17世纪英国world
英国文化

• There is a real focus at the festival to preserve the land and be enviromentally friendly.Every trader at Glastonbury has to recycle, use biodegradable plates and cutlery and serve fair-trade tea and coffee. In addition they run a special competition every year to celebrate those who go above and beyond this. The prize for being the greenest of the green is a free pitch at the next festival.
疯狂露天音乐节 乐迷雨中起舞
• • Music festivals are a big part of British youth culture. Glastonbury Festival is the biggest and most widely known of these festivals, and all the most popular music artists will play here. 音乐节是英国年轻人文化的重要组成部分。 其中,格拉斯顿伯里音乐节是英国最大也是 最受关注的音乐节,所有知名的音乐人都会 在这个音乐节里演出。 The festival takes place in south west England at Worthy Farm.The size and nature of the festival, held over three or four days in the open air, with performers, crew and paying festival goers staying in tents, caravans and motorhomes, has meant that the weather is significant. 格拉斯顿伯里音乐节一般在英国西南部的沃 西农场举行。由于音乐节为期3-4天而且是露 天进行,这就意味着表演者和观众都必须要 么住在帐篷里或者旅行车里或者旅宿车里, 当然,天气的好坏尤为重要。
打开“技术黑箱”:技术进化视阈下近代中英棉纺织业的发展差异

【经济史苑】DOI :10.14182/ki.j.anu.2022.05.008打开“技术黑箱”:技术进化视阈下近代中英棉纺织业的发展差异*方逸韬,杨德才(南京大学经济学院,南京210093)——————————————————————————————————————————关键词:技术黑箱;技术进化;中英比较;棉纺织业摘要:在近代史中,工业革命常被认为是世界发展的“分水岭”。
以科学技术为基础的第一次工业革命未发生在中国,近代中国棉纺织业陷入技术创新不足的困境,传统手工棉纺织业开始由兴盛转向衰落,这与近代英国棉纺织业的飞速发展形成了鲜明对比,如何解释这一差异成为学界的重要议题。
相较于以往文献中多注重考察市场、地理等外生因素,本研究尝试从内生技术因素探寻其差异的深层原因,重点关注传统技术的演化规律及其“黑箱”特性。
研究发现:第一,中英两国在传统纺织技术的延续性及适配性上存在差异;第二,中英两国在机床工业、钟表制造业等关联领域的传统技术上存在差异;第三,技术思想和技术发展观念深刻影响了近代中英两国的“创新孵化”。
中图分类号:F129文献标识码:A 文章编号:1001-2435(2022)05-0079-12Opening the "Technology Black Box":The Development Differences of Modern Cotton Textile Industries betweenChina and Britain from the Perspective of Technological EvolutionFANG Yi-tao ,YANG De-cai (School of Economics ,Nanjing University ,Nanjing 210093,China )Key words :technology black box ;technological evolution ;comparison between China and Britain ;cotton textileindustryAbstract :In modern history ,the industrial revolution is often regarded as the "watershed"of world development.Thefirst industrial revolution based on science and technology did not take place in China ,which led to the dilemma ofinsufficient innovation in modern China's cotton textile technology.The traditional handmade cotton textile industrybegan to turn from prosperity to decline ,which is in sharp contrast with the rapid development of the modern Britishcotton textile industry.How to explain this difference has become an important issue in the academic -pared with previous literature ,which paid more attention to exogenous factors such as market and geography ,thisstudy attempts to explore the causes of differences from endogenous technical factors.Focusing on the evolution lawsof traditional technology and the characteristics of black box.The findings are as follows :First ,there are differences inthe continuity and adaptability of traditional textile technology between China and Britain ;second ,there are differ-ences in traditional technologies in related fields such as the machine tool industry and watch manufacturing ;third ,technological thoughts and concepts of technological development had a profound impact on the "innovation incuba-tion"of modern China and Britain.——————————————————————————————————————————*收稿日期:2021-11-10;修回日期:2022-06-01基金项目:教育部哲学社会科学研究重大课题攻关项目“中华人民共和国经济史研究”(18JZD025)作者简介:方逸韬(1991-),男,安徽芜湖人,博士研究生,主要研究方向为经济史、技术经济学;杨德才(1965-),男,安徽当涂人,教授,博士生导师,主要研究方向为经济史、发展经济学、新制度经济学等。
英国文学名词及作家作品

