考研语言学与应用语言学知识点梳理
外国语言学及应用语言学 考点总结
ngue and ParoleLangue is the system of a language, the language as a system of forms,whereas parole is actual speech, the speech acts that are made possible by the system of the language. That`s is to say,langue is the social product whose existence permits the individual to exercise his linguistic faculty; parole, on the other hand, is the “executive side of language”.parative LinguisticsA branch of linguistics which studies two or more languages in order tocompare their structures and to show whether they are similar or different.Comparative linguistics is used in the study of languages types and in comparative historical linguistics. It is also used by some applied linguists for establishing differences between the learner’s native language and the target language in the areas of syntax, vocabulary, and sound systems.3.Empiricism（经验主义）An approach to psychology which states that the development of theory must be related to observable facts and experiments, or which states that all human knowledge comes from experience.4.Rationalism （理性主义）It is an approach to philosophy proposed by Chomsky in the 1960s, which states that the knowledge is based on reasoning rather than on experience of senses. In this sense, it is opposed to empiricism.5.Behaviorism （行为主义）A theory of psychology which states that human and animal behavior can be studied only in terms of physical processes, without reference to mind. It led to theories of learning which explained how an external event (a stimulus) caused a change in the behavior of an individual (a response), based on a history of reinforcement.6.Positivism (实证主义)a philosophical movement that began in the early 19th century, characterized by an emphasis on the scientific method as the only source of knowledge and a desire to rebuild society on the basis of “positive” knowledge..7Mentalism（心智主义）It is the theory that a human being possesses a mind which has consciousness, ideas, etc., and that the mind can influence the behavior of the body.8.Morpheme (语素)It refers to the smallest meaningful unit in a language. A morpheme cannot be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.9.Deduction and induction (演绎和归纳)Reasoning by deduction proceeds from a generalization to particular facts which support it, whereas reasoning by induction involves moving from particular facts to generalizations about them.10.Linguistic relativity （语言相对论）Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativity.11.Linguistic determinism（语言决定论）A theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the way people view the world is determined by the structure of their native language.12.Discourse analysis (话语分析)The study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc.13.Semiology/Semiotics （符号学）1) the theory of signs. 2) the analysis of systems using signs or signals for the purpose of communication. The most important semiotic system is human language, but there are other systems, e.g. sign language, traffic signals.14.Descriptive linguistics （描写语言学）Descriptive linguistics describes how a language is actually spoken and/or written, and does not state or prescribe how it ought to be spoken or written.15.Synchronic and diachronic linguistics （共时和历史方法）Diachronic linguistics is an approach to linguistics which studies how a language changes over a period of time, for example the change in the sound system of English from Early English to Modern English.Diachronic linguistics has been contrasted with synchronic linguistics which is the study of a language system at one particular point in time, for example the sound system of Modern British English.16. Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsDiachronic linguistics is an approach to linguistics which studies how a language changes over a period of time, for exmple the change in the sound system of English from Early English to Modern English.Diachronic linguistics has been contrasted with synchronic linguistics which is the study of a language system at one particular point in time, for example the sound system of Modern British English.The need for diachronic and synchronic descriptions to be kept apart was emphasized by the swiss linguist Saussure.17. Speech actAn utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning:1)propositional meaning (also known as locutionary meaning). This is the basicliteral meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.2)Illocutionary meaning (also known as illocutionary force). This is the effectthe utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. For example, in “I am thirsty” the propositional meaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. The illocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on the listener. It may be intended as a request for something to drink.A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has both propositional meaningand illocutionary force..There are many different kinds of speech acts, such as requests, orders, commands, complaints, promises.