：
A、个人阅读：每个人阅读案例以及文献，并写作案件摘要；把自己不懂的问题提出来；
B、小组讨论：全班同学分为多个小组，分别在助教组织下，进行小组讨论。相互交流案例摘要，对比相互之间的理解差异，讨论案例中的推理思路，最后小组形成对案例推理的共识。助教应当注意：第一，必须阅读全部的课堂材料和内容，解答学生提出的疑难，如果自己不能解答的，将问题集中起来，向授课教师反映；第二，阅读学生提交的作业（包括案例摘要和读书报告），并记录好成绩。第三，在组织学生讨论中，应当给每个学生提供平等的发言机会；注重培养学生的口头表达和辩论能力。
法律英语case-brief
1Title：Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas2 Facts: Summarize the facts of the case. List only the essential facts that you need to understand the holding and reasoning of the case.minors of the Negro race, through their legal representatives, seek the aid of the courts in obtaining admission to the public schools of their community on a nonsegregated basis. In each instance, they had been denied admission to schools attended by white children under laws requiring or permitting segregation according to race. This segregation was alleged to deprive the plaintiffs of the equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment.This case is a consolidation of several different cases from Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware. Several black children (through their legal representatives, Ps) sought admission to public schools that required or permitted segregation based on race. The plaintiffs alleged that segregation was unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.In all but one case, a three judge federal district court cited Plessy v. Ferguson in denying relief under the “separate but equal” doctrine. On appeal to the Supreme Court, the plaintiffs contended that segregated schools were not and could not be made equal and that they were therefore deprived of equal protection of the laws.3 Procedure: Most of the cases that you'll read in law school will be appellate court decisions. In this section, you want to list what happened in the lower court(s). Do not go into too much detail. One or two sentences are sufficient for this section.In each of the cases other than the Delaware case, a three-judge federal district court denied relief to the plaintiffs on the so-called "separate but equal" doctrine announced by this Court in Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537. Under that doctrine, equality of treatment is accorded when the races are provided substantially equal facilities, even though these facilities be separate.In the Delaware case, the Supreme Court of Delaware adhered to that doctrine, but ordered that the plaintiffs be admitted to the white schools because of their superiority to the Negro schools. 4 Issue(s): What is/are the question(s) facing the court? Form the issue questions in a way that they can be answered by yes or no.Do separate but equal laws in the area of public education deprive black children of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution (Constitution)?Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other "tangible" factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does.Is the race-based segregation of children into “separate but equal”public schools constitutional?5 Holding: How did the court answer the issue question(s)? YES/NO?We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment. This disposition makes unnecessary any discussion whether such segregation also violates the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.No. The race-based segregation of children into “separate but equal”public schools violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and is unconstitutional.Chief Justice Earl Warren (J. Warren) stated that even if the “tangible” factors of segregated schools are equal, to separate black children from others of similar age and qualifications solely on the basis of race, generates a feeling of inferiority with respect to their status in the community and may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely to ever be undone.Segregation of children in the public schools solely on the basis of race denies to black children the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment, even though the physical facilities and other may be equal. Education in public schools is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms.The question presented in these cases must be determined not on the basis of conditions existing when the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted, but inthe light of the role of public education in American life today. The separate but equal doctrine adopted in Plessy v. Ferguson, which applied to transportation, has no place in the field of public education.Separating black children from others solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone. The impact of segregation is greater when it has the sanction of law. A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. Segregation with the sanction of law tends to impede the educational and mental development of black children