英语论文-英汉亲属称谓的文化差异与互译
称谓对比与翻译
Summary：英汉称呼系统 的宏观差异
• 亲属称谓的重要性不同：亲属称谓在汉语称 谓系统中占有无可比拟的重要性。
• 各种制约因素在不同称谓系统中的作用不同： 在汉语称呼系统中，辈分和年龄起着至关重 要的作用。而在英语称呼系统中，辈分和年 龄只有在对亲属关系中年辈高出一代或一代 以上的人才起作用，当年龄和职业、地位发 生冲突时，职业、地位占上风。
二、汉英语言中的社会称 谓语
• 3、姓名称谓语 • 4、零称呼
Summary：英汉称呼系统 的宏观差异
• 每种称呼语类所占的比重在两种系统中不同。 现代英美社会中，最常见的称谓是通用称呼 语Mr, Mrs, Sir, Miss以及FN。头衔只用 于特定职业和群体。FN在美国称呼系统中 所占的比重大于其他任何称呼语类。这与美 国人的天赋人权、人人平等观念有关。
• 3、汉语亲属称谓语讲究内外有别，英语亲属 称谓语体现一视同仁
• 4、汉语亲属称谓语重礼仪，英语亲属称谓语 重感情
• 5、汉语亲属称谓语泛化使用的倾向
一、汉英语言中亲属称谓 语比较
• 1、汉语亲属称谓语丰富复杂，英语亲属称谓语单纯 笼统
• 中国文化中，人们采用的是叙述式的称谓语，其特点 是：长幼有别，父系亲属和母系亲属分明，血亲与姻 亲有别，用一整套单独的词汇分别命名血亲与姻亲；
和祖父祖母、伯父叔父、伯婶姑母、堂兄弟姐 妹打交道，真正和我们发生联系的只有我们的
父母和兄弟姐妹。
一、汉英语言中亲属称谓 语比较
• “……如今二爷也大了，里头姑娘们也大了，况且林姑
娘宝姑娘又是两姨姑表姊妹，虽说是姊妹们，到底是
男女之分，日夜一处起坐不方便，由不得叫人悬心， 便是外人看着也不象。……” • “…Now that he and the young ladies are no longer children and, what’s more, Miss Lin and Miss Bao
中西称谓用语的文化差异及翻译
中西称谓用语的文化差异及翻译作者：吴丹来源：《现代企业文化·理论版》2010年第07期摘要：文章从中西方传统文化的不同来探讨跨文化交际中英汉称谓用语体系的差异以及造成差异的原因，并对其翻译方法略作介绍。
关键词：跨文化交际；中英称谓用语；英汉互译中图分类号：H313文献标识码：A文章编号：1674-1145(2010)11-0191-02称谓用语是社交用语的重要组成部分，是社交过程中必不可少的工具。
称谓用语有确定、建立和改进人际关系的作用，因为交际双方所使用的称谓用语是双方身份、地位、角色、友好程度及亲疏关系的重要标志。
汉英称谓用语体系具有同样的交际功能，但由于汉英语言文化有着不同的历史背景、文化传统、政治制度、社会关系、价值观、伦理观念和人际关系。
所以这两种称谓用语体系必然有着相当大的差异，只有了解差异以及造成差异的原因才能得到正确的翻译，才能在跨文化交际中避免失误。
一、中英称谓用语差异(一)家庭、亲属称谓用语差异在英语亲属语分类中，伯、叔、舅、姑父、姨父、姐妹、兄弟只有一词表示，伯母、婶母、姑母、舅母、姨母也只有一个词。
而汉语自古采用叙述法称谓用语，把各种亲族关系表达得很具体准确。
例如：父之兄称伯，伯之妻称伯母，父之弟本人称叔，叔之妻称婶母，母之兄弟皆称舅，母之姊妹皆称姨。
汉民族严格区分亲属关系，源于汉民族的家庭变化，这种严格区分导致了汉语亲属称谓用语的复杂化。
《红楼梦》里贾氏大家族的几百个错综复杂的称谓用语常常让外语翻译者不知所措。
英语用头衔称呼别人的方式也与汉语不同，在英语中，虽有一些官职可作称呼语，女Queen Elizabeth(伊丽莎白女皇)、President Cliton(克林顿总统)等，但远没有汉语用头衔称呼那样普通。
如：组长、村长、队长、乡长、科长、主任、主席等，不论官职大小都可以作称谓用语，新词有经理，局长，厂长，上级、师傅、大亨、要人、老板等，甚至于皮包公司的经理们，小得只有一张办公桌也得照样称呼“某某经理”、“某某老板”等。
中英亲属称谓语对比研究概要
• 7) 我孩子时候，在斜对门的豆腐店里确乎 终日坐着一个杨二嫂，人都叫伊“豆腐西 施”。 • When I was a child there was a Mrs. Yang who used to sit nearly all day long in the beancurd shop across the road, and everybody used to call her Beancurd Beauty.
• 6）村人看见赵七爷到村，都赶紧吃完饭， 聚在七斤家饭桌的周围。 • Seventh Master Zhao’s arrival in the village made all the villagers finish their supper quickly and gather round Sevenpounder’s table.