寓言allegory亚历山大诗行alexandrine头韵alliteration民谣ballad史诗epic短叙事诗lay传奇romance无韵体blank verse喜剧comedy小品文essay绮丽体euphuistic历史剧history Plays人文主义humanism插剧interlude假面剧masques神秘剧miracle plays道德剧morality plays宗教改革reformation文艺复兴renaissance十四行诗sonnet斯宾塞诗节Spenserian stanza 诗节stanza悲剧tragedy骑士派诗人cavalier poets奇思妙喻conceit挽歌elegy文学派诗人metaphysical清教主义Puritanism新古典主义neoclassicism探险小说adventure novel 说教文学didactic literature 书信体小说epistolary novel 感伤主义sentimentalism情节action典故allusion启蒙运动enlightenment五步抑扬格iambic pentameter 非英雄主角anti-hero古语archaism基调atmosphere警句epigram闹剧farce诗章canto古典主义classicism人物塑造characterizationGeoffrey Chaucer 杰弗里乔叟1.The Canterbury Tales 《坎特伯雷故事集》2.The book of the Duchess 《公爵夫人之书》3.The Parliament of Fowl 《百鸟议会》4.The House of Fame 《声誉之堂》5.Troilus and Criseyde 《特洛勒斯和克莱西》乔叟的贡献Contribution1.establishment of English as the literary language of England2.intraduced from French poetry various metrical forms (esp: heroic couplet 英雄双韵体)3.Father of English poetry founder of English realism4.charcer as forerunner of English renaissanceWilliam Langland 威廉朗兰1.Piers the Plowmen 《耕者皮尔斯》Renaissance 文艺复兴Edmund Spenser 埃德蒙斯宾塞1.The Faerie Queene 《仙后》2.The Shepherd’s Calendar 《牧羊人日历》3.Amoretti 《爱情小唱》4. Epithalamion 《婚后曲》斯宾塞的贡献Spenser’s contribution to English literature lies not only in what he wrote, but also in how he wrote it . He poetic form, The 9-line stanza form, called Spenserian stanza, rhymed abab bcbc c is one of his inventions. The first eight are iambic pentameter lines, and the last line is an iambic hexameter.Thomas More 托马斯莫尔1.Utopia 《乌托邦》Francis Bacon 佛朗西斯培根1.Essay 《随笔》包括《of Marriage and Single Life》《of Studies》2.Advancement of Learning 《学术的推进》3.Novum Organum 《新工具》Ben Jonson 本琼森1.Everyman in His Humour 《个性互异》Christopher Marlowe 克里斯托弗马洛1.Doctor Faustus 《浮士德博士》2.The Jew of Malta 《马其他的犹太人》3.The Passionate Shepherd to His Love 《多情的牧羊人致情人》Shakespeare William 威廉莎士比亚对他的评论或他戏剧的特点1.Shakespeare is one of the founders of realism in word literature2.Shakespeare’s dramatic creation often used the method of adaptation3.Shakespeare’s long experience with the stage and his intimate knowledge of dramatic art thus acquired make him a master-hand for play-writing.4.Shakespeare was skilled in many of poetic forms: the song, the sonnet, the couplet, and thedramatic blank5.Shakespeare was a great master of the English language, he has been universally acknowledged to be the summit of the English Renaissance, and one of the greatest writers the world over.The 17th17世纪English Bourgeois Revolution 英国资产阶级革命John Donne 约翰邓恩1.Songs and Sonnets 《歌与十四行诗》包括The Good-Morrow 《早安》Break of Day 《破晓》2.Elegies 《挽歌集》3.Holy Sonnets 《圣十四行诗》4.Flea 《跳骚》Conceits (奇喻的特点):1.strange paradoxes 2.far-fetched imagery parison that seen far apart 4.most heterogeneous(各种各样的) ideas are yoked by force together.Metaphysical Poets 玄学派诗人代表人物:John Donne, Carew, George Herbert, Crashaw, Henry Vaugham, Marvell, Cleveland, Cowley特点:The marks of the metaphysical poetry in the 17th century were arresting and original images and conceits, wit。
王佐良《欧洲文化入门》课后习题详解(第17世纪)【圣才出品】

第5章第17世纪Questions for Revision:1. What were Galileo’s contributions to modern science?Key: Galileo is the greatest name in physics in the 17th century. He has made contributions to the world:(1) He was the first to apply telescope to the study of the skies. He even made a telescope for himself and used it to observe the stars;(2) In 1609 he announced a series of astronomical discoveries which caught the attention of the whole of Europe. With the help of telescope, e proved that Ptolemy’s system would not work and that Copernicus’s hypothesis had been right;(3) Galileo discovered the importance of acceleration in dynamics and the law of inertia;(4) Galileo was the first to establish the law of falling bodies;(5) He invented thermometer.2. How did Kepler’s laws clarify and amend Copernican theory?Key: Copernicus heliocentric theory was put forward only as a hypothesis. It was Kepler who supported him scientifically. Kepler is best known for his discovery of the three laws of planetary motion, the three laws being called Kepler’s lawspublished in 1609 and 1619. They may be stated as follows:(1) Each planet moves in an ellipse, not a perfect circle, with the sun at one focus;(2) Each planet moves more rapidly when near the sun than farther from it;(3) The distance of each planet from the