and deprives them of some of the benefits they would receive in an integrated school system. Whatever may have been the extent of psychological knowledge at the time of Plessy v. Ferguson, this finding is amply supported by modern authority and any language to the contrary in Plessy v. Ferguson is rejected.6 Reasoning: This is the most important section of your case brief. Here you want to list the reasoning of the majority in reaching its decision. You can actually be quite detailed in this section. List what the law was before this case was decided and how the law has changed after this decision. Law professors love to discuss the reasoning of a case in class discussions.cation is perhaps the most important function of state and local governments. it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity of an education., Such an opportunity where the st ate has undertaken to provide it, is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms.2."Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The impact is greater when ithas the sanction of the law; for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the Negro group. A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has a tendency to [retard] the educational and mental development of Negro children and to deprive them of some of the benefitsthey would receive in a racial[ly] integrated school system."布朗诉托皮卡教育局案（Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483, 全名Oliver Brown et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka et al.，简称 Brown case）是一件美国史上非常重要、具有指标意义的一件诉讼案。
经典圣诞诗歌《AVisitfromSt.Nicholas》
经典圣诞诗歌《AVisitfromSt.Nicholas》经典圣诞诗歌《A Visit from St. Nicholas》克莱门特·克拉克·穆尔(1779─1863)是圣经学教授，1823年12月23日，在《特洛伊守卫报》上匿名发表《圣尼古拉来访》。
这首诗被广为传抄，最终被印在1844年出版的穆尔的诗集里。
这一首在他身后流传确保其获得名声的诗是以"在圣诞节前夜"这句为人所知并为人所爱的。
接下来就一起来看看这首诗歌吧!更多内容请关注应届毕业生网!A Visit from St. Nicholas圣尼古拉来访'twas the night before christmas, when all through the house not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse;the stockings were hung by the chimney with care,in hopes that st. nicholas soon would be there;在圣诞节前夜，整间屋里没有一人在吵，就连老鼠也不闹;长袜已被小心地挂到烟囱上，我希望圣尼古拉很快就来到;the children were nestled all snug in their beds,while visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads;and mamma in her 'kerchief, and i in my cap,had just settled our brains for a long winter's nap,我希望圣尼古拉很快就来到;孩子们都被舒适地安顿到他们的床上，虽然他们脑子里还跳动着小糖球的幻影;妈妈裹起头巾，我戴上帽，我们刚定下神来要睡个冬天的长觉，──when out on the lawn there arose such a clatter,i sprang from the bed to see what was the matter.away to the window i flew like a flash,tore open the shutters and threw up the sash.这时外面的草地上有了得得的声响，我从床上跳起来去看个究竟，像一道闪光，我扑向窗户，快得像一道闪光扯开百页窗拉起窗框。
云南省云南师范大学附属中学2025届高三英语适应性月考卷六
云南省云南师范高校附属中学2025届高三英语适应性月考卷（六）留意事项：1.答题前，考生务必用黑色碳素笔将自己的姓名、准考证号、考场号、座位号在答题卡上填写清晰。
2.每小题选出答案后，用2B铅笔把答题卡上对应题目的答案标号涂黑。
如需改动，用橡皮擦干净后，再选涂其他答案标号。
在试题卷上作答无效。
3.考试结束后，请将本试卷和答题卡一并交回。
满分150分，考试用时120分钟。
第一部分听力（共两节，满分30分）留意，听力部分答题时请先将答案标在试卷上，听力部分结束前你将有两分钟的时间将答案转涂到答题卡上。
第一节（共5小题；每题1.5分，满分7.5分）听下面5段对话。
每段对话后有一个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项，并标在试卷的相应位置。
听完每段对话后，你都有10秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。
每段对话仅读一遍。
1. What is the probable relationship between the speakers?A. Conductor and passenger.B. Ticket seller and customer.C. Husband and wife.2. What will the man do this weekend?A. Perform a dance in the street.B. Take a dance class of popping.C. Give a locking dance lesson.3. What do we know about Tesla’s new car?A. Its body is made of glass.B. Its top speed is 248 miles per hour.C. It is a kind of electric car.4. Why does Hong Ying live along life?A. She enjoys healthy local food.B. She is well attended by her family.C. She has a. good personality.5. What is the conversation mainly about?A. Trusting food producers.B. Paying attention to food labels.C. Shopping with parents.其次节（共15小题；每小题1.5分，满分22.5分）听下面5段对话或独白。
法官后语与附带意见之比较
法官后语与附带意见之比较摘要法官后语与附带意见在判决书结构上都可有可无，说服力上都存在不确定性，对案件都不具有约束力，但二者并不相同，它们在结构位置、主要内容、运用目的和未来发展等诸多方面存在较大差异。
法官后语应该是我国法官创新的产物。
关键词法官创新法官后语附带意见基金项目：本文系黄冈师范学院科研项目“裁判文书法官后语制度的建构”之成果，项目编号：2011cb106。
1996年，上海市第二中级人民法院在一份人身损害赔偿案件的判决书中，别出心裁地附上一段对当事人具有教育意义的法官后语，并公开发表“裁决文书附设法官后语的思考”一文。
从此法官后语在社会上产生了不小影响，不少基层法院和中级法院纷纷效仿。
学界展开了激烈争论，有人认为上海市第二中级人民法院推行法官后语是创新；有人认为不是创新，是借鉴英美附带意见的产物。
法官后语与附带意见到底关系如何，本文试比较法官后语与附带意见，厘清二者的异同。
一、法官后语与附带意见的相同点（一）裁判文书结构上可有可无从最高法院公布的判决书样式和三大诉讼法看来，法官后语不是裁判文书结构的必然要素，不是法律规定的不可或缺的部分；当下只有极少数法院在裁判文书中附设法官后语，试图打破传统裁判文书僵化的结构和千篇一律的制作模式。
英美判决书一般包括以下内容：案件名称、法院级别与判决日期、案情事实、原告的诉求、此案先前已经过的审判程序和前审的判决结果、双方的辩论观点、法官的意见和原因、现在待解决的问题、本案法官的推理、判决理由和判决结果，由于英美判决书比较强调法官个人的特点，样式灵活，结构松散，判决书中常常出现附带意见，但附带意见并不是判决书的必然要素；司法实践中很多裁判文书也并没有记载附带意见，附带意见对于案件判决来说不是非要不可的。
（二）对案件不具有约束力法官后语从本质上说是法外的道德说教，对当事人没有约束力，这是道德调整模式的缺陷所在，也是道德调整模式和法律调整模式重要区别之一，由于我国并不实行判例制度，对后来法官更无约束力可言。
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(五)(问答题)答案.docx