Xifeng drained her cup and thought for a second. “In the middle of the first month,” she began, “during the Lantern Festival a family was having a fine lively time, enjoying lanterns and drinking together. There were the great grandmother, grandmother, grandmothersin-law, daughter-in-law, grand-nephews and a pack of grea-great-grandsons, as well as grand-daughters and grand-nieces on the paternal and maternal sides, and grand-nieces on the brothers’ and sisters’ sides…Aiya, it was really lively…”
中西称谓的文化差异
中西称谓的文化差异信电08-3班姚远04081444一、中西称谓之差异学习英语时，我们发现英语中的称谓名称比汉语中的要少得多。
英语的亲属以家庭为中心，一代人为一个称谓板块，只区别男性、女性，却忽视配偶双方因性别不同而出现的称谓差异，显得男女平等。
如：英文“grandparents，grandfather，grandmother”，不论父母其父亲共用一个词“grandfather”，而“grandmother”既指奶奶亦指外婆，简单又笼统。
而中文“祖辈、爷爷、奶奶、外公、外婆”却将父或母的双亲分得很清楚。
再如，父母同辈中的称谓：英文中的“uncle”和“aunt”。
，对应于中文的“伯伯、叔叔、舅舅、。
姑父、姨夫等，姑妈、婶婶、舅妈、姨妈”等，既要分出父亲的兄弟姐妹及其配偶，又要分清母亲的兄弟姐妹及其配偶，甚至还分排行大小。
还有，英文中的表示下辈的“nephew”和“niece”是只分性别不分甥侄的，表示同辈的“cousin”一词，对应于汉语的表兄、表弟、表姐和表妹等，不分堂表和性别。
而汉语把表亲关系区分得非常严格，既要说出性别，又要分出大小，根本不像英语笼统一个词了事。
为了表示礼貌，对陌生人也要以亲属关系称呼。
如：“大爷、大娘、大叔、大婶、大哥、大姐等”。
英语中的称谓却为数不多，除“dad，mum，grandpa，aunt，uncle”等几个称谓经常使用外，其它的几乎都不用。
在英美国家，人们的相互称呼在中国人看来似乎有违情理，且不礼貌，没教养。
年轻人称老年人，直呼其名，通常只在其姓氏前加“Mr.”“Mrs.”，男子统称“Mr.”，称已婚女士“Mrs.”未婚女士“Miss”。
二、中西文化差异现象语言是文化的载体，是文化的主要表现形式。
语言是随着民族的发展而发展的，语言是社会民族文化的一个组成部分。
不同民族有着不同的文化、历史、风俗习惯和风土人情等，各民族的文化和社会风俗又都在该民族的语言中表现出来。
英汉亲属称谓语差异浅析
英汉亲属称谓语差异浅析摘要：称谓语是民族的传统文化和历史积淀的反映，不同称谓语分别体现了不同的民族文化。
该文拟从英汉亲属称谓的差异比较及翻译处理手法上，探讨英汉两种不同的民族文化。
关键词：亲属称谓；差异比较；处理亲属称谓语是指以本人为中心确定亲族成员和本人关系的名称，是一种普遍的语言现象，是人们血缘或婚姻关系的一套特殊的语言符号的反映。
中西方传统文化与历史发展的差异，孕育了汉英两种语言在亲属称谓语上的民族特色与语言特征的不同。
当今世界有大小2000多个民族2000多种语言，各种语言，无论大小都相应地具有表示家庭成员关系的亲属称谓系统，大致包括父系称谓、母系称谓、姻系称谓和类亲属称谓四种。
据调查，汉语现代标准亲属称谓语共363个，其中父系245个母系65个，妻系44个，夫系9个。
亲属称谓语作为一种基本词汇在民族语言中形成一个严密的系统，相对稳定，反映着一个民族的社会生活、文化传统、民族心理等特点。
虽然民族与民族之间有类似的文化现象，但类似并不等于完全相同，存在的差异是辨别这些亲属称谓的关键。
1.汉、英语言亲属称谓比较汉英中常见的表示亲属关系的词如表：从表中对比可以看出，英语亲属称谓分割词义以性别和辈分为准，比较笼统模糊，汉语则更明确、具体。
语言中表示亲属关系词的语义分割也因在一定社会关系中亲属之间的亲密程度和重要性的不同存在很大的差异。
汉英两种语言中亲属称谓词的不同也从一个侧面反映出东西方社会家庭文化的差异性。
汉语亲属称谓词可分为“明谦敬：拙荆，令尊”、“明亲疏：堂兄，族兄”、“明内外：祖父，外公”。
这些有谦敬、亲疏、内外之分的汉语称谓语在英语中相对少的称谓语中就找不到相对等表达的词汇，两种语言在此方面产生词汇空缺。
因而在做这种亲属称谓语的英汉翻译时常会出现翻译不对等现象。
《红楼梦》中宝玉称自己母亲王夫人为“太太”，三十九回中，宝玉与李纨她们在聊天，提到：“太太屋里的彩霞，是个老实人。
”这里“太太”用作他称，译文里处理为“my mother”。
中西方称谓语差异与翻译
一、中西方称谓文化差异 （一）亲属称谓 中国的亲属称谓系统可能是世界上最丰富的 称谓系统，其称谓词语更是纷繁复杂。 赵元任先生 在《中国人的各种称呼语》中列举了 110 种亲属称 谓语，每一种称谓语又有正式名称。 在西方，亲情观念相对淡薄很多，亲属称谓数 量不仅少而且简单。 英语中大体含有 11 个亲属称 谓 grandfather, grandmother, father, mother, son, daughter，brother, sister, uncle, aunt , cousin。 其中 cousin 不仅没有血 缘 关 系 之 分 ， 甚 至 没 有 性 别 之 分，既可以指堂哥堂弟表哥表弟，也可指堂姐堂妹 表姐表妹，由此词翻译也可以看出汉语称谓语中血 缘关系和性别特征都很明显。 另外，在中国，人们在实际交往中与对方关系 密切时也常常使用亲属称谓称呼来表示亲近，而且 加尊﹑仁﹑贤等以示尊重。 对年长一些的称仁兄﹑尊
译 文 2：I spend all my time on call at the inner gate, Madam. I’ve no means of knowing what the master does outside.