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as anindirect speech act, such as the speech act of requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.18.Positivisma philosophical movement that began in the early 19th century, characterized by an emphasis on the scientific method as the only source of knowledge and a desire to rebuild so ciety on the basis of “positive” knowledge. As a variation of empiricism, among the basic ideas of positivism are the idea that the world is orderly, that all natural phenomena have natural causes, and that nothing is self-evident, but the laws of nature can be discovered through experimentation. Although few people nowadays subscribe to all of these beliefs, some degree of positivism characterizes most “scientific” approaches to understanding all phenomena, including language learning. Logical positivism is a specific type of positivism that rejects as meaningless all statements that cannot be empirically verified.19.Tagmemics(tagmemics) the basic unit of grammatical analysis. A tagmeme is a unit in which there is a relationship between the grammatical function, for instance the function of Subject, Object or Predicate, and a class of fillers.For example, in the sentence: The baby bit Anthea.The subject tagmeme is filled by the Noun Phrase (the baby), the predicate tagmeme is filled by the Transitive Verb (bit) in its past tense form, and the object tagmeme is filled by the proper noun (Anthea).20.Phoneticsthe study of speech sounds. There are three main areas of phonetics:1) Articulatory phonetics deals with the way in which speech sounds areproduced. Sounds are usually classified according to the position of the lips and the tongue, how far open the mouth is, whether or not the vocal cords are vibrating, etc.2) Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through theair. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound wave). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.3)Auditory phonetics deals with how speech sounds are perceived by thelisteners.21.Phonology1) another term for phonemics.2) (for some linguists) a cover term for both phonetics and phonemics.3) The establishment and description of the distinctive sound units of a language(phonemes) by means of distinctive featuresEach phoneme is considered as consisting of a group of these features and differing in at least one feature from the other phonemes.22.BehaviorismA theory of psychology which states that human and animal behavior can andshould be studied only in terms of physical processes, without reference to mind.It led to theories of learning which explained how an external event (a stimulus) caused a change in the behavior of an individual (a response), based on a history of reinforcement. Behaviorism was used by psychologists like Skinner, Osgood, and Staats to explain first language learning, but these explanations were rejected by adherents of generative grammar and many others.23.Universal GrammarA theory which claims to account for the gramatical competence of everyadult no matter what language he or she speaks.It claims that every speaker knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within certain limits.The theory was proposed by Chomsky and has been stated more specifically in his model of Government and Binding Theory.According to UG theory, acquiring a language means applying the principles of UG grammar to a particular language, e.g. English, French or German, and learning which value is appropriate for each parameter. For example, one of the principles of UG is structure dependency. It means that a knowledge of language relies on knowing structural relationships in a sentence rather than looking at it asa sequence of words.1. Structuralism/Structural(ist) linguisticsAn approach to linguistics which stresses the importance of language as a system and which investigates the place that linguistic units such as sounds, words, sentences have within this system.Structural linguists, for example, studied the distribution of sounds within the words of a language; that is, whether certain sounds appear only at the beginning of words or also in the middle or at the end. They defined some sounds in a language as distinctive and used in the identification of words (see phoneme), and some as variants (see allophone). Similar studies of distribution and classification were carried out in morphology and syntax.In its widest sense, the term has been used for various groups of linguists, including those of the Prague School, but most often it is used to refer to a group of American linguists such as Bloomfield and Fries, who published mainly in the 1930s to 1950s. The work of these linguists was based on the theory of behavirism and had a considerable influence on some language teaching methods (see Audiolingual method).2.Innateness hypothesis (天赋假说)The theory states that human knowledge develops from structures, processes, and “ideas”which are in the mind at birth (i.e. are