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）答案Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of anima communication.2.What are the characteristics of human language?The characteristics of human language include arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, discreteness, transferability and linearity.3・Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness・What are the relationship between arbitrariness and convention?Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation.4.What does productivity mean for language?It means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. It refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences by use of finite set of rules.5・ What functions does language have?Language has at least seven funcitons: informative, interpersonal, performative, emotive, phatic, recreational and metalingual.6・ Explain the metalingual function of language・The metalingual function of language refers to the fact that language can be used to talk about itself.7・ What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.8・ What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.Chapter 2 Phonology1・ What does phonetics concern?Phonetis is the scientific study of speech sounds of human beings. Phonetics can be suv-classified into articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics. 2・ How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?Articualtory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speeech. Auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.3・ How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulance or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?The categories of consonants are established on two important factors, which are termed as manners of articulation and places of articulation.5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?The di scription of vowels includes four aspects: the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low); the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back); the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) and lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).6.T0 what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?Phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way wounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. 7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate・Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word, whereas other sounds do not. For instance, the word big can be described in a phonetic transcription [big]. If [g] is replaced by [t], there is another word: bit.[g] and [t] are called minimal pairs. Therefore, when sound substitutions cause differences of meaning, these sounds are minimal pairs.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution. For example, the aspirated English stops never occur after [s], and the unaspirated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of [1], for instance, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occur only before a vowel, the dark [1] occur after a consonant or at the end of a word.Chapter 3 Morphology1・ What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?Morpheme may be classified into free and bound. A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning, it can exist on its own without a bound morpheme.A free morpheme is a word, in the traditional sense. Man, book, take and red are free morphemes.A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other morphem, free or bound, like un- in unhappy, past tensemorpheme in worked.2・ What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is added. The inflecitonal affixes today are the plural marker, the genetive case, the verbal endings, the comparative degrees and superlative degrees. Inflectional affixes have only their particualr grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical meanings, so they are also called grammatical affixes.A derivational affix serves to derive a new word when it is added to another morpheme. Derivational affix has lexical meaning, but less important than the meaning of the root in the same word, like -able in the word workable. Derivaitonal affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.3・ What is compounding?Compounding or composition is a word-formation process by joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. Compounds can be divided into three categories according to parts of the speech: (1) noun compounds (like hearbeat);(2)adjective compounds (like dutyfree); (3) verb compounds (like housekeep).4.What are the criteria of a compound word?(1)Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: solid (like airmail).hyphenated (like air-conditioning) and open (like air raid).(2)Phonologically, many compounds have a so-called compound accent, that is, asingle stress on the first element, as in "space rocket; or a main stress on the first element and a secondary stress on the second element.