中美家庭观念的文化差异比较 英文论文
On the Cultural Differences in the Family Concepts between Chinaand AmericaⅠ.The Root Causes of Sino-US Cultural DifferencesII. The Definition of Family between Chinese and American2.1 The Definition of Family in China2.2 The Definition of Family in America2.3 The Contrast resultⅢ. The Comparison of Family Concept between China and America3.1 The Comparison of Family System3.1.1 The Comparison of Family Size3.1.2 The Comparison of the Relationship of Family Member3.1.3 The Comparison of Family Function3.2 The Comparison of Children’s Education3.2.1 The Comparison of the Concept of Children’s Education3.2.2 The Comparison of the Methods of Children’s Education3.3 The Comparison of Old Folks' Support3.3.1 The Comparison of the Concept of Old Folks' Support3.3.2 The Comparison of the Methods of Old Folks' SupportⅣ. ConclusionOn the Cultural Differences in the Family Concepts between China and AmericaThis is China, an ancient nation with 5000 years of history, glorious past and advanced civilization. That is the United States, a young, multi-culture country which soon became the leader of the world. Compared with these two countries, there are many different aspects between them. Language is the first distinction, along with different skin color, hair color, and facial features. According to the bible, God creates the world, and he has wills for every creature below him. Humans are too far away from him to clearly see his will. But history and tradition of a society can tell what God’s wills are. From the past it tells that human gather around to form society. In a society, humans experience different version of God’s wills, and then write downGod’s wills as history. Without a society, human cannot move on; human cannot protect each other; human can not survive. Family is one of the fundamental elements that ma ke up a society, and without individuals, there’s no such thing called home. So here’s the answer, besides the biological differences between the Asians and Westerner, what makes Chinese and American culture unique and stand out are their own tradition, history, and family.Ⅰ.The Root Causes of Sino-US Cultural DifferencesIn general, the cultural difference is at first comes from to the natural world understanding difference, the physical geography condition has decided the various national various areas culture development initial direction. Three plateau sea's relatively unenlightened region characteristic, caused ancient times the Chinese culture basically to isolate at the same time with outside, but this has also provided the advantageous condition for the agricultural civilization's growth, and has formed take this as the foundation and the small peasant economy as the characteristic economic form. At the same time, the river continental environment and creates the self-sufficient natural economy causes the Chinese to approve that sentiment of the natural, fetters firmly the people on the land, but the agricultural society's stability, family member relatives and friends' long-term living together, who will enable the Chinese to be reluctant to part ways since old times looks heavily, this let the Chinese nation display happily to the thought emotion one unhappy many, with unhappy different, happy static is unhappy moves happily, steady is unhappy changes happily. But the Western culture's running water source is the ancient Greece culture, the ancient Greece civilization originates in Mediterranean Sea, its locates the marine environment has raised the Western nationality primitive risk flare national disposition. In their opinion, humanity's strength and the sea compare appear are very tiny and are frail, but the humanity depended upon bravely, resolute, the great struggle spirit which own had to conquer the sea, therefore humanity's breadth of spirit was greater than the sea, all these also molded the Western nationality to open, the brave disposition. Therefore, looked from the entire ancient times society and the cultural phenomenon that the Western is take individual as a beginning, develops outward, unceasingly self-pursue, self-development, simultaneously also self-innovation. But because China the enclosed type, satisfies-like the agricultural society, displays intensely to local thinking of fondly, to peaceful life yearning.II. The Definition of Family between Chinese and American2.1 The Definition of Family in ChinaIn China, The family not only means the opposite sex and the people to breed the community which the children compose, but also means the collection blood relationship inherits, the marital union, the production operation, the finance expends, the social enlightenment etiquette control and so on many functions are even a body's social smallest unit. Generally, the family member lives together, carries on the production and the expense together, moreover unifies according to the blood relationship, which is also called the human society the biological reproduction unit.The family is forms economical division of taking men and women's labor as the foundation. Outside including in the higher paraffin in the geographical groups, between the same-type geographical groups, take avoids the marriage and the close relative marriage as the principle, and maintains the close neighbor is relating, is one kind of institution social unit. Therefore, it is humanity's unique universal unit. Chinese's attachment to family, blood relationship, dear ones ethics, in brain ingrained, parents, children throughout whole family. Even if gets married and begins a career, in addition supposes the gateway, still shared everything with the parents, the support parents, attends on one's parents, regards as itself should the