innate), rather than from the environment, and that there are responsible for the basic structure of language andhow it is learned. This hypothesis has been used to explain how children are able to learn language. The innateness hypothesis contrasts with the belief that all human knowledge comes from experience.3.American StructuralismAmerican Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics, and the pioneer scholars who took an interest in linguistics in America were anthropologists. It developed in a very different style from that of Europe under the leadership of the anthropologist Franz Boas. Descriptive in language theories is characteristic of America. And another feature of American linguistics is its insistence on being scientific. Firstly, structural grammar describes everything that is found in a language instead of laying down rules. However, its aim is confined to the description of languages, without explaining why language operates the way it does. Secondly, structural grammar is empirical, aiming at objectivity in the sense that all definitions and statements should be verifiable or refutable. However, it has produced almost no complete grammars comparable to any comprehensive traditional grammars. Thirdly, structural grammar examines all languages, recognizing and doing justice to the uniqueness of each language. But it does not give an adequate treatment of meaning. Lastly, structural grammar describes even the smallest contrasts that underlie any construction or use of a language, not only those discoverable in some particular use.The development of American Structuralism can be roughly classified into 3 stagesBoas and Sapir period (1911-1932)Bloomfieldian period (1933-1950)Post-Bloomfieldian period (1952-1956)Boas’s view on language: Boas held that there is no ideal type or form of language. He was strongly opposed to the view that language is the soul of a race, and he proved that the structure and form of a language has noting to do with the evolution of a race and the development of a culture. There are only differences inlanguage structure, while there is no difference between languages in terms of being more or less reasonable or advanced. Boas expounded that what would sound “primitive”of a language is in fact never primitive at all.Boas’s methodology: Boas noticed that every language has its own system of sounds and he also found that every language has its own grammatical system. Boas said that the important task for linguists is to discover, for each language under study, its own particular grammatical structure & to develop descriptive categories appropriate to it.Boas’contribution: Starting from an anthropological view in studying linguistics, Boas regarded linguistics as part of anthropology and failed to establish linguistics as an independent branch of science. But his basic theory, his observation, and his descriptive methods paved the way for American descriptive linguistics and influenced generations of scholars. Although he did not establish a set of descriptive methods, his view on describing alien languages played a very important part in the formation of American descriptive linguistics.Sapir: (1) He started from an anthropological viewpoint to describe the nature of language, with his main focus on typology. He defines language as “a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.”(2) In discussing between speech and meaning, Sapir holds that the association of speech and meaning is a relation that may be, but need not be, present. (3) In discussing the relation between language and thought, Sapir holds that they are not to be considered the same. Language is the means, and thought is the end product. Without language, thought is impossible. (4) He also noticed the universal feature of language, he says that all human races and tribes, no matter how barbaric or underdeveloped, have their own languages.Bloomfield: He was the principle representative of American descriptive linguistics. His main contribution to linguistics is his philosophically sophisticated emphasis on making it a science. Bloomfield developed Boas’s theory under the influence of Neogrammarians and Saussure. The only difference is thatBloomfield tried to account for the production and interpretation of speech with the “stimulus-response”theory under the influence of the prevailing behaviorist psychology of the time. Bloomfield’s Language has been acclaimed as a classic in modern linguistics and was once held to be the model of scientific methodology and the greatest work in linguistics on both sides of Atlantic in the 20th century.Bloomfield is such a landmark figure in the history of American linguistics that the period between 1933 and 1950 is known as the Bloomfieldian age, in which American descriptive linguistics formally came into being and reached its prime development.parison between TG grammar and the Structural GrammarTG differs from the structure grammar in a number of ways: rationalism, innateness, deductive