(3)Semantically, compounds can be said to have a meaning which may be relatedto, but cannot always be inferred from the meaning of its component parts.5.What is acronymy?Acronymy is a type of shortening by using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase・ If the shortened word is pronounced letter by letter, it is an initialism like BBC; if the shortened word is pronounced as word rather than as a sequence of letters, it is an acronym like SAM(for surface-to-air missile).6.What is blending?Blending is a preocess of word・forniation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news+ broadcast), brunch (breakfast +lunch).7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.Comsat (from communications + satellite, by blending)Motel (from motor + hotel, by blending)Lase (from laser, by back-formation)Memo (from memorandom, by back clipping)Nightmare (from daymare, by analogy)ASEAN(from the Association for South-East Asian Nations, by acronymy)ROM(from read-only memory, by initialism)Bit(from binary + digit, by blending))Babysit(from babysitter, by back・fonnatioii)cock-a・doodle・do(from the sound produced by cock, by onomatopoeia))grunt (from the sound produced by pig, by onomatopoeia)8・ What are closed-class words and open-class words?A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc., new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?Syntax is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Specifically, It is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are joined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause with dependent clause attached. It consists of at least one subject and one predicate. Either the subject or the complement may be compound (consisting of more than one element joined with a coordinating conjunction), and modifiers and phrases may be added as well.A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses, but no dependent clauses. The clauses are joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a comma and a correlative conjunction, or a semicolon with no conjunction.A complex sentence uses one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.For example, the following five sentences are simple, compound, complex, compound, and complex sentence respectively.(1)He and I understood.(2)Lucy watches football on television, but she never goes to a game.(3)You can borrow my pen if you need one.(4)Paul likes football and David likes chess.(5)We had to go inside when it started raining.3.What is the hierarchical structure?The hierarchical structure is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.4.Howto distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?An immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constituent a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.An ultimate constituent is one of the grammatically irreducible units that constitutea construction.For example, the immediate constituents of the sentence You eat bananas are you and eat bananas; the ultimate constituents of the sentence are you. eat. banana, and —s.5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?Subordinate and coordinate constructions are two subtypes of endocentric constructions. Those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituent dependent, are subordinate constructions. For example, the short expression Lovely Lucy is a subordinate construction with Lucy as its head. While coordinate constructions have more than one head. For example, boys and girls, coffee or tea, the city Rome, are coordinate constructions, in which, both the two content constituents, boys and girls, coffee and tea, the city and Rome, are capable of serving as the head. They are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.6・ What are deep and surface structures?Deep structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to surface structure. It is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence一an underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.Surface structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar, opposed to deep structure. It is the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear.7. Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed in the wind” by using a tree diagram?8・ How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?The sentence is an ambiguous sentence, which can be interpreted in two different ways, so it could assigned two tree diagram, as would be shown below: Tree Diagram (1):the wind The old tree swayed in NPDetTree Diagram (2):Chapter 5 Semantics1. What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?It is an organizational principle that the lexicon and groups of words in the lexicon can be semantically related, rather than a listing of words as in a published dictionary. On a very general and intuitive level, we can say that the words in a semantic field, though not synonymous, are all used to talk about the same general phenomenon, and there is a meaning inclusion relation between the items in the field and the field category itself. Classical examples of semantic fields include color terms (red, green, blue, yellow), kinship terms (mother, father, sister, brother), and cooking terms (boil, fry, broil, steam) as semantic fields.2・ What are the major types of synonyms in English?They are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantic synonyms. Examples are as follows:fond of, keen on (collocational)autumn, fall (dialectal)dad, father (stylistic)thrifty, miserly, economical (emotive) escape, flee (semantic)3・ In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?earth l.our planet. 2. the soil on the surface of our planet.bank l.a financial institution. 2. side of a river, bear 1. a wild animal, bare:naked.bow a. an inclination of the head or body, as in greeting, consent, courtesy, acknowledgement, submission, or veneration.(e) lead a. go in front of a group of people. 2. a soft heavy easily melted grayish-blue metal(f) found: 1. of find. 2. establish or set upThe five entities show different semantic relations of words.(a) is an example of polysemy, and it is different from the next which fall into the category of homography. (b) is an example of perfect homonymy, while “beaf and “bare" in (c) are homophones, those in (d) are homographs, and the words in (e) are homophones. \JZ \)z \)z abed z(\ /(\ /k z(\Swill arrive soonAux VPPolysemy and homonymy both deal with multiple senses of the same phonological word, but polysemy is invoked if the senses are judged to be related. Homonymous senses, however, are unrelated. Homonymy can be classified into partial homonymy and perfect homonymy. Words falling under the category of partial homonymy can be homophones or homographs. Perfect homonymy is exemplified by the words which are identical in sound and spelling or both in sound-form and part of speech.4. Categorize the following pairs: child・kid，alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife・Child-kid can be categorized under synonymy, alive-dead complementary antonymy, old-young gradable antonymy, and husband-wife converse antonymy.5・What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate・Hyponymy is composed of a superordinate and hyponyms; the hyponyms under the same superordinate are co-hyponyms. there is not always a superordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate. Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordiante to itself. For example, the word "animal" may only include beasts like “tigef, “lion", "elephant”，"cow”，“horse" and is a co-hyponym of “hum arT. But it is also the superordinate to both “human" and "animal" in contrast to “bircT,"行sh", and “insect”，when it is used in the sense of "mammal". It can further be the superordinate to “bird'',"行sh", "insect”，and "mammal" in contrast to “pbnt". From the hyponym's point of view, “animal" is a hyponym of itself, and may be called autohyponym.6・ How is meronymy different from hyponymy?Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items. We can identify this relationship by using sentence frames like "X is part of or 66Y has as in "A page is part of a book", or book has pages". While hyponymy has to do with inclusiveness, we cannot do the same with hyponymy. For example, bird is the superordinate to crow, hawk, duck, and se cannot say that bird has crows, or hawks'：and so on.Meronymy also differs from hyponymy in transitivity. Hyponymy is always transitive, for example bird is the superordinate to hawk, hawk is the superordinate to sparrowhawk, and thus bird is the superordinate to sparrowhawk. But meronymy may or may not be so. A transitive example is: nail is a meronym of finger, md finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of finger, and finger of hand. We can see that nail is a meronym of hand. A non-transitive example is: pane is a meronym of window, and window of room; but pane is not a meronym of room.7. Why may a sentence be ambiguous?The ambiguity of a sentence may arise from lexical ambiguity or structural ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity arises from polysemy or homonymy which can not be determined by the context. For example,(a)The table is fascinating.(b)She couldn't bear children.Table in (a) is an example of polysemy. It can be a piece of furniture, or the stated kind or quality of food served at a meal here. The ambiguity of (b) lies in the two meanings of the homonym bear一endure or produce children.The following sentence is an example of structural ambiguity.