completely responsibility.Home is like a tree; Home is like a machine, it is made up of many different parts. In this machine, every part is as important as others. That is home, that is family. You can leave your home, you can hate your home, you can curse your home, but you can never forget about your home. Someday, you will think about your home when you feel lonely. In China, people tend to view home as their heart of love, home is the soul of a family.2.2 The Definition of Family in AmericaFamily, defined by the United States Bureau of the Census, is a group of two or more persons related by blood, marriage, or adoption. Accordingly, unmarried people (either heterosexual or homosexual) living together and foster families are excluded and this is disagreeable to many. In fact, in many cases, the definition of a family is more flexible. For example, courts have ruled that the definition of a family may include two adult partners whose interdependent relationship is long-term and characterized by an emotional and financial commitment, rather than view family members as partners exclusively related by blood, marriage, or adoption.In American people’s opinion, families are to provide love, w armth, and support to every member of it. The ideal of the family is group cooperation to help achieve the fulfillment of each individual member, and shared affection to renew each member’s emotional strength. In contrast to that of many other cultures, the primary responsibility of the American family member is not to advance the family as s group, either socially or economically, nor to bring honor to the family name. A family is considered a very important institution where the fundamental values and traditions of certain social group is taught and passed down from generation to generation.2.3 The Contrast resultAccording to an international survey, Asian children tend to live longer with their parents and contribute income to the household than the Am erican’s. Because of the unique tradition, Chinese children are more dependent on their family. The definition of home to them is a place once they will stay and depend on it for the rest of their life. In China, home is home. Once it becomes their home, no matter how busy they are, they will always come back and visit their home. American children are not like the Chinese. In westerner’s mind, home is just a place they used to grow up with, and they do not wish to always stay at their home. So as they grew older, they will leave their home, and find some other places to start their own “love net.”Chinese tend to contribute more incomes to its family than Americans. Because in China, family still plays a strong role, the family’s income depends on the pare nts when the children are still young, and the income will depends on the children when they grew up and their parents will retire. The unique Chinese tradition indicate when girls are married, they will live with their husbands’ family and contribute inco me to them. That’s why for almost five thousand years, the conception of boys are always more important than girls. Many families desire to have boys rather than girls. There’s an old saying, “a married daughter is like some spilled water, can never come back.” That’s why now in China, there are more boys and girls and a lot of boys with poor condition cannot marry a girl to have a family. Once the girl is married, she can sometimes visit her parents home, but most of the time, she will live with her husband, and her husband’s parents.Ⅲ. The Comparison of Family Concept between China and America3.1 The Comparison of Family System3.1.1 The Comparison of Family SizeIn China, because of the overpopulation during the mid-20th century, the government has to introduce and apply the “One Child Policy” to each new married couple beginning in 1979. Since the policy is introduced, each married couple can only have one child unless the child has disability or is deceased, then, the couple can have a second child. This policy is somewhat violate the human rights but after the implement of this policy, the population of China is under control. Anyway, because of the One Child Policy, each family can only have one kid. However, this doesn’t mean the size of a family in China is smaller than the U.S. When most of the couple got married, they will live with their parents and contribute income to the household. So generally, the family size in China is about 5, includes father, mother, one child, grand parents from father’s side. The family size will m ostly remain 5 unless the grandparents are deceased or if the grandchild gets married.There is not such policy in the U.S. to restrict how many kids each couple can have. Therefore the size of family in the U.S. can be varied by the couple’s own will. Generally, each couple will have 2 or more children. However, also because the U.S. is a multi-culture society, there are many different immigrants migrate to this nation, and they also brought many different traditions to this country. According to a national survey, non-Latino whites (also called the Anglo-Saxon core) tend to have fewer descendants for each family, and most of the children are better educated. However, Mexican-Americans, African Americans and Russian-Americans will have more children in each household compare to the whites and Asian Americans. Compare to the one-child-per-family in China, the family size in the U.S. is a lot different than China’s. Generally, non-Latino whites, Arab Americans and Asian Americans’ family size in the United Sta tes are about 5, including father, mother and 2 or 3 children. However, Mexican Americans, Russian Americans, Puerto Rican Americans, and African Americans can have a family