sun bears a definite relation to the time period the planet took to complete a revolution around the sun. This law was reduced to a mathematical formula: the square of the period of revolution of a planet about the sun is proportional to the cube of the mean distance of the planet from the sun.Kepler’s laws supported, clarified and amended the Copernican system and turned the system from a general description of the sun and the planets into a precise mathematical formula/ these three laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton’s discovery of the laws of gravitation.3. Why Newton is generally considered to be the greatest scientist that ever lived? Key: Newton has made great contributions to history of science:(1) As a mathematician, he invented calculus;(2) In optics, he discovered that while light is composed of all the colors of the spectrum;(3) Most important of all, he discovered the law of the universal gravitation. According to this law, everybody attracts every other with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to thesquare of the distance between them. To put it simply, the sun, the moon, the earth, the planets, and all other bodies in the universe move in accordance with the same basic force which is called gravitation. The law of gravitation is considered to be one of the most important discoveries in the history of science and had not been questioned until Einstein discovered the law of relativity;(4) Newton’s influence was not limited to the physical universe. His analytical method, the way he approached natural laws by observation, experiment and calculation, began to be applied to human society, to all branches of knowledge and thought. Thus he was generally considered to be the greatest scientist that ever lived.4. Why do we say that Bacon was a founder of modern philosophy?Key: Bacon was regarded as the founder of modern philosophy:The whole basis of his philosophy was practical. He held the philosophy should be kept separate from theology instead of being blended with it as the Scholasticism; Bacon maintained that it was crucial to supply mankind with a scientific method of inquiry into nature. He rejected the traditional deductive method and founded modern inductive method;To exert any great advancement in science, bacon held that we must begin anew. The fresh start required the mind to overcome all the preconceptions, all prejudices, all the assumption, to sweep away all the fallacies and false beliefs, in a word, to break with the past, and to restore man to his lost mastery of the naturalworld.This was what Bacon called the Great Instauration.5. What were the major differences between Locke’s concept of “social contract” and Hobbes’s?Key: (1) Hobbes’s concept of “social contract” is as follows. To escape anarchy, men enter into a social contrast, by which they submit to the sovereign. In return, men attain peace and security. In his theory, the powers of the sovereign must be absolute, and it is only by the centralization of authority in one person that the evil can be avoided. And the sovereign is not a party himself to the social contract. The subjects of the sovereign cannot either change the form of the government or repudiate the authority of the sovereign. As to the form of government, Hobbes preferred monarchy.(2) Locke tried to show the rational foundation of political society and government. He emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individual’s consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail. For him, absolute monarchy was contrary to the original social contract and dangerous to liberty. For him, the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.