methodology, emphasis on interpretation, formalization, emphasis on linguistic competence, strong generative powers& emphasis on linguistic universals.1.Bloomfield defined language as a set of utterances and a set of “lexical and grammatical habits” while Chomsky defined as a set of rules or principles.2.Two have different aims in linguistics: for structuralism, it is to describe one or a set of languages; for Chomsky, it is to produce a generative grammar which captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language.3.Different types of data in analysisThe structuralisms make use of the naturally occurring utterances, Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker’s tacit knowledge.4.Different methodsBloomfield--inductiveChomsky---(hypothesis-deductive)5.Different in viewing language learningBloomfield--empiricism in philosophy and behaviorism in psychologyChomsky----rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology5、Stimulus—Response theoryAlso S—R theoryA learning theory associated particularly with the American psychologist B. F.Skinner (1904-1990), which describes learning as the formation of associations between responses. A stimulus is that which produces a change or reaction in an individual or organism. A response is the behavior which is produced as a reaction to a stimulus. Reinforcement is a stimulus which follows the occurrence of a response and affects the probability of that response occurring or not occurring again. Reinforcement which increases the likelihood of a response is known as positive reinforcement. Reinforcement which decreases the likelihood of a response is known as negative reinforcement. If no reinforcement is associated with a response the response may eventually disappear. This is known as extinction. If a response is produced to similar stimuli with which it was not originally associated this is known as “stimulus generalization”. Learning to distinguish different kinds of stimulus is known as discrimination.There are several S—R theories which contain these general principles or variations of them, and they have been used in studies of verbal learning and language learning.6.Empiricisman approach to psychology which states that the development of theory must be related to observable facts and expeiments (see Behaviorism), or which states that all human knowledge comes from experience. Empiricism contrasts with the view that many forms of human knowledge are in-born or innate (see Innatist hypothesis).7. Transformational-generative GrammarAlso transformational grammar, TG grammar, generative-transformational grammar, generative transformational theoryA theory of grammar which was proposed by the American linguist Chomsky in1957. It has since been developed by him and many other linguists. Chomsky attempted to provide a model for the description of all languages. A transformational generative grammar tries to show, with a system of rules, theknowledge which a native speaker of a language uses in forming grammatical sentences.Chomsky has changed his theory over the years. The most well-known version was published in his book Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965. It is often referred to as the Aspects Model or Standard Theory. This model consists of four main parts:1)the base component, which produces or generates basic syntactic structurescalled deep structures; 2) the transformational component, which changes or transforms these basic structures into sentences called surface structures; 3) the phonological component, which gives sentences a phonetic representation so that they can be pronounced; 4) the semantic component, which deals with the meaning of sentences.8.Saussure’s Views of Language and his ContributionsSaussure’s view of of languange as a system of arbitrary signsSaussure occupies such an important place in the history of linguistics that he he is often described as “father of modern linguistics”.The significance of the rich legacy Saussure left us is probably beyond what we may realize at present. Saussure’s chief contributions are as follows:1)He helped to set the study of human behavior on a new footing (basis).Saussure saw that the study of human behavior misses its best opportunities if it tries to trace the historical causes of individual events. Instead, it must focus primarily on the functions which events have within a general social framework, and it must treat social facts as part of a system of conventions (规约系统) and values.2) He helped to promote semiology (符号学).By his methodological example and by various prophetic suggestions, Saussure helped to promote semiology, the generals cience of signs and system of signs, and structuralism, which has been an important trend in contemporary anthropology and literary criticism as well as in linguistics.3) He clarrified the formal strategies of Modernist thought.In his methodological remarks and general approach to language, Saussure gave a clear expression of what we might call the