size of up to 10. Interestingly, the family income of each subpopulation is inversely proportional to their family size.In the United States, non-Latino whites, Arab Americans and Asian Americans totally have a higher income than Mexican Americans and Russian Americans.In America, it is a lot different. A woman can marry a man and can still live with her parents. However, this situation is also not common seen because most of the married couple will move out and have their own places. They will start their own family. In America, the parents are responsible for their own wellness when they are old. It is not their children’s responsibility to take care of them. Therefore the family income of a house depends on the parents, even when the children grew up and have the ability to make money. If the parents are poor, the children will be poor when they still depend on their parents; if the children are rich, the parents can still be poor if the children are not kind to their parents. There’s no such tradition that grown-ups have to take care of their parents, and contribute income to them. Nevertheless, there law restrictions state that when children are still young, their parents have to take full responsibility for them until they turn eighteen.Though stereotypically man is considered head of a family, one has to remind oneself that the patterns of American families have now dramatically changed. Actually, now three out of every ten American households are headed by a woman. Now more American women are working outside the home. And house chores are shared between man and woman under the same roof. In general, women have the same educational and woman under the same roof. In general, women have the same educational and employment opportunities as men. They hold important positions in companies and other institutions. However, American women still strive to protect their rights and to achieve equal representation of men and women in high-level positions.3.1.2 The Comparison of the Relationship of Family MemberIn China, the family relationship is somewhat complicated than in U.S. Because when the girls get married, they will move to their husbands’ house, and because their husbands are living with their parents, therefore the girls also need to live with them. Once the girls gave birth, the family size will mostly remain 5—two grandparents, parents, and one child. In China, there are always conflicts between the girl and her mother-in-law. When the girl gets married, she moves out and lives with her parents-in-law. Before she got married, she doesn’t even know her mother-in-law, and her mother-in-law also doesn’t know her. When two stranger live together, conflicts arose. There are many movies and TV shows that describe the relationship between the mother and the daughter-in-law.In contrast to China, the family relationship in the U.S. is a lot simpler. Because the married couple doesn’t have to live with their parents, the conflicts between daughter and mother-in-law are very slight. In the U.S., when the son gets married, he will move out from his parents’ house and live with his wife in anothe r place. In generally, they will visit their own parents once in a while and many during big event such as Christmas and Thanksgiving, they will gather together to have a dinner. That’s the American style. Because the daughter and mother-in-law can barely see each other during the year, when they gather around, they tend to be nice to each other and try not to increase the conflicts. The system of family in the United States is notas complicated as the system of family in China. If we have to specify the conflicts of family in the U.S., it would be between husband and wife or parents and children.3.1.3 The Comparison of Family FunctionIn China, there are 5 family functions: economical, generational, educational, bring-up and support’s function. The moder n society tertiary industry's development and the socialization of production degree's enhancement, the family partial functions has the offset, like in the economical function's production function, the education function, supported the function already partially to shift the society, by society's special organization like Production organization, school and old folks home undertook, but the family sentiment careless could and so on actually day by day strengthen.In American, The family function of the household mainly seeks each kind of entertainment in the cultural life, but is not a religion and the educational institution. More importantly, although it is still a Dwelling unit, but no longer is entire family revolves the family type which together the father transfers. The construction family's foundation is the unity and family member's common interest, but non-individual wish and community responsibility. The American family member's primary obligation is not urges the family to become a society or the Economic organization, is also not brings the glory to the family.3.2 The Comparison of Children’s Education3.2.1 The Comparison of the Concept of Children’s EducationIn China, because of the ancient tradition, there’s an old saying about how children should treat their parents. It says, “Among all the good deeds, filial piety comes first.” It means, whatever the kids do, they have to be nice and respect to their own parents. However in the U.S., there’s not such tradition. Sometimes conflicts arose be tween teenager and their parents. The children don’t respect their parents when they were young. There are always problems about teenagers in the society of U.S.In China, because of the 5000 years of history and tradition, Chinese parents tend to teach their kids about social education and hence ignore the