(3) Although both Hobbes and Locke used the term “social contract”, they differ fundamentally. First, Hobbes argued that men enter into a social contract to escape the state of war, for, in his view, men are enemies and at war with each other.Locke argued that men are equal and that individuals surrender their rights to one man, the sovereign whose power is absolute. Locke argued that the individuals surrender their rights to the community as a whole. According to him, by majority vote a representative is chosen, but his power is not absolute. If he fails to implement the people’s will, the people have the right to overthrow him.6. How did Locke justify rebellion against government?Key: Locke believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract. If the ruler substitutes his arbitrary will for the laws and shows no regard for people’s wills, in a word, if he violates the social contract, the government is effectively dissolved. If the government is dissolved. Rebellion is justified. As to who is to judge when circumstance render rebellion legitimate, Locke replied, “The people shall be the judge.”7. What is the theme of John Milton’s Paradise Lost?Key: The theme of Milton’s Paradise Lost is the fall of men: man’s disobedience and the loss thereupon of the Paradise, with its prime cause-Satan. In this epic poem, the evil, rebellious, courageous, heroic and tragic Satan is the most successfully portrayed character and is different from the traditional image.8. What is Descartes’s method of Cartesian doubt? What is its significance? Key: Descartes employed methodic doubt with a view to discovering whether therewas an indubitable truth. And he expressed this truth in this famous motto: “I doubt, therefore I think: I think, therefore I am.” This Cartesian doubt is the most important point in his philosophy. According to Descartes, “I think therefore I am” makes mind more certain than matter. He believed that is thinking is one that doubts, understands, conceives, affirms, denies, wills, imagines, and feels. Doubting is thinking, thinking is the essence of mind. So he concluded that knowledge of things that we conceive very clearly and distinctly are true, and that knowledge of things must be by the mind. As to the senses, he believed that they are not dependable.9. Who was the most well-known writer in the 17th century French literature? Say something about one of his major works.Key: Corneille, Racine and Moliere were the most well-known writers in the 17th century French literature. Corneille’s masterpiece was Le Cid which shows the intense conflict between love and duty. One of the representative tragedies of Racine is Phaedra which tells the story of the overwhelming passion of Phaedra for her stepson. The theme of the play is the conflict of passion with reason. Tartuffe is one of Moliere’s best known comedies. In this play, he exposes religious hypocrisy.10. What are some of the characteristics of Baroque art?Key: Baroque art, flourished first in Italy, and then spread to Spain, Portugal, France in south Europe and to Flander and the Netherland in the North. It was。
19世纪英国文学

Charles Dickens (1812-1870)
His Life
in 1836 Sketches by Boz 《博兹特写集》
married
articles for humorous pictures
popular
Worked without rest
Pickwick Papers 《匹克威克外传》 died at 58
英国著名浪漫主义诗人雪莱的第二任妻子, 英国著名小说家,因其1818创作的文学 史上第一部科幻小说《弗兰肯斯坦》,被誉 为科幻 小说之母。 代表作品: 《弗兰肯斯坦》,《最后一个人》,《永 生者》 Mary Shelley: was an English novelis, short story writer, dramatist, essayist,biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus (1818). She also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and philosopher Percy Bysshe Shelley. Her father was the political philosopher William Godwin, and her mother was the philosopher and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft----the author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) and the novel The Wrongs of Woman
中医药在英国的传播与发展现状

中医药在英国的传播与发展现状对中医药在英国的传播发展历程进行综述,浅析中医药在英国发展的优劣势,对现状进行思考,提出建议。
标签:中医药文化;英国;传播现状中医药是我国人民在长期同疾病作斗争的过程中所取得的极为丰富的经验总结,是我国优秀传统文化的重要组成部分,为中华民族的繁衍昌盛作出了巨大贡献。
随着经济生活的快速发展、文化生活的不断碰撞和融合,中医药不只在中国的国土上发扬光大,她像一颗璀璨的明珠在世界各地放射着光彩。
本文对中医药在英国传播与发展现状进行综述,并浅析中医药在英国发展的优劣势以及相关思考。