formal strategies of Modenist thought: the ways in which scientists, philosophers, artists, and writers working in the early part of the 20th century tried to know about a complex and chaotic universe.4) He attached importance to the study of the intimate relation between languageand human mind (心智).Saussure’s treatment of language focuses on problems which are central to new ways of thinking about man and especially about the intimate relation between language and the human mind.In a word. Saussure’s contr ibutions are actually in many fields: linguistics, general social sciences, semiotics and structuralism, modernist thought and our conception of man. All these make him a seminal figure in modern intellectual history.9. Bloomfield’s Views of Language and ContributionsBloomfield’s language (1933) has been acclaimed as a classic in modern linguistics and was once held to be the model of scientific methodology and the greatest work in linguistics on both sides of the Atlantic in the 20th century. The main points in his work are (1)behaviorist view of language; (2) the problem of speech community; (3) phonological features and typology; (4) grammatical units.He is the principal representative of American descriptive linguistics and is read by many more linguists today. Bloomfield is such a landmark figure (标志性人物) in the history of American linguistics that the period between 1933 and 1950 is known as the Bloomfieldian Age, in which American descriptive linguistics formally came into being and reached its prime development.Bloomfield’s main contribution to linguistics is his philosophically sophisticated emphasis on making it a science. He was one of the chief founders of the Linguistics Society of America in 1924. He is also the founder of structuralist linguistics and trained a generation of linguists.The only difference is that Bloomfield tried to account for the production and interpretation of speech with the “stimulus-response”theory under the influence of the prevailing behaviorist psychology of the time.10. Halliday`s metafunctions( 3 aspects):Since the adult’s language is more complex and has to serve many functions, the original functional range of the child’s language is gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions, which are metafunctions: the ideational, the interpersonal, and the textual functions.The ideational function is to convey new information to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. It mainly consists of “transitivity” and “voice”.For example, John built a new house can be analysed as a configuration of the functions （功能配置）:Actor: John Process: Material: creation: built Goal: affected: a new houseHere the “Actor”, “Process”, “Goal”, and their subcategories reflect our understanding of phenomena that come within our experienceThe interpersonal function embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. And it is realized by Mood and Modality.The textual function refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences. Although two sentences may have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they may be different in terms of textual coherence.The textual function can also highlight certain parts of the text. For example, in Authority I respect, but authoritarianism I deplore, both authority and authoritarianism are highlighted.Halliday and Systemic-Functional GrammarHalliday took up the Prague School’s functionalist theory, especially the theory of Communicative Dynamism, the Copenhagen School’s glossematics, and the traditions of the London School in developing his theories of Systemic-Functional Grammar. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the twentieth century, exerting a strong impact on various disciplines related to language, such as language teaching, sociolinguistics. SF grammar actually has two components: SystemicGrammar and Functional Grammar. They are two inseparable parts for an integral framework in Halliday’s linguistic inquiry. Systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential. Functional grammar includes 3 components: the ideational function, the interpersonal function and the textual function. And the functional grammar aims to reveal that language system and the forms that make it up are inescapably determined by the uses or functions which they serve. SF grammar is based on two facts:(1) language users are actually making choices in a system of systems and trying to realize different semantic functions in social interaction and (2) language is inseparable from social activities of man. Thus, it takes actual uses of language as the object of study, in opposition to Chomsky’s TG grammar which takes the ideal speaker’s linguistic competence as the object of study.Halliday also believes that the situation consists of three parts: “field”“tenor” and “mode”. The field of discourse refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place. The tenor of discourse refers to who is taking part in, to the nature of participants, their status and roles. The mode of discourse refers to what part the language is playing, what it is that the participants expect the language to do for them in the situation.。