childhood education. The parents teach their kids how to respect the elderly, how to care the weak and the young, how to listen to the teachers, how to obey laws and orders from other people. Therefore, most of the parents demand unquestioning obedience from their kids. In a family, most of the fathers play the role of commander, and mother always play the role of counselor.In the United States, the family treats their children differently than the Chinese parents. They are more emphasizing on individuality than social education. If families are to work with schools as partners in the education of their children, schools must provide them with the opportunities and support they need to become involved. Too often schools expect families to do it all alone. Developing effective partnerships with families requires that all school staff (administrators, teachers, and support staff) create a school environment that welcomes parents and encourages them to raise questions and voice their concerns as well as to participate appropriately in decision making. Developing partnerships also requires that school staff provide parents withthe information and training they need to become involved and that they reach out to parents with invitations to participate in their children's learning.Schools are most successful in engaging parents and other family members in support of their children's learning look beyond traditional definitions of parent involvement--participating in a parent teacher organization or signing quarterly report cards--to a broader conception of parents as full partners in the education of their children. Rather than striving only to increase parent participation in school-based activities, successful schools seek to support families in their activities outside of school that can encourage their children's learning. Schools that have developed successful partnerships with parents view student achievement as a shared responsibility, and all stakeholders--including parents, administrators, teachers, and community leaders--play important roles in supporting children's learning. Successful school-family partnerships require the sustained mutual collaboration, support, and participation of school staffs and families at home and at school in activities that can directly affect the success of children's learning. If families are to work with schools as full partners in the education of their children, schools must provide them with the opportunities and support they need for success.3.2.2 The Comparison of the Methods of Children’s EducationThe Chinese aspect manifests approximately in the following several points: First, the Chinese guardians undertake to do somebody else's job in the life to child's basic necessities of life, does not let the child do the housework. This kind takes care of everything crosswise involves child's aspects, longitudinal extends to the child grows up. Therefore presented the elementary student also to want the guardian to send and pick up, the middle-school student also wanted the guardian to do laundry, the university newborn matriculation also wanted the guardian to escort. Second, many guardians feared that the child suffers a loss or fails to study, therefore limits the child and the outside contact, once between the child and the child either schoolmate have the dispute or not the happy matter, the most guardians adopt shield oneself child to accuse other child's means. Third, many guardians are obedient to child's request, grant every request, including the economical family in straitened circumstances, the guardian must tighten the belt to save the money to meet child's need, this has encouraged the custom which imperceptibly they waste luxuriously. Forth, the guardian is very high to child's study request, even achieves one kind of harsh degree. Through the ages, has the shopping online deep shackles China guardians' thought that whether been causing the guardians with to be admitted to a school child's academic record the institute of higher education has regarded as the only standard which the child becomes a useful adult.But the American guardians from exercise the child independent viability angle embarking, adopts to child's education drops, but the laissez faire method does not carry on. So-called drops, is lives down from the child, the parents try to give them the self-exercise the opportunity and the condition, lets them obtain the full exercise in each kind of environment. The parents except look after child's safety, in other life's matter, like plays, the study to let the child choose independently. If let them have since childhood deposits individual clothes, the toy and the study materials place,oneself tidy up reorganizes the room, the arrangement belongs to their little world, the parents takes care of everything in no way for the child, reminds the advice at most in the one side. So-called not laissez faire, generally reflection in three aspects: First, rather painstakingly and is not tender. The guardian pays great attention to train the child specially to endure hardship the spirit. Second, the family is rich, but is not extravagant. Many American family, have the strict request and the stipulation to child's spending money. The basic principle is: Issues regularly, amount how many decides according to child's age and household income's actual situation. Third, The westerner does not let matters drift to child's shortcoming mistake, does not shield, but tries to teach the child the knowledge wrong to change wrong. In addition, the American guardians do not bring too many pressures mostly to child's study. Their viewpoint is: The child to will be interested the knowledge to go to study diligently