语言学课堂笔记
胡壮麟语言学第1章笔记
[语言]（什么是语言）●语言是人类用于交际的任意的声音符号系统●语言是言语交流的一种方式（简洁地说）●语言是人类最重要的交际工具、思维工具、认识成果的贮存所●语言是实用性的●语言是社会的、约定俗成的●语言是把人和其他动物区别开来的一个重要标志●语言有四个本质特征：任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性*实用性的——因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为*社会的、约定俗成的——因为语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非谚语的暗示、动机、社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行。
[语言的本质特征]*（Russell）“不管一只狗可以多么流利地吠叫，它无法告诉你它的父母贫穷但又诚实。
”本质特征是决定我们人类语言性质的特征，包括任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性。
1 [任意性]由Saussure最先提出●指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系如果人类第一次看到猪是把它叫成“狗”，那么现在我们所知道的“猪”便叫做“狗”。
不同的语言中有不同的词来表达相同的概念：酒店—hotel，狗—dog同一语言中由于方言、历史、地理位置等原因也会出现这一特性：素质—质素，公鸡—鸡公，客人—人客●是人类语言多样性的一个重要原因●有不同的程度：（1）语素的音和义之间的任意性狗叫：wow wow—wang wang拟声词的发音看上去代表了他们所描述的词，但实际上任意性和拟声是可以同时起作用的（2）句法上的任意性对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。
因为句子序列和真实发生的事情之间有着一定程度的对应关系He came in and sat down.He sat down and come in.功能语言学家认为语言最严格的任意性在于对立的语音，通过它我们辨别各组词。
（3）约定性语言学上意义和符号之间是约定俗成的关系，所以语言有约定性，即任意性的相反面任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，约定性又使学习语言变得费力。
《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。
语言学概论笔记
语言学概论笔记第一章语言与语言学第一节语言的性质和范围一、为什么说社会性是自然语言的本质属性？为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？二、什么是符号？语言符号有什么特点？三、语言和言语有什么区别和联系？四、口语和书面语有什么区别？为什么会有区别？五、什么是副语言和人工语言？二者有什么关系？1、语言：从结构上看，语言就是由词语这种符号构成的复杂系统。
从功能上看，是人类进行社会交际和思维认识的工具。
语言具有符号性、系统性、社会性及其他属性{民族性和生成性（指人们可以根据有限的语言符号和组合规则生成无限的句子）模糊性}2、语言的能指和所指（什么是符号）：用甲事物代表乙事物，而甲乙两事物之间没有必然联系，甲事物就是代表乙事物的符号，其中甲事物就是符号的能指（形式），乙事物就是符号的所指（内容和意义）。
符号的能指和所指之间的关系是人为约定的。
3、语言符号的特征：语言中的词语就是一种符号，具有符号的特征。
1、语言符号的任意性（用什么能指代表什么所指是任意的）2、稳固性（语言符号一旦约定俗成以后就具有稳固性）3、渐变性（为了适应社会发展的变化，采取渐变的方式）4、线条性（语言符号在言语中只能有时间上的前后相继的关系）4、语言的社会性：语言是社会交际的工具，社会是语言的本质属性。
自然语言系统和规则是由特定的社会群体共同约定俗成的，而不是由个别人或少数人创造的语言的发展变化离不开社会，无论是新词语的产生，还是旧词语的消亡，都取决于社会交际的需要。
由于自然语言从生到长到死的整个过程都取决于整个社会，所以说社会性是自然语言的本质属性。
语言虽然不是人类唯一的交际工具，还有其他副语言如文字、体态等交际工具，但是副语言只是辅助性的交际工具，一般使用范围有限，语言是一种独立的交际工具，是第一性的，副语言是建立在语言的基础之上的，是第二性的。
因而，语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
5、语言和言语的区别：语言有广义和狭义之分，广义的语言包括语言系统、言语活动和言语作品，狭义的语言只指语言系统，而言语则包括言语活动和言语作品。
语言学笔记
语言学笔记总体把握：比例：绪论总论25%绪论：语言学的性质和任务、方法和分类、回顾和小结、作用和意义。
总论：从宏观的角度介绍语言的本质和发展，语言的本质主要从语言和言语的区别与联系、语言的社会功能、语言的内部的大致结构等三方面阐述的。
语言的发展主要掌握发展的原因、规律特点、发展过程及结果。
题型：解词、填空、选择、结合例子简答或论述。
语音25%-30%掌握了生理属性（发音器官的三大部位）、物理属性（语音四要素）后，要全力掌握语音物质外壳的各种结构单位，即音素、音位、音节和语流。
音位集中体现了语音的社会属性，是全章的重点，划分与归并音位的原则是每次必考的问题。
英语和汉语的元音与辅音音素。
把汉语的元音与辅音的描写方法尽量记熟。
题型：解词、选择、填空、综合运用。
语义25%语义的定义、语言意义和言语意义的区别。
语言意义的重点在词汇意义（词义）上，如词义的性质特点特别是对词义的义素分析及词义的聚合类——语义场。
义素分析重点对亲属词及近义词的分析。
言语意义主要是研究语义与语境的关系如语境对语义的影响、语义在语境中变化的模式。
语义变化的原因、途径、结果。
词汇15%—20%词汇的重点在语素（词素）和词及词组的定义和区别、语素的分类（词根、词缀和词尾）、词的构词法及词的结构类型（语音构词、语义构词和语法构词以及合根法、附加法和减缩法）。
词汇的分类和固定词组等。
语法20%要结合外语和汉语的例子进行。
对词的分类范畴要注意分类标准。
句法的内部意义有显性意义和隐形意义。
显性意义主要指陈述、修饰、支配、平行、补充等关系和主谓、偏正、动宾、联合、后补等结构。
分析层次性的方法——直接成分分析法，尤其是对歧义句的分析。
结合层次分析的树形图、句式转换的规则。
文字5%文字的性质、作用、起源、发展、类别及改革与创制交叉语言学不考一、绪论名词：语言学、语言学概论、历史语言学、对比语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学、历时语言学、共时语言学、个别语言学、组合关系、聚合关系、普通语言学、微观语言学、宏观语言学、理论语言学、语文学、语言、言语、思维、符号、渐变性、参差性、语言的分化、语言的整化、语言的融合知识点：1、印度、希腊与罗马、中国，被认为是语文学的三个源头。
胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享(全)
胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享（全）《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章??语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章? ?? ?语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章? ?? ?语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章? ???音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章? ? 词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章? ? 词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章??句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章? ?语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章? ?语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章??语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
戴炜栋-语言学讲课笔记
Chapter 1:Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It tries to answer the basic questions◆What is language?◆How does language work?◆What do all languages have in common? (languageuniversal语言共同性)◆What range of variation(变体) is found amonglanguages? (dialect. Mandarin普通话，accent)◆What makes language change?◆To what extent are social class differencesreflected in language? (sociolinguistics社会语言学)◆How does a child acquire his mother tongue?(language acquisition 语言习得)1.1.2 The scope of linguistics（语言学研究的范围）branches●general linguistics（普通语言学）●phonetics（语音学）●phonology（音系学）●morphology（形态学）●syntax（句法学）●semantics（语义学）Example:boy: human male young animategirl: human female young animate componential analysis 语义成分分析●pragmatics（语用学）It is cold here.Please close the door.I want to put on more clothes.I don’t want to stay here.