应用语言学 重点整理(各类名解 术语对比 简答)
1.Applied linguistics aimed to solve problems in various fields by applying the knowledge of linguistics.2.The nature of applied linguistics:Independent Interdisciplinary Applied scienceEmpirical science♥3.名：Non-cognitive VS Cognitive:Non-cognitive：1)refers to “the change in a behavioral tendency” as the result of repeated reinforced practice of stimulus-response.2) refers to the change of external behavior 外部行为变化3) is mechanical connection between stimuli and responsesCognitive:1) is the conceptual process experienced in the association between stimuli and responses2) refers to the acquisition and organization of meaning3) is a process of getting to know the outside world through understanding and deduction 推断演绎4. learning includes not only deliberately acquired new associations (intentional learning)意向学习but also those acquired without conscious awareness. (incidental learning)附带学习5．Philosophical bases of learning theories:The pessimistic view 悲观论The hedonistic view 快乐主义The optimistic view 乐观论The tabula-rasa or “blank-slate”view: in behaviorism, the starting point for first language acquisition was sometimes assumed to be zero.( a blank slate) 白板论6. 1.Pavlov’s classical conditioning❖Experiment :Salivation reflex in dogs❖Food; sound of bell/light; salivate❖Contiguity and repetition2.Thorndike’s instrumental conditioning 工具性条件反射❖Experiment :Trial and error behavior of animals❖Trial and error :试错法，尝试错误说：一种通过尝试各式各样的方法或理论直到错误被充分地减少或杜绝从而达到正确的解决方法或令人满意的结果的方法Three laws of learning:❖Law of readiness：准备率（感兴趣）❖Law of exercise：练习率Repetition of a conditioned response would strengthen the bond between the stimulus situation and the response.❖Law of effect：效果率It states that “when a modifiable connection is made and is accompanied by or followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the connection is increased.”3.Hul’ SOR theory:S-O-R: O: intervening variables中间变量. His major assumption involved the inner states in people. It is used to signify the importance of intervening happenings in the organism.♥7.简：Stimulus-response theory 刺激-反应理论It describes learning as the formation of associations between responses. A stimulus is that which produces a change of reaction in an individual or organism. A response is the behavior which is produced as a reaction to a stimulus. Reinforcement is a stimulus which follows the occurrence of a response and affects the probability of that response occurring or not occurring again.♥8.简：Gestalt psychology：The meaning of gestalt: pattern or configuration (结构，形状整体) it refers to a whole that is greater than the sum total of its parts.A gestalt is a form, and there is a form which is present in a whole which is lost when the parts are examined in detail without reference to their relationship to the whole.9.Advance organizer先行组织者: it is an activity which helps students organize their thoughts and ideas as a preparation for learning or studying something.♥10.名：Competence VS PerformanceCompetence：refers to a person’s internalized knowledge of a language. In other words, competence refers to what person knows about a language.Performance：refers to the actual use of a language. It refers to how a person actually uses his competence in comprehension and production of a language. (CHOMSKY)11.The features of L1 acquisition：❖1)universally successful 全世界都成功❖2) no explicit instruction❖3) rapid (0-4 years old)❖4) conditional (i. exposure; ii. Critical period—1.5-4 years old; iii. No mental deficiency).12.Some scholars suggest that children are able to learn language because adults speak to them in a special “simplified” language sometimes called motherese, caretakerese-, or child directed speech. (CDS) (more informally, baby talk).♥13.名：Order vs. SequenceOrder of acquisition refers to the fact that one linguistic form, rule and item is acquired before another. Sequence of acquisition refers to the stages that learners go through in learning a TL feature.Developmental pattern is a cover term for order and sequence.14.Foreign Language vs. Second LanguageForeign language refers to a language which is not a Native Language in a country. It is not used as a medium of instruction in the mainstream education, as a working language of mainstream mess media or as a language of communication within a country. 中国人在中国学英语Second language can be used interchangeably with “foreign language”. It is also used to refer to a language that a person with a first language learns and acquires in a country where the language is a Native Language.中国人在英国学英语15.Differences between child and adult learnersKrashen’s summary of findings: adults and older children in general initially acquire the second language faster than young children, but children second language acquirer will usually be superior in terms of ultimate attainment.16.The biological explanation：1.