naturally, why can force the matter which they will do originally are not willing to do? Strong is stubborn is doing, instead will injure the child the sentiment and the individuality. Human's interest, the hobby and can originally various, the child suitable to make anything to make anything, the life path must let child go. The success home education, should be the guardian puts out the time to carry on the communication, the exchange with the child by the equal manner, gives the full affirmation to the child correct idea and the behavior, lets the child respect and encourage to hit grows.3.3 The Comparison of Old Folks' Support3.3.1 The Comparison of the Concept of Old Folks' SupportIt used to look to the elderly as really wise people who knew so much about the world. They were the ones who could be relied upon to provide a history lesson of what life used to be like in "their day". But things have changed so much in just a very short space of time. We are now more likely to hear of elder abuse within the family, residential home or a mugging that took place, involving an elderly victim. It is sad to see the elderly being abused and disregarded so much in a society that they once contributed so much to. This article will offer some suggestions on ways in which you should treat the elderly.The population of the elderly (60 or older) in China is about 128 million or one in every ten people, the largest in the world. It is estimated that China could have some 400 million people over 60 years of age by 2050. Nowadays a lot of people are more aware of the nations’ old and people pay greater respect and more attention to them than before. But experts on age point out that the elderly would enjoy greater happiness in old age if everyone was more concerned about them.China has just completed an investigation on the status of its elderly population. Investigating 20 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities, the research has showed that the culture and material lives of the elderly, all over China, have greatly improved. Taking a look at their material lives, the average income of the elderly in the cities in 2000 was four times higher than the average income in 1992. In rural areas, the average income in 2000 had increased by 170 percent compared with 1992. Their living facilities included tap water, TV, fans and washing machines. However, gas supply, telephones, fridges and toilets in the house were only added in 2000. Thecultural quality of the elderly has also improved. Illiteracy has decreased by 20 percent and various recreational and sporting activities promoted by the government and non-governmental organizations have improved the quality of their lives. More and more of the elderly come to the recreation rooms for retired cadres in their local community now. Some have even been known to learn how to use a computer. According to the investigation, most of the senior citizens say that they are satisfied with their lives.Different from China’s tradition, the United States have another view for the elderly. The western culture tends to view the elderly as a burden and an inconvenience! The family unit in general is not as solid as Chinese culture. The strong streak of independence that runs through their thinking is definitely an influencing factor. They tend to encourage the break up of the family as part of the natural course of life, whereas the Chinese will tend to work to keep it together as long as possible. Where they will be more likely to bundle their elderly off to rest homes and retirement villages, we the Chinese would live with our elderly under the same roof, so metimes three or even four generations live together. In the Westerner’s mind, they think it's better to send off the elderly to retirement homes than to leave them at home all by themselves. In the retirement homes they remain healthier, happier and they live longer. At the touch of a buzzer, medical help is there in one minute. In the morning they have a bath, breakfast, their therapist is there to see them, later they congregate to look at TV with friends. Later on is lunch, perhaps a trip to the cinema and it goes on and on. They don’t think that a single person can provide all that professional care to their own parents, much less the elderly. In order to live a successful life in the American, People have to work.3.3.2 The Comparison of the Methods of Old Folks' SupportChinese's present retirement way mainly has: Raise children to provide against old age, occupation retirement, government relief, insurance retirement, invest retirement. The raise children to provide against old age, already becomes in the birth control time more and more not realistic. However, can train the riches and honor children, also is too not bitter as for the old age, certainly the premise is the children must be filial. The occupation retirement, is the ideal retirement way which since the ancient times the common people most yearned for. It is only suitable for the human who having the government food, since is very unfortunate, catches up with the State-owned business bankruptcy to come off sentry duty, can also attain the government relief fund. The insurance retirement, divides into two kinds, one kind is individual, the enterprise, the national fellowship society old-age insurance. Another kind is the commercial life insurance, is similar in the investment retirement, because it is one kind of financial managing finances product. The investment retirement, is a broad concept, its core is uses the existing fund to carry on the investment, gains the long-term stable income, the main investment tool has the financial product (for example stock, fund, bond, commercial life insurance), the real estate, business and so on.American's present retirement way mainly has 3 ways. First, is refers to the government to conduct “the society old-age insurance”, is also called the first pr op, it。