1中医药在英国传播和发展历程对于中医传入英国的时间,据史料记载是在17世纪晚期,英国直接或间接的接触到中医和针灸。
从现存史料看,《中国脉理医论》可视为中医学传入英国最早的著作[1],此书现藏于大英博物馆。
最初对针灸进行直接报道的是英国外科医生约翰·丘吉尔。
他于1821年发表了用针灸治疗风湿病和中耳炎的论文,成为针灸传播到英国的最早的确实史料[2]。
1958年,费利克思·曼恩在英国伦敦西区开设针灸诊室,并在诊室里教授课程,成为英国针灸诊所的创始人。
1960年,杰克·沃斯利创立了传统针灸学校,这是英国最早的针灸学校,为英国针灸的传播与发展做出重大贡献,他也被认为是历史上中医西传的传承者之一。
随后,1970年英国针灸师行会成立,1980年英国医学针灸学会成立,1986年英国补充与替代医学委员会成立,1990年英国针灸专业评审委员会成立,1995年英国西敏市大学开设针灸专业……这些史实有力地说明中医在英国传播过程中稳步发展,逐渐壮大。
虽然在此过程中饱受争议,但中医文化的包容性和多样性使得中医在英国发展越来越好,英国人民逐渐接受并认可中医医学。
Chinese medicine is gradually being accepted and is practiced even in the Western world[3]. 2中医药在英国发展现状目前,中医药在英国发展状况良好。
新视野大学英语(第三版)第三册翻译题答案
新视野英语(第三版)翻译题答案Unit 1 Translation世界公民是指一个人承认自己是新兴的全球社区的一分子,而且其行动对全球社区的价值打造和实践活动有所贡献。
世界公民相信人类从本质上来说是一个整体,任何个人都有改变事物的能力。
在我们这样一个相互依赖的世界中,世界公民意识鼓励我们认识到对彼此的责任,并从对方身上学习。
世界公民关心全球的教育、疾病、贫穷和环境问题。
在当今,全球合作的力量在使一些人萌发世界公民的意识,让他们拥有对全球社区的归属感。
这种不断发展的世界公民意识在很大程度上来讲,要归功于现代信息、通信和交通技术的力量世界公民意识致力于给予人们力量,让他们付诸行动,世界公民除了要从世界问题中学习知识和价值观,还要拥有必需的技能,使他们拥有能力和自信,积极推动世界的发展。
Nowadays, many young people no longer choose "stable" jobs. Instead, they prefer to start their own businesses and realize their self-value through their own wisdom and efforts. Young entrepreneurship is the source of national economic vitality in the future. The success of entrepreneurs not only creates fortune, increases job opportunities, improves people's life, but it is also good for the country in the long term. Entrepreneurs are a driving force in upgrading China's economy. Especially for the time being, our country is encouraging people to start their own businesses and make innovations and giving policy support for medium and small businesses. This further arouses young people's enthusiasm to start their own businesses.美国梦是美利坚合众国的民族精神。
世界历史时间轴
世界历史时间轴World History and Chinese History XXXAbout three n years ago。
XXX.Around 5000-7000 years ago。
the Hemudu culture。
XXX。
XXX.Around 4000-5000 years ago。
XXX。
XXX。
XXX.In 3113 BC。
the Maya XXX.Around 3100 BC。
XXX.een 2700-2500 BC。
XXX.Around 3000 BC。
slave city-XXX.In the mid-3000s BC。
the Harappan XXX.Around 4000 years ago。
legendary figures such as Yan Di。
Huang Di。
Yao。
Shun。
and Yu lived in China.In 2070 BC。
Yu succeeded his predecessor and established the Xia Dynasty (2070 BC - 1600 BC) in China.In 2600 BC。
during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom of Egypt。
the statue of Minkhaf and his wife was created.In 2500 BC。
the Great Sphinx of Giza。
a n-bodied。
human-headed stone sculpture。
XXX.Around 2100 BC。
there was a slave revolt in the XXX.In 1894 BC。
XXX Empire was established.In 1600 BC。
XXX (1600 BC - 1046 BC) in China.Around 1300 BC。
英国
一、国家概况 (一)自然概况
1、地理位置:西欧岛国,大不列颠岛(包括 英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士,简称“英伦三岛”) 及爱尔兰岛东北部为国土主要组成部分。
国名中“大不列颠”源于凯尔特语,意为“杂色多 彩”。指古代部族人身上喜涂各种色彩。
英国的地貌变 化多样,东南 部为平原和台 地,土地肥沃, 适于耕种,北 部和西部多山 地和丘陵,北 爱尔兰大部分 为高地。
一、自然概况
1、地理位置:西欧岛国 ,大不列颠岛(包括 英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士)及爱尔兰岛东北部 为国土主要组成部分。 2、地形:英格兰东南为平原,其余地区多 为山区
3、气候
属温带海洋性气 候。英国受盛行 西风控制,全年 温和湿润,四季 寒暑变化不大。
全年温和多雨,热量 不足,光照不足,不 利于谷物的成熟,而 利于多汁牧草的生长, 所以发展的是乳畜业, 英国的牧场面积接近 全国总面积的一半, 为畜牧业服务的饲料 种植面积又占了全国 耕地面积的一半,大 片耕地用来种植饲草、 饲用甜菜和饲用芜青 等。 。
芭蕾舞剧
音乐剧 电影
《哈利· 波特》(Harry Potter),是英国作家J· K· 罗琳 的奇幻文学系列小说,共7集, 描写主角哈利· 波特在霍格沃茨7 年学习生活中的冒险故事;该系 列被翻译成67种语言,所有版本 的总销售量逾5亿本(2013年10 月),名列世界上最畅销小说之 列。美国华纳兄弟电影公司把这 7集小说改拍成8部电影,前6集 各一部,而第七集分成两部。哈 利· 波特电影系列是全球史上最 卖座的电影系列,总票房收入达 76亿美元。
《美丽中国》,英文名:Wild China,由中英 联合摄制小组拍摄的一部关于中国野生动物和 自然风光的系列记录片,其中有些野生动画和 风景的镜头从未在银幕上出现过。这部系列片 是BBC和中国电视台的首次合作,该片是中英 两国联合电视制作的一个里程碑。英国广播公 司(British Broadcasting Corporation ), 简称BBC,成立于1922年,是英国最大的新闻 广播机构,也是世界最大的新闻广播机构之一。 长久以来一直被认为是全球最ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้尊敬的媒体之 一。
广东省汕头市铜盂中学高一英语《English around the world》课件
conquer
native AD present
vt.征服;占领
adj. 本国的, 本地的
n.本地人,本国人
公元 adj. 现在的,出席的
actually base gradual
adv. 实际上,事实上
vt. 以……为根据 n.基部,基地,基础 adj. 逐渐的,逐步的
gradually
enrich
People from England made voyages to conquer other parts of the world.