有偏向左半球大脑，右手灵活2.这种偏侧性增强到5岁左右3.有些语言部分不完全偏向左脑，直到青春期♥17.简：Interlanguage theory 中介语理论Definition: The type of language produced by second-and-foreign-language learners who are in the process of learning a language. It’s actually a system bordering on the first language and the target language.❖ a. borrowing patterns from the mother tongue❖ b. extending patterns from the target language, e.g by analog❖ c. expressing meaning using the words and grammar which are already known.it is sometimes said to result from the learner’s interlanguage system or approximative systemCharacteristic of interlanguage system1) reduced or simplified system 2)dynamic♥18.简：the Monitor theory 监控理论Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition1.the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,2.the Monitor hypothesis,The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'.The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, 1)the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, 2)he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and3) he/she knows the rule.3.the Natural Order hypothesis,the hypothesis that children acquiring their 2nd language acquire linguistic forms, rules, and items in a similar order.4.the Input hypothesis,The idea that exposure to comprehensible input which contains structures that are slightly in advance of a learner’s current level of competence is the necessary and sufficient cause of SLA5.the Affective Filter hypothesis.♥19.名：Acquisition(习得) vs Learning(学得)According to kranshen, there are 2 independent systems of second language performance “the acquisition system”and “the learned system”.The “acquisition system” or “acquisition” is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language —natural communicative in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.The learned system or learning is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge about the language. For example: knowledge of grammar rule.20.The creative construction modelit asserts that L2 learners do not merely imitate the language they are exposed to, but subconsciously construct mental grammars which allow them to produce and understand words, phrases and sentences they have not heard before。
应用语言学重点知识汇总
Chapter one:The Nature of Applied Linguistics (特点)1) It has an independent discipline (独立性) a) it has its own object of study;b) it has its own scientific system of theories and methodology;c) it has its own researchers.2) It is an interdisciplinary science(跨学科)3) It is an applied science(应用性)应用语言学包含着具有内在联系的三个方面：语言理论，语言描写和语言教学。
语言理论的作用是为语言教师提供关于一般语言系统的结构和功能运用得知识；语言描写的作用是使语言教师了解英语的结构特点、获得语言洞察力。
这两部分是语言教学的基础。
4) It is an empirical science(试验性)Like natural science, applied linguistics uses experiments as its basic way of research, emphasizing objectivity, systematicness, explicitness and economy. (客观性，系统性，明确性，经济性)The Task of Applied Linguistics （任务）1) a comprehensive and up-to-date grasp of the theoretical foundations of language learning and teaching；(更好理解掌握最新的语言教学和语言学习的理论基础)2) an integrated understanding of the various factors affecting language learning and teaching；(全面了解影响语言学习和语言教学的各种因素)3) a basic knowledge about different language teaching approaches, methods and techniques.(一个语言教学理念、方法和技巧)英语教学法主要是立足于心理学和教育学的理论和成果。
江苏省考研专业复习资料语言学重要理论总结
江苏省考研专业复习资料语言学重要理论总结语言学是对人类语言的研究，涉及语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个领域。
在江苏省考研语言学专业复习中，理解和掌握语言学的重要理论是至关重要的。
本文将对江苏省考研专业复习资料中的语言学重要理论进行总结。
一、语音学语音学是研究语言中音素的学科。
其中重要理论包括音位、音系、音变等。
1.音位音位是语言中区分词义的最小单位。
其中重要理论有国际音标、同位异音和音位合并等。
国际音标是一种用符号表示发音的方法，有助于研究语音的国际比较。
同位异音指的是同一个音位在不同的环境下发音不同，如英语中/t/在不同位置发音有所差异。
音位合并是指不同的音位在某些语音环境下发音相同，如英语中的/p/和/b/在词尾位置发音相同，造成了词义上的区别。
2.音系音系是指一个语言中所有音位的组合。
研究音系的重要理论包括辅音和元音的分类、音系的结构和音位的分布等。
辅音和元音的分类是指根据发音方式和发音部位将辅音和元音进行分类。
音系的结构是指不同音位之间的关系，包括辅音和元音在音系中的分布情况。
3.音变音变指的是一个音位在特定语音环境下发生变化的现象。
重要理论包括音变规律、音变的历时推导和音变的意义等。
音变规律是指一个音位在不同语音环境下发生变化的规律，如英语中的连读现象。
音变的历时推导是指通过比较不同时期的语音系统，推导出音变的演变过程。
音变的意义是指音变对词义和语法意义的影响，如英语中的动词过去式变化。
二、语法学语法学是研究语言结构和形式的学科。
其中重要理论包括短语结构语法、依存语法、语义角色和句法关系等。
1.短语结构语法短语结构语法是研究句子结构的方法，通过对句子进行层次化分析来揭示句子结构。
重要理论包括短语结构规则和短语结构树等。
短语结构规则是指用于生成短语结构树的规则，包括短语的组合和成分的排列等。
短语结构树是一种用于表示句子结构的图形化工具，有助于理解句子中各个成分的关系。
2.依存语法依存语法是一种关注词与词之间依存关系的语法理论。
语言学知识点+整理-集合知识点整理图(精华)
第一单元What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientificstudy of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Phonetics语音学：the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguisticscalled phoneticsPhonology音系学:as linguists became interested in how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.Morphology形态学:the study of the way in which these symbolsare arranged form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.Syntax句法学:the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules ,the study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistics studiesSemantics语义学:the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as semanticsPragmatics语用学:when the study of meaning is conducted,not in isolaion,but in the context of use,it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmaticsSociolinguistics社会语言学:the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branchcalled sociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics心理语言学: Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology\Applied linguistics应用语言学:findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguisticsOther related branchs include anthropological linguistics,neurological linguistics,mathematical linguistics,and computational linguistics.Some important distinctions in linguistics。