汉英亲属称谓的差异及其翻译
异化 和归化两大途径 （ 徐丹，２ ０ ） ０ １ 。异化指 的是吸纳外语 的语 言方式 ，引入新 的表现法 ：归化则是指使用地道的本族 语 表 达 方 式 。 化 和 归 化 是 互 为 对 立 的 一对 矛盾 。异化 顺 应 异 了文化融合的趋势 ， 使一种文化特有的东西为另一种文化所
亲 姻 亲 ，如 伯 父 、叔 父 、姨 母 和 伯 母 、婶 母 、姨 父 ；区 分 宗
族非宗族，如爷爷、侄儿、孙子和外公 、外甥 、外孙 等；区 分父系母 系，如叔叔 、姑妈 、堂兄和舅舅、姨妈 、表兄等 ； 区分长幼辈份 ，如哥哥 、姐姐和弟弟、妹妹等，哥哥姐姐也 还要分为大哥 、二哥，大姐、二姐等。而英语的亲属称 谓就
姻亲基础上 的如父亲、母亲 、 爷爷 、 父、姨父、姑父等等 。 伯 本文将依照梁真惠 （ ０ ２ ２ ０ ）的观点 ，把亲属称谓 再分 为亲属 称谓和仿亲属称谓。 以往关于称 谓语 以及称 呼语的论著 大多是从跨 文化 的 角度进行研究，找出不 同并指 出差异 的原 因， 但鲜有涉及如 何对负载社会文化 内涵 的称谓语进行翻译 。 本文拟就中英文 化 差 异 导 致 的亲 属 称 谓 在 翻 译 中 的困 难 进 行 尝试 性 探 讨 。
方文化非常推崇个人主义，强调独立的人 格和个性 。年龄，
资历和经验并不能给他们带来优越感 ，相反， 他们所看重 的
是 权 力 和 能力 （ 玉 新 ， １９ ） 此外 ，西 方 家 庭 模 式 是 典 贾 ９７ 。
更多用 于当面称呼 ，称谓语更多用于背面指称 。一般说来 ， 称谓可分为亲属称谓和社交称谓两大类 型。 亲属称谓指的是
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英汉亲属称谓的文化差异与互译 中文摘要 语言是文化的载体 ,称谓不仅是一种语言现象 ,更是一种文化现象。英汉语言中亲属称谓的不同 ,可以说从一个侧面反映了东西方文化的差异。本文试图从人们较为熟悉的英汉亲属称谓习惯和语义进行比较分析 ,揭示其中所隐含的文化意蕴。它们属于不同的称谓制度 ,具有不同的称谓习惯和泛化现象。家庭类型、血缘关系、宗法观念、文化取向、礼貌原则等是造成两者文化差异的主要原因。因此通过对亲属称谓的属性和用法的分析和对比 ,可以对一个民族的传统文化窥见一斑。汉英称谓在形式、语用意图、文化内涵上存在诸多差异 ,通过两种语言称谓系统的归纳对比 ,挖掘各自的文化内涵 ,对中英称谓语的翻译提出三种方法。 关键词: 亲属称谓；文化差异；比较；翻译
Abstract Language is the carrier of culture, kinship term is not only a part of language but also a kind of culture. The differences between English and Chinese kinship terms reflect the cultural differences between East and West to some extend. From the comparative analysis of usages and meanings of kinship addressing system between Chinese and English which people familiar with，the paper is to reveal the cultural implication in it. They belong to different kinship addressing systems also have different usages of kinship terms and developments. The main reasons for cultural differences lie in the family structure, consanguinity, patriarchy concept, culture adoption and courtesy principle. The comparative analysis of its features and usages can help us to understand the cultural differences between Chinese and English. Based on the great differences in the title and kinship addressing system between Chinese and English, and their complicated pragmatic intentions and cultural implications in use, the paper systematically compares the two systems, and reveals their respective culture specific implications. Finally, three methods are presented on how to translate addressing forms between Chinese and English. Key words: kinship term; cultural difference; comparison; translation
语言是文化的载体 ,称谓不仅是一种语言现象 ,更是一种文化现象。英汉语言中亲属称谓的不同 ,可以说从一个侧面反映了东西方文化的差异。因此通过对亲属称谓的属性和用法的分析和对比 ,可以对一个民族的传统文化窥见一斑。 一、英汉亲属称谓的差异 （一）、英汉亲属称谓的复杂程度差异 汉语亲属称谓复杂，英语简单。“亲属称谓（Kinship term）是一定的亲属制度(Kinship system)所产生的文化符号，它以简单的术语形式反映复杂的亲属制度。”[1]（P139）汉语称谓语要比英语称谓语繁杂细致得多，汉语要区分血亲姻亲，如伯父、叔父、姨母和伯母、婶母、姨父；区分宗族非宗族，如爷爷、侄儿、孙子和外公、外甥、外孙等；区分父系母系，如叔叔、姑妈、堂兄和舅舅、姨妈、表兄等；区分长幼辈份，如哥哥、姐姐和弟弟、妹妹等。而英语的亲属称谓就显得简单得多，仅用几个词就能全部涵盖，如 grandparent（爷爷，外公，奶奶，外婆），brother（哥哥，弟弟），sister（姐姐，妹妹），uncle（伯父，叔父，姨父，舅舅，姑父），另外,英语中的一些亲属称谓非常笼统,没有指明具体关系。所以像Linda‟s bother married Michelle‟s sister这句话就很难准确地译成汉语,因为不知道brother是Linda的哥哥还是弟弟,sister是Michelle的姐姐还是妹妹。还有cousin这个称谓,有时连男女都不分了。在西方国家,亲属关系的涵盖和延伸范围远没有中国那么广阔。 （二）、英汉亲属称谓关系表达清楚性差异 汉语亲属称谓所表达的关系清楚明了，英语笼统。“家庭是以姻缘关系和血缘关系为纽带组成的一种基本的社会生活共同体.”[2](P34)中国人重亲属称谓,辈份性别指代清楚,本家成员与外姓亲戚从称谓上一目了然。然而,英美人并无如此清晰明了之差别,仅是本家成员与外姓亲戚在称谓上常混为一谈(如grandfather,uncle,brother-in-law等词语),有时甚至连男女也不分,如cousin一词可指堂兄、堂妹，又可指表兄、表妹。最为简约的是uncle 与aunt,前者将中国人的伯,叔,舅父,姑父,姨丈等所有与父亲同辈的男性一概统称,后者将伯母,婶母,舅母,姑母,姨母等所有与母亲同辈的女士一词蔽之。究其原因，是因为在西方文化中对纲常伦理的定义和概念与中国文化有着较大的出入，或者确切点说，是没有像中国传统文化中那样有一套严格繁琐的纲常伦理。 （三）、英汉亲属称谓中敬称和谦称的使用差异 汉语有敬称和谦称，而英语没有。“英汉社交称谓中还有一个特别的差异,应当是敬称与谦称的使用。英语中虽然同样有敬称,但绝少有谦称,因为西方人崇尚和提倡自信,对人有礼但不过分自谦。而汉语中谦称与敬称并重, 这一文化现象的产生,无疑也源于中国传统礼教。„夫礼者, 自卑而尊人‟ (《礼记·典礼》),因而汉语谦称有许多，如: 愚、在下、鄙人、不才、小可、晚辈、未学、后生、卑职、下官等等。不仅有自谦,而且还代为亲属谦。如: 小儿、犬子、内子、拙荆、小女、小婿等等。”[3](P48)汉语里用敬称直接表示敬意，旧时常用，如尊称：令尊、令堂、令公子、令爱、令千金等又用谦称间接表示恭敬，抬高对方，贬低自己，让对方产生优越感.消除压力。而西方人则崇尚和提倡自信，一方面要对别人有礼貌，另一方面要求自己不卑不亢，过分自谦，反而让人觉得你信心不足，是懦弱的表现。所以.英语中很少有谦称，相反只有表示上帝的“He”和表示自己的“I”无论在句首句中都是大写.这种擅自代为人谦的情况在西方人看来是不可思议的,西方人强调平等的权利,哪怕对子女、父母也将其当作一个独立人的人来看待,并不认为有支配其的绝对权力。 （四）、英汉亲属称谓中对长辈称呼的差异 汉亲属称谓中不可对长辈直呼其名，英语可以。汉语亲属称谓注重辈分,英语中则辈分淡化,血亲传统分为“九族”上有四代长辈、下有四代晚辈、亲疏有别、长幼有序。中国文化讲究人际关系,而人际关系的核心就是有序,按中国的伦理观念,传统文化对汉语的称谓起着决定的作用,因此在汉语的亲属称谓中有明显的尊卑、长幼、亲疏之分。可以说,汉语称谓反映着人伦规范的两大伦理观念:长幼有序、尊卑不同和亲疏不同、内外有别。在社会和家庭中,语言称谓必须符合说话人的身份和地位。在汉语中不仅父母的姓名是绝对避讳的,对于长辈或地位高者要用尊称,即使是同辈,也有固定的称谓,不可直呼其名。 “耶稣主张,家庭中的成员平等,他自己就以名字称呼母亲,而且认为子女可以与其父母相争,可以与他们为敌。因此在英语亲属称谓中没有尊卑之别,同辈之间不论年龄大小,均可直呼其名,以表示亲切友好。”[4]（P86）西方社会组织结构不以等级身份为核心，提倡人人平等。 二、英汉亲属称谓的文化差异因素 （一）、家庭类型 “亲属称谓的简化，意味着家庭关系在社会生活中不占那么重要的地位；资本主义关系下的家庭，其构成和社会作用完全不同于封建主义关系，在语言中也能找到反映。”[5](P249)我国长期处于封建社会，社会组织的单元是家庭或家族,因此家族势力非常强大，而在家族内部,宗族内的亲疏关系是严格按等级区分的，内外亲戚，嫡庶区别得很清楚。为了维护和适应这种层次森严、内外有别的封建家族体系和封建伦理道德,相关的很多称谓就出现了,而且分得特别仔细。 “在英美等国,核心家庭(nuclear family)占主导地位.这种家庭中只有一对夫妇和他们未成年的子女,而且孩子长大后马上离开父母去独立生活,自立门户.因此,他们的家庭成员关系非常简单.他们并不把亲属关系看得那么重。由于这些亲属不住在一起，没有必要，也不需分得那么清楚。”[6]（P66）这影响了西方社会的称呼语,称谓语相对贫乏。在这种家庭中,人际关系非常随便、开放,以个人主义观念为核心的自我意识非常明显。 中国传统的宗法血亲关系和伦理道德影响的结果,它体现的是一种严密的家族关系。英语民族的家族关系远不及中华民族的那么严密,家庭结构也较松散。 （二）、血缘关系 汉民族深受封建宗族制度和“三纲五常”等伦理道德观念影响，同族内部十分重视血缘宗亲关系。汉民族经历漫长的封建社会,形成了既有血缘关系又有经济联系的由大家庭组成的庞大的宗族性的社会组织,社会的基本单元是家族,而不是个人,个人要受家族权利的支配。与之相比较,封建社会在整个欧洲存在的时间较短,而资本主义制度较早地代替了封建制度,对欧洲各国产生了根深蒂固的影响；另一方面英美国家的文化主要来源于古希腊和古罗马。经济上,其重视商业。在与大自然的搏斗中,其经常移民和殖民,这样,造成他们组织管理上摆脱了家族血缘的束缚,更重视人与人的契约关系和平等关系。 （三）、宗法观念 “汉语亲属称谓词特别强调长幼之别、宗族与宗族之别、血缘与非血缘之别 ,这种繁复的称谓正反映了汉族文化传统的一个基本特征:社会组织的基本单元是家族 ,宗法关系悠久稳固。”[7](P95)中国改革开放后虽然封建宗法关系不复存在，但亲属、亲戚关系在社会关系网中仍然居重要地位，其根本原因应追溯到中国的悠久历史。“中华大地乃文明之国,礼仪之邦,炎黄子孙既重家庭伦理,又讲社交礼仪。数千年的儒家思想和封建礼教使中国人认为治国平天下之本在于齐家。故古往今来,三纲五常影响至深,家庭伦理至关重要:一家之内,长者为尊,老者为上,长幼尊卑,泾渭分明；亲朋友好,男女有别,远近亲疏,不错规矩.而英美人由于基督教文化的影响,崇尚个人价值,强调表现自我,讲天堂,说地狱,而宗法关系远不及中国那么严密,家庭观念也较之中国淡薄,亲属称谓之简略概括,不求精确。”[8](P207)