3. Because English sounds good, it began to be spoken in many other countries in the 17th century. F
比较级 +than ever before 比以往任何时候更
Development of English
today at the end of the 16th century Later in the next century More people speak in more countries
One of the English language’s most profound influences.
Noah Webster Born: October 16, 1758 Died: May 28, 1843 When Noah was 43, he started writing the first American dictionary. He did this because Americans in different parts of the country spelled, pronounced and used words differently.
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第五章17世纪英国政治思想第一节英国历史传统和革命一、历史传统1、独特的历史地理环境2、温和、妥协的民族性格3、贵族与王权的平衡13世纪大宪章限制王权/ 13世纪末国会建立/ 国会在专制时代仍存在/ 英国革命:国会恢复权利/革命后君主立宪二、资本主义的发展特点。
1、资本主义渗入农村2、新贵族出现3、15世纪红白玫瑰战争使旧贵族自相杀殆尽三、清教徒革命1、以加尔文教为旗帜2、宗教矛盾和斗争:对清教徒的迫害,激起反抗,自由问题较突出。
3、将教会改革、教会内平等、自由和民主的组织搬到国家中。
四、革命中的思想斗争•1)菲尔麦•2)霍布斯•3)弥尔顿、哈灵顿•4)利尔本•5)温斯坦莱•6)洛克(总结)第二节霍布斯(Thomas Hobbes 1588-1679)•英格兰乡村牧师家庭。
•早产儿•15岁进牛津大学•贵族的家庭教师•陪学生三次“大周游”•革命爆发逃到巴黎•威尔士王子私人教师•复辟时期得宠与迫害•《利维坦》、《论公民》•英格兰乡村牧师家庭。
•早产儿•15岁进牛津大学•贵族的家庭教师•陪学生三次“大周游”•革命爆发逃到巴黎•威尔士王子私人教师•复辟时期得宠与迫害•《利维坦》、《论公民》•霍布斯的历史任务,是完成现代民族国家的理论建构。
•马基雅弗利—格老修斯—布丹—霍布斯•1)政治权力的世俗化•2)现代民族国家的中央集权、政治权力的制度化•3)国家权力基础(合法性)现代化(人性、理性、自然法、自然权利、契约论)。
一、自然状态和国家的起源•霍布斯是从他的人性论出发来阐述他的政治学说的。
•人性论是他全部政治学的前提和出发点。
•也是他关于国家起源理论的前提和出发点。
1、性恶论•霍布斯是一个机械唯物主义者。
•物质的物体是世界的唯一存在。
自然界的万事万物属于自然物体。
•而国家也是一种物体,不过它与自然物体不同,它是一种人造物体。
•人则介于这两种物体之间。
因为他具有自然属性,因而他是自然物体;但他又是国家的成员,所以,他又属于人造物体。
•既然国家也是一种物体,那么,研究自然物体的自然哲学的方法——几何学的推理方法,就是研究国家的唯一正确的方法。
•由于国家是由人构成的,所以,国家的本性就依赖于人的自然和心理本性。
•因此,只要通过经验观察对人的自然和心理本性获得了正确认识,就能够从这种认识出发,运用几何学的逻辑推理方法,得到关于国家本性的知识。
•正因为基于这种观点,他的国家学说从对人性的研究开始。
•人性论是他的国家学说的基石•霍布斯本人对这种研究政治学的方法十分得意。
•他说,哥白尼、刻普勒、伽里略、哈维等人,是新自然哲学的奠基者。
而他自己则是新的政治哲学的创始人。