(c)The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.8・ What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place，two-place, or three-place predicate? Give examples・Predication analysis is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis which is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument and predicate. The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. The argument is the logical participant.A no-place predicate is a predicate which governs no argument; a one-place predicate, one argument; a two-place predicate, two arguments; and a three-place predicate, three arguments. Respective examples are:(a)It is snowing. (SNOW)(b)Baby is sleeping. SLEEP(JOHN, MARY)(c)John loves Mary. LOVE(JOHN, MARY)(d)John gave Mary a book. GIVE(JOHN, MARY, BOOK)Chapter 6 Pragmatics1・ What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. It is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s an dl970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics. Generally it deals with how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. The scope of pragmatic study includes “speech act theory'', “context", '"conversational implicature,\ presupposition, etc.The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. It may be said that pragmatics studies the meaning that is not accounted by semantics. It can also be expressed in the formula: pragmatics=meaning-semantics. G. Leech, in his principles of pragmatics holds that: Semantics answers the question: What does X mean? Pragmatics answer the question: What did you mean by X?2・ How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.3・ What is contextual meaning?It is the meaning a linguistic item has in context, for example the meaning a word has within a particular sentence, or a sentence has in a particular paragraph. The question Do you know the meaning of wo厂？For example, may have two different contextual meanings:i.it may mean Do you know the meaning of the word war? , when said by alanguage teacher to a class of students.ii.It may mean war produces death, injury, and suffering, when said by an injured soldier to a politician who favors war.4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionaryact through examples.A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of Speech Acts between three different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.A locutional act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. For example, saying the sentence Shoot the snake is a locutionary act is hearers understand the words shoot, the. snake and can identify the particular snake referred to.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?The "'cooperative principle", proposed and formulated by P Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible to carry on the talk. The principle has the four following maxims:Quantityi.Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the currentpurposes of the exchange).ii.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.(1)Do not say what you believe to false.(2)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.RelationBe relevant.MannerBe perspicuous.(1)Avoid obscurity of expression.(2)Avoid ambiguity.(3)Be brief.(4)Be orderly.6・ What is conversational implicature?It is an additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed in order to maintain the cooperative principle, e.g. if someone says "The President is a mouse", something that is literally false, the hearer must assume the speaker means to convey more than is being said.7. How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?There are circumstances where speakers may not follow the maxims of the cooperative principle. For example, in conversation, a speaker may violate the maxim expectations by using an expression like "No comment^^ in response to a question. Although it is typically not "as informative as is required?, in the context, it is naturally interpreted as communicating more than is said (i.e. the speaker knows the answer). This typical reaction (i.e. there must be something “special" here) of listeners to any apparent violation of the maxims is actually the key to the notion of conversational implicature.When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect. In this way, we can convey more than is literally said.8.What is adjacency pair?It refers to a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, e.g. question-answer.Chapter 8 Language and Society1. What is sociolinguistics?Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.2・ What is speech community?It is a group of people who form a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common as well as similar linguistic norms.In bilingual and multilingual communities, people would usually have more than one speech variety in commons.3.What is dialect?It is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, an/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?It is a belief that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the one hand, language may determine out thinking patterns; one the other hand, similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. As this hypothesis was strongly put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, it has often been called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.5.What is speech variety?It is a term sometimes used instead of language, dialect, sociolect, pidgin, creole, etc. because it is considered more neutral than such terms. It may also be used for different varieties of one language, e.g. American English, Australian English, Indian English.6.What is standard language?It is also called standard variety. It is the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.7.What is pidgin?It is a language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. For example, this might occur where foreign traders have to communicate with the local population or groups of workers from different language backgrounds on plantations or in factories. A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammaticalstructure which may expand when a pidgin is used over a long period and for many purposes.8.What is bilingualism?It is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers.A bilingual is a person who knows and uses two languages.9.What is multilingualism?It refers to the use of three or more languages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Multilingualism is common in, for example, some countries of west Africa, Malaysia, Singapore, and Israel.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?It is the study of language in relation to the mind, with focus on the processes of language comprehension, production and acquisition. It takes upon itself the job of exploring the biological basis of human language, critical periods for child language acquisition, and the relationship between the language and thought.2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?We may define bottom-up processing as that which proceeds from the lowest level to the highest level of processing in such a way that all of levels. That is, the identification operate without influence from the higher levels. That is, the identification of phonemes is not affected by the lexical, syntactic, or discourse levels; the retrieval of words is not affected by syntactic or discourse levels; and so on.A top-down processing model, in contrast, states that information at the higher levels may influence processing at the lower levels. For instance, a sentence context may affect the identification of words within that sentence.3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each・Six major types of speech error are:i.Exchange errors: hissed all my mystery lectures (missed all my historylectures)ii.Anticipation errors: a leading list (reading list)iii.Perseveration errors: a phonological fool (phonological rule)iv.Blends: moinly(mostly, mainly), impostinatiorfimposteE impersonator)v.Shifts: Mermaid_moves (mermaids move) their legs togethervi.Substitutions: sympathy for symphony (form), finger for toe (meaning) 4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?Language development takes place during a very specific maturational stage of human development. Sometime during the second year of life (at roughly anywhere from 12 to 18 months), children begin uttering their first words. During the following 4 to 5 years, linguistic development occurs quite rapidly. By the time children enter school, they have mastered the major structural features of their language. Refinements of the major features continue to appear, and the ability to learn language (one's native language or foreign languages) continues to be strong until the onset of puberty. At this point, for reasons that are not fully understood, the '"knack for languages95 begins to decline, to a。
词汇学word from proper names
Our new football coach is a real martinet; he even calls our homes at night to see whether we are in. She began the daily round of washing and hoovering.
Definition: The words that coined from the different proper names. Such as the names of people, the names of places, the names of books, or the names o
Names of books: Utopia, odyssey, babbit
Names of brands: nylon, dacron, rayon, orlon,
frisbee, Omega, xerox
On the basis of the above analysis the conclusion can be naturally drawn that the common words from personnames, placenames, names of the characters in literary works and even the book titles and trademarks are widely used in the present English. Although the words from porper names only constitute a part of the entire English vocabulary, they play the vital role in helping us to completely understand either spoken English or written English.What's more, they give us the vivid images and rich associations which will certainly improve our comprehension and appreciation.