语言学知识点汇总
语言学知识点汇总语言，是人类交流的工具，也是思维的载体。
语言学则是对语言的科学研究，涵盖了众多有趣且重要的知识点。
首先，我们来谈谈语音学。
语音学关注的是语言的声音，包括元音和辅音的发音特点、语音的声学特征以及语音的产生和感知机制。
例如，元音的发音取决于舌头的位置和嘴唇的形状，而辅音则通过发音部位和发音方法来区分。
了解语音学能帮助我们更准确地发音，也有助于语言的学习和教学。
语法是语言学中的一个关键部分。
它规定了词如何组成句子，句子的结构和成分。
比如，句子中的主语、谓语、宾语等成分的排列规则，以及不同词性的词（名词、动词、形容词等）在句子中的用法。
语法规则并非随意设定，而是在长期的语言使用中逐渐形成和固定下来的。
词汇学则聚焦于词汇的研究。
包括词汇的构成、词义的演变、词汇的分类等。
词汇不是孤立存在的，它们相互关联形成一个庞大的系统。
比如，同义词、反义词、上下义词等关系。
同时，词汇的意义也会随着时间和社会的发展而发生变化，新的词汇不断产生，旧的词汇可能会被淘汰或赋予新的含义。
语义学研究的是语言符号（词、短语、句子等）与它们所指称的对象之间的关系，也就是语言的意义。
语义不仅仅是单词的字面意思，还包括语境中的含义、隐喻、转喻等修辞手法所带来的意义变化。
例如，“他是个钢铁般的人”，这里并不是说他由钢铁构成，而是用“钢铁”来隐喻他的坚强意志。
语用学关注的是语言在实际使用中的情境和意图。
它考虑说话者的意图、听话者的理解、语言的交际功能等。
比如，同样一句话“你能帮我一下吗？”在不同的情境中可能有不同的含义和效果，取决于说话者和听话者之间的关系、说话的场合等。
语言的类型学也是一个重要的领域。
它对世界上各种语言进行分类和比较，根据语言的语法、词汇、语音等特征将语言分为不同的类型。
例如，有的语言是孤立语，词形基本不发生变化，依靠语序和虚词来表达语法关系；有的语言是屈折语，词形会根据语法功能发生变化。
社会语言学研究语言与社会的关系。
应用语言学概论重点知识整理
应用语言学概论重点知识整理应用语言学概论重点知识整理1．应用语言学的性质即定义：（1）简单的说，应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同有关方面发生关系的学科。
（2）进一步说，应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同应用各部分结合部、接触面、包括结合、接触的动态变化的规律性的学科（3）打个比方说，好像一个轴承，一面是语言本体和本体语言学，一面是发生关系的各个方面，两者之间的一个个滚珠是应用语言学的一个个分支学科，他们相互接触、推动还嵌在一里一外的槽里，都跟槽互相接触、推动。
2．为什么有了本体语言学还要有应用语言学？（1）语言是社会现象而非自然现象，语言的发展和使用受到多种因素的影响，语言的有其自身的规律。
（2）我国语言研究主要受到索绪尔的影响，索绪尔的观点是为语言，就语言而研究语言。
但是仅仅从语言本身来研究语言是不够的，没有语言的应用就没有语言，因此还要把语言放在交际中看。
3.为什么说应用语言学有理论？（1）没有人事先提供了完善的语言学理论供应用。
（2）任何应用都包含了下位层次的理论，实践—理论—实践。
（3）语言学之外也有理论，动词的价和化学，无罪推断和法学；规范就是服务和管理学。
（4）梳理了一些理论，交际，动态，层次，中介，潜显，人文性。
4.语言学的新分类：（1）本体语言学（2）应用语言学（3）语言学理论是本体语言学与应用语言的融合提升5.应用语言学的范围：一、从学科范围上看（1）广义的社会语言学，是研究语言本体和本体语言学同社会关系的学科（2）语言规划（3）语言教学（4）计算语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同现代科技的关系的学科二、从队伍建设方面看包括研究机构的建设，刊物的建设，活动的开展，文风和学风的建设，课题和课程设置成果的推广。
6．从标准和地位两个方面说说什么是普通话？标准：即以北方话为基础方言、以北京语音为标准音，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的中华民族共同的通用语言和交际工具。
7.为什么说推广普通话不是消灭方言？（1）推广普通话不是禁绝和消灭方言。
外语类专业河南省考研语言学理论体系梳理
外语类专业河南省考研语言学理论体系梳理在外语类专业的河南省考研中，语言学理论体系是一个重要的考点。
语言学作为一门学科，研究的是人类语言的本质、结构和使用规律。
在考研中，理论体系的梳理对于学生的复习备考至关重要。
本文将从语言学的基本概念入手，逐渐展开对于语言学理论体系的梳理。
一、语言学的基本概念语言学是一门研究语言现象的学科，它研究的对象是人类的语言能力以及由此产生的语言现象。
语言学基于对语言的研究，探索语言的本质、结构和使用规律，进而提出一些原则和理论以解释和预测语言现象。
语言学的研究方法主要包括田野调查、实验研究和对比研究等。
二、语音学语音学是语言学的一大分支，研究语音的产生、传播和感知机制。
在语音学中，研究的重点是语音的声音学特征、语音的各类音素，以及声调和音系等内容。
语音学研究的成果对于外语学习者的语音纠正和语音教学都有着重要的指导作用。
三、音系学音系学是语言学的另一分支，研究的是一种具体语言中语音的范畴和规则。
音系学从声音的角度出发，探索一种语言中哪些音可以被辨认为不同的音素，以及每个音素在不同的环境下的发音规则。
音系学的研究成果对于外语教学中的发音教学以及语音识别等领域都具有重要的应用价值。
四、词汇学词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究的是一种语言中的词和词的构成规则。
词汇学的研究内容包括词的分类、词的形态和词的构词规则等。
在外语学习中，词汇是重要的基础和载体，通过对词汇学的研究，可以更好地理解和掌握一门外语的词汇系统。
五、语法学语法学是语言学研究的核心领域之一，研究的是组成句子的规则和结构。
语法学可以分为形态学、句法学和语义学等分支。
形态学研究的是词的内部结构和变化规律，句法学研究的是句子的结构和句子成分之间的关系，而语义学研究的是句子的意义和词汇之间的关系。
语法学的研究成果对于外语学习者的语法掌握和句子的正确表达都具有重要的意义。
总结起来，语言学理论体系的梳理包括语音学、音系学、词汇学和语法学等几个主要分支。
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考研语言学与应用语言学知识点梳理考研是众多研究生考生迈向更高学术阶梯的重要关口，而语言学与应用语言学则是考研英语学科的重要组成部分。
为了帮助考生更好地理解和掌握这一部分知识，本文将对考研语言学与应用语言学的知识点进行梳理与讨论。
一、语言学基础知识
语言学是研究语言的科学，它分为多个分支，包括语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学、语用学等。
在考研中，语言学是必考的科目之一。
以下将对其中几个重要的知识点进行梳理。
1. 语音学：语音学研究的是人类语音发音的规律和特点。
主要内容包括语音分类、国际音标、音节结构和音变等。
2. 语义学：语义学研究的是词语和句子的意义。
主要内容包括词汇义、上下文义、语气义、篇章义等。
3. 词汇学：词汇学研究的是语言中的单词和词汇搭配。
主要内容包括词类、词法、词义、构词法等。
4. 句法学：句法学研究的是句子的结构和组织。
主要内容包括短语结构、句子成分、句法关系等。
二、语音学与音系
语音学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究语言中的音素和音位等内容。
音系则是语音学中对语言中的音类进行分类和组织的体系。
1. 国际音标：国际音标是一种用来表示语音的符号系统，它的目
的是为了将世界上所有语言中的音素进行一一对应的描述。
2. 音位：音位是指在某种语言中有具体语义区别的音素。
3. 音变规律：音变规律是指在特定语音环境中，音素发音会产生
变化的规律。
包括共振、调音、失去元音、辅音等。
三、词汇学与短语结构
词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，它研究的是语言中的词汇。
而
短语结构则是句法学中对组成句子的短语的结构和组织方式的研究。
1. 词类：词类是指词汇根据其所表达的意义和语法特点分类的方式。
包括名词、动词、形容词、副词等。
2. 词义：词义是指词语所表示的具体意义。
一个词汇可能有多个
词义，需要根据上下文进行判断。
3. 构词法：构词法研究的是词汇的构成方式和形态。
包括派生、
复合和缩略等。
四、句法学与句子分析
句法学是语言学中的一个分支，研究的是句子的结构和组织。
而
句子分析则是对句子进行分析和解释的过程。
1. 短语结构规则：短语结构规则是一种用来描述句子组成结构的
规则。
它由短语标记和短语组成，可以用来表示句子成分之间的关系。
2. 句法关系：句法关系是指句子中不同成分之间的关系。
包括主
谓关系、宾语关系、定语关系等。
3. 句型分析：句型分析是对句子的结构和组织方式进行系统分析
和描述的过程。
通过句型分析可以更好地理解句子的意义和功能。
五、语言学与其他学科的关系
语言学是一门综合性的学科，与其他学科关系密切。
在应用语言
学中，语言学的知识可以应用于多个学科和领域。
1.应用语言学：应用语言学研究的是语言学在实际应用中的运用。
它将语言学的理论知识应用于语言教学、语音识别、翻译研究等方面，以提高语言的有效性和实用性。
2.心理学：语言学与心理学的关系密切。
心理学研究的是人类的心理过程，而语言学研究的是语言现象。
两者相互补充，共同探索人类
的语言能力和理解方式。
3.社会学：语言学与社会学的关系也非常紧密。
社会学关注的是社会结构和社会行为，而语言是社会交流的重要方式之一。
语言学的知
识可以帮助社会学更好地理解社会交流和文化传承的过程。
总结
本文对考研语言学与应用语言学的知识点进行了梳理和讨论。
其
中包括语音学、词汇学、句法学等基础知识的介绍，以及语音学与音系、词汇学与短语结构、句法学与句子分析等方面的深入讨论。
此外，还介绍了语言学与其他学科的关系，包括应用语言学、心理学、社会
学等。
通过对这些知识点的学习和理解，考生可以更好地应对考研中与语言学和应用语言学相关的问题。