•以往的政治学说只是一种梦想,政治学只是在他手里才真正变为科学。
因为他找到了真正政治科学借以建立的基础,并且第一次运用了真正科学的方法——即几何学的逻辑推理的方法。
•霍布斯用人的自然本性来概括人的本性。
因此,得出人性本恶的结论。
•人体不过是一架精妙的小机器,人和钟表没有什么不同,心脏是发条,神经是游丝,关节是齿轮。
•当这架机器受到外部刺激时,就产生了欲望和感情。
外界物体的刺激由感官传到心脏,如果它有助于人体的保存,就产生快乐感情和喜爱的欲望;如果有害于人体的保存,就产生痛苦的感情与厌恶的欲望。
•可见,人的根本要求是自我保存,即趋利避害。
凡是有利于人的自我保存的即为善,凡是不利于人的自我保存的即为恶。
•因此,自我保存是支配一切人行为的动力,利已主义是人类生活的唯一准绳。
•霍布斯这里所说的自我保存,并不是消极自卫或适可而止,它包含着人们对权力的无止境的追求。
他认为,这是因为人们如果不得到更大的权力,就无法保存己有的权力。
也就无法实现自我保存。
•他把人的体力强健、身心卓越、地位、财富、名誉等都看作是权力的内容。
•他认为,人类的第一个共同的欲望就是对“权力的不断的、无休止的追求,死而后已。
”•由于这种权力欲,人的掠夺性和残忍性甚至超过了野兽。
野兽吃饱了就会安静下来,而人却永远是贪得无厌的。
•霍布斯这里所说的自我保存,并不是消极自卫或适可而止,它包含着人们对权力的无止境的追求。
他认为,这是因为人们如果不得到更大的权力,就无法保存己有的权力。
也就无法实现自我保存。
•他把人的体力强健、身心卓越、地位、财富、名誉等都看作是权力的内容。
•他认为,人类的第一个共同的欲望就是对“权力的不断的、无休止的追求,死而后已。
”•由于这种权力欲,人的掠夺性和残忍性甚至超过了野兽。
野兽吃饱了就会安静下来,而人却永远是贪得无厌的。
•霍布斯的人性论是他的国家学说的逻辑起点。
•正由于霍布斯把人性看成是恶的,所以他把自然状态描写为残酷的战争状态,并把国家的主要目的规定为和平与安全。
从此自然引申出专制集权主义的国家理论。
2、自然状态理论•霍布斯把国家成立前的社会状态称为“自然状态”。
•自然状态就是假设没有国家权力和法律的状态。
•从对自然状态的分析中,引出了国家权力产生的必要性。
•人性是恶的,自然状态的人都是极自私的。
•自然状态三个特征:•1)自然状态是平等的状态。
每个人都享有同等的自然权利和同等的机会。
虽然每个人在体力上和智力上并不平等,但是,哪怕最弱的人也能杀死最强者。
所以,每个人都有制服他人的最后权力,每个人都是至高无上者。
同样,每个人也都有被别人杀死的危险,所以,每个人又都是一个弱者。
从这两方面看,自然人都是平等的。
•2)自然状态也是一种自由状态。
每个人“都有按自己的愿望运用自己的力量保全自己生命的自由,这种自由就是人的自然权利”。
•3)自然状态是战争状态。
•在自然状态,人们是自由和平等的,但人又是自私的。
•由于人的本性是自我保存,由此产生两种欲望:一是保全自己的自由,二是得到支配他人的权力。
得到支配他人的权力,也是为了更好的保存自己。
•这样,当他们同时欲求某一物而不能共同占有或分享时,就必然成为仇敌。
每个人都企图以伤害他人的手段来达到自己的目的。
•在自然状态,存在着三种易于引起纷争的原因:•一是竞争,为求利,亦即用武力掠夺他人的妻室儿女,使自己成为主人;•二是猜忌,为求安,担心他人侵占自己财产而力求保全自己;•三是荣誉,为求名,要求他人敬已畏已,以确保自己主人地位,支配他人。
•“竞争使人为利益而侵略,猜忌使人为安全而侵略,荣誉使人为名誉而侵略”。
•这样,自然状态就是一切人不信任一切人的状态,是一切人反对一切人的战争状态。
人们之间互相争夺,互为仇敌,互相残杀,野蛮凶狠。
•人与人之间,就象狼一样。
•不妨考虑一下自己,出外旅行时带着武器,就寝时闩门。
在屋里把箱子锁上,带武器旅行时对国人是什么看法?闩门时对同胞、锁箱时对子女、仆人如何看法?•在这种状态下,人们都生活在恐惧之中,谁也不感到安全。
•人类的生活是孤独、贫穷、龌龊、凶残和短促的。