words from lost 迷失第一季单词整理
Tourney : n. 锦标赛vi. 参加比赛deodorant [di:'əudərənt]adj.解臭的，除臭的，脱臭的n.解臭剂，除臭剂，脱臭剂crib [krib]n.1. 有栏杆的儿童小床2. 牛栏，牛舍；畜栏3. (牲口的)饲料槽4. 小屋，小房间prosaic [prəu'zeiik]adj.1. 散文的；散文体的2. 平凡的；平淡无奇的；乏味的；无诗意的3. 如实的 [亦作prosaical]visualize ['vizjuəlaiz]vt.1. 想像；设想；使形象化：2. (用X射线等)使(体内器官)显影，使显现sneak [sni:k] vi. 溜；鬼鬼祟祟做事；向老师打小报告vt. 偷偷地做；偷偷取得 sneak awayn. 鬼鬼祟祟的人；偷偷摸摸的行为；告密者adj. 暗中进行的clinic ['klinik] n.1. (附属于医院、医科学校的)诊所，门诊部，减免费诊所2. (学校、机关等的)医务室3. 内科医生会诊4. 医科学生临床或临诊讲习班(或培训班)5. 保健组织；医疗指导机构6. [口语]学术会议equation [i'kweiʒən; -ʃən] n. 方程式，等式；相等；[化学] 反应式coordinate [kəu'ɔ:dinit; kəu'ɔ:dineit]adj.1. 同等级的，同样程度的，同样重要的2. 带有同等性质的3. 【数学】坐标的4. 【语法学】并列的5. 【化学】配价的，配位的6. 交叉索引(法)的；相关标引的(由两项或多项条目的索引方法，因而可通过索引条目的交叉检索文献)7. [美国英语](大学中)男女生分学院的n.1. 同等重要的人(或物)2. [复数](颜色、织料、式样等配合协调的)女套服，配套服装3. 【数学】坐标vt.1. 使协调，使调和；调节；整理：2. 将…列为同等；将…分为同类vi.1. 协调，协同2. 成为同等；被归入同一类别[亦作co-ordinate]latitude ['lætitju:d]n.1. 【地理学】纬度2. 纬度地区3. 宽容度；活动余地；(言语、行动等的)回旋余地4. =Astronomical Latitude,celestial latitude5. [古语]范围[参较 Longitude]longitude ['lɔndʒitju:d; -tu:d]n.1. 【地理学】经度2. 【天文学】3. =celestial longitude4. = galactic longitude5. [戏谑语]长，长度assume [ə'sju:m; ə'su:m] vt. 承担；假定；采取；呈现vi. 装腔作势；多管闲事Let's be foolhardy and assume the best.让我们大胆地往最好处设想。
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WORDS FROM PLESSEY V. FERGUSON
1. turns upon (also turns on) - Hinges on, depends on (a critical fact or event) Example: The jury’s decision in the OJ Simpson trail turned upon the fact that the murderer’s glove was apparently too small for OJ Simpson’s hand.
2. vacate– to make legally void; to give up a position or move out of a property Example: Since he did not pay his rent, the court ordered him to vacate the apartment.
3. naturalize– to give citizenship to someone born in another country
Example: Our daughter, who was born to other parents in El Salvador, is now a naturalized American citizen.
4. abridge– take away or reduce
Example: The government may not abridge the American people’s right to free speech. 5. commingling– combine or mix with something else
Example: The company treasurer went to jail because he commingled company funds with his own money.
6. competency or competence (noun) – the quality of having the necessary ability, skill or knowledge
Example: Doing well in this course turns on having basic English language competence.
7. gauge– to measure precisely, to estimate or judge the size or extent of something Example: It was difficult to gauge his mood because his face never showed any emotion.
8. conveyance– as used in this case, an old fashioned word for any sort of vehicle; another legal meaning, a legal method of transferring ownership of property Example: When people first saw bicycles in the 19th century, they thought they were a very odd sort of conveyance.
9. fallacy– a false or mistaken idea; in logic, a mistake in a conclusion
Example: People in ancient times believed the fallacy that the earth was flat because no one fell off the edge.
10. construction – this is a noun from the verb, construe It means to interpret or explain Example: The American presidential candidate tried to construe his close loss in the preliminary election as a victory because he was expected to lose by a lot. His opponent said this was a ridiculous construction of the results.
11. acquiesce– to go along with (an idea or request or plan) in an unenthusiastic manner Example: John acquiesced to his girl friend’s desire to go into the store and look at the fashions.
12. prejudice - can be a noun or verb – a judgment or opinion made before knowing any facts; an irrational hostile attitude toward an individual, group or race, because of some baseless belief about them.
Example: Barack Obama’s political success seems to mean that white American prejudice against black people is much reduced.
13. affinity– a bond marked by a common interest
Example: The American visitor and her Chinese host developed an affinity because they both enjoyed Naxi music.
14. accentuate– to emphasize or intensify
Example: There is a famous old American song, “Accentuate the positive and eliminate the negative”.
15. pertain– refer to
Example: The words in the list pertain to the “Plessey v. Ferguson” case.
16. strike down or struck down– in legal terms, to cancel or annul
Example: The Supreme Court struck down the lower court’s decision.
17. deprivation– a noun from the verb deprive, meaning to take something away from or withhold something; deprivation can also mean the situation of being extremely poor, being without anything.
Example: Except for a very short time after arrest, the deprivation of liberty of an American citizen without a court hearing is illegal in the United States.。