既没有发展工业的余地,也谈不上土地的开辟,航海和贸易。
没有是和非,没有正义与非正义,也没有财产权。
•自然状态既然是这样一种可怖的状态,所以,人们必摆脱这种状态。
这只有建立国家才能达到。
•人性问题:•以人的物理性、动物性一面来概括人性?人的良知、教养、文化因素?•如人性为恶,善从何而来?如人性为善,恶从何而来?性恶论比性善论更深刻?•自然状态即无政府状态:•有现实的依据,但也有反证。
•或战争状态,或专制下的和平,二者必选其一?•1)这种状态不见得就胜过战争状态,也无和平可言。
•2)屈辱的和平?不如无政府状态?•3)除专制外别无办法吗?只有两种选择?霍布斯论证了权威、强制、国家的必要性,但把这混同于专制不可避免性。
3、社会契约论•霍布斯认为,在人类本性中就存在着摆脱自然状态而进入和平状态的力量,这就是感情和理性的力量。
•“人类对死亡的恐怖,对于舒适生活的必需品的欲望,以及由勤劳而获得这些必需品的欲望”,促使人的感情倾向于过和平的生活。
而人类的理性,也就是自然法,则为人们实现和平指出了方向。
•自然法的根本规则就是,每个人在有希望获得和平时,应该尽力求得和平。
•这样,人们便由感情上的需要和理性上的指导,相互之间订立了一个契约:大家都放弃自己的全部权利,把它交给一个人或由一些人组成的议会。
服从它的管辖。
•由这样一种契约而联合在一起的人群,就是国家。
•由此产生的管辖全体人民的公共权力,就是主权。
•掌握这个主权的人或机构,就是主权者。
国家不同于自然状态,它的本质特征就在于有一个主权或主权者。
霍布斯的社会契约两个特点•①被授予权力的个人或议会不是立约的一方。
人民把权力授予他或他们是无条件的。
•②授权者交出的是全部的利与力量。
因此被授权者的权力是至高无上的、绝对的•霍布斯把这个国家称为《利维坦》(圣经中的巨大海兽,中译本为鳄鱼)它凭借自己的权威和力量,维持国内和平,防御外来侵略,保护公民的安全。
•国家是由恐怖的自然状态过渡到幸福文明状态的标志。
有了国家,人民的幸福、生命才有了永久的保障。
“国家以外是人欲横流的世界,有战争,有恐怖,有贫困,有丑恶,有孤寂,有横暴,有愚昧,有兽行;国家以内则是理性支配的世界,有和平,有安全,有幸福,有光辉,有交际,有高雅,有学问,有善行。
”•在颂扬甚至崇拜国家方面,霍布斯是十分突出的。
•1)霍布斯从人的本性和人类自然状态中寻求国家产生的根原,这表明他“用人的眼光来看国家”,“从理性和经验中而不是从神学中引申出国家的自然规律。
这是对神学政治观的彻底否定。
•2)霍布斯把国家看成是社会契约的产物,在他那里,国家是个人的集合,因而个人和个人权利就是国家借以建立的基础,国家权力基于人民的同意。
这样,他就奠定了近代个人主义国家观的基础。
•3)霍布斯所主张的专制集权和独裁是现代的而不是封建主义的。
•a、主权者的权力来自人民的同意和授予,而非神或祖传;•b、主权者要保护资本主义经济的发展;•c、主权者的权力取缔一切地方割据和教会特权。
二、专制集权主义理论•霍布斯从这样一种国家起源论出发,必然得出专制集权主义的结论。
后者是前者的合乎逻辑的结果。
•既然人性是恶的,自然状态是战争状态,既然国家权力是为了摆脱战争状态,在互相残杀的人们之间维持和平而设立的,那么,这个国家权力就必然是专制的。
•霍布斯把人看成了没有理性的野兽,为了管理这群野兽,就需要强制和暴力,棍棒和皮鞭。
1、主权论•①什么是主权:霍布斯认为,人们之间订立契约,约定共同服从一个公共权力的管辖。
这个权力就是国家最高权力,也就是主权。
主权是给予整个国家机体以生命和运动的灵魂,是国家的本质特征。
没有主权就不存在国家。
•②主权的内容:主权是国家中至高无上的权力,所有个人和团体的权力都必须服从这一权力。
它包括立法权、任免官吏权、征税权、宣战媾和、统率军队的权力、审判权。
另外,还有控制人们的思想言论、宗教生活等权力。
•③主权的特征:•1)主权是不可分割和不可转让的。
•上述各项主权权力是统一的,只能由主权者一个人或一个机构来掌管,不能把它分开,分别由几个不同的机构来掌管。