●sociolinguistics（社会语言学）●psycholinguistics （心理语言学）●applied linguistics（应用语言学）broad sense:广义,narrow sense:狭义=language teaching1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics (语言学中一些重要的概念区分)1.1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive（规定与描写）If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive;If the linguistic study aims to lay down(规定) rules for "correct and standard" behaviour in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.1.1.3.2 Synchronic（共时语言学） vs. diachronic（历时语言学）●The description of a language at some point of timein history is a synchronic study.●The description of a language as it changes throughtime is a diachronic study. A diachronic study oflanguage is a historical study; it studies thehistorical development of language over a period oftime.1.1.3.3 Speech and writing（言语与文字）Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.1.1.3.4 Langue and parole（语言与言语）Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.（语言社区）Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. （actual use of language,concrete）Differences:1. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.(语言事件)2. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.（Saussure索绪尔）1.1.3.5 Competence and performance(语言能力和语言运用)competence and performance,Chomsky（乔姆斯基）（a prof. at MIT） defines competence（langue） as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance (parole) the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. While Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence isa property of the mind of each individual.1.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics（传统语法与现代语言学）《普通语言学教程》Saussure索绪尔The differences:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework of the languages used by mankind.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Definitions of language◆"Language is a purely human and non-instinctivemethod of communicating ideas, emotions and desiresby means of voluntarily produced symbols." (Sapir,1921)◆Language is "the institution whereby humanscommunicate and interact with each other by means ofhabitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols."(Hall, 1968)◆"From now on I will consider language to be a set(finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite inlength and constructed out of a finite set ofelements." (Chomsky, 1957)◆Language is a system of arbitrary （任意的）vocalsymbols used for human communication.First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary（任意的） in the sense that there is no intrinsic （天生的，内在的）connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for, for instance, between the word "pen" and the thing we write with.（This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.1.2.2 Design features（识别特征)1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2) Productivity（多产性)3) Duality（二重性）4) Displacement（移位）5) Cultural transmission（文化传递）Chapter 2: Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of language(语言的语音媒介)Speech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Manylanguages in the world today are both written and spoken. But statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing for reasons that were discussed in the last chapter. The writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Language is first perceived through its sounds. Thus the study of sounds is of great importance in linguistics. Naturally, linguists are not interested in all sounds; they are concerned only with those sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication. These sounds are limited in number. This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language(语言的语音媒介); and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （言语语音）.2.2 Phonetics（语音学）2.2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view.First, it studies the sounds from the speaker's point of view, i.e., how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Then, it looks at the sounds from the hearer's point of view, i.e., how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. Lastly, it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. These three branches of phonetics are labelled articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）, auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）, and acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）respectively.Of the three branches of phonetics, articulatory phonetics has the longest history. However, some important facts have also been either discovered or confirmed by acoustic and auditory phonetics, especially by the former. Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues. To describe these properties, they record the sound waves on machines called spectrographs（频谱仪）. By studying the sound waves thus recorded, they have discovered that what might be heard as the same one utterance is only coincidentally, if ever, physically identical. The "same" sounds weclaim to have heard are in most cases only phonetically similar, but rarely phonetically identical. Phonetic similarity, not phonetic identity is the criterion with which we operate in the phonological analysis of languages.2.2.2 Organs of speech（发音器官）The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity（咽腔）-- the throat, the oral cavity（口腔）- the mouth, and the nasal cavity（鼻腔）-- the nose. The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in various ways. It may also be modified in the larynx before it reaches any of the cavities. Such modification results from some kind of interference with the movement of the air stream. The principal source of such modifications is the tongue, and the word "language" itself derives from the Latin word "lingua", meaning the "tongue". The pharyngeal cavity Air coming from the lungs and through the windpipe passes through the glottis, a part of the larynx, which is a bony structure at the end of the windpipe. This is the first point where sound modification might occur. Lying across the glottis are the vocal cords. These two thin tissues can be held tightly together to cut off the stream of air, as when one is ' holding his breath'. They can be relaxed and folded back at each side to let airflow through freely and silently as in normal breathing. Then they may also be held together tautly so that the air stream vibrates them at different speeds when forcing its passage through them. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing'', which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. Such consonants are voiced. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless. The oral cavity The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity. The speech organs located in this cavity are the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate (the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge (the alveolus), the teeth and the lips.Of all these, the tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other. Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of [k] and [g ]. The narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound [j]. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds [t] and [d]. Partial obstruction between the upper front teeth and the tip of the tongue produces the sounds [θ] and [ð].1. lips唇2. teeth牙齿3. tooth ridge (alveolus)齿龈4. hard palate硬腭5. soft palate (velum) 软腭6. uvula7. tip of tongue8. blade of tongue9. back of tongue10. vocalcords11. pharyngeal cavity12. nasal cavityThe nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity. The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, can be drawn back to close the passage so that all air exiting from the lungs can only go through the mouth. The sounds produced in this condition are not nasalized , such as the vowels and most consonants in English. Then , the passage can also be left opento allow air (or part of it)to exit through the nose. In this case, the sounds pronounced are nasalized, such as the three nasal consonants in English [m], [n], and [η]. Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed. But in some styles of speaking or in some dialects, partial opening may be observed, and the result is speech with a nasal colouring or "twang".2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds --broad and narrow transcriptionsTowards the end of the nineteenth century, when articulatory phonetics had developed to such an extent in the West that scholars began to feel the need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. Thus the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being. With minor modifications it is still widely used now. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics, which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.Thus two ways to transcribe speech sounds are now available. One is the transcription with letter-symbols only and the other is thetranscription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. The former is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i. e. the transcription with diacritics, is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [I] is used for the sound [1] in the four words leaf [l i:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [1] in all these four sound combinations differ slightly. The [1] in [li:f ], occurring before a vowel, is called a clear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:I] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in "leaf". It is called dark and in narrow transcription the diacritic [~] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [1] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [1], and in narrow transcription the diacritic is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, thesound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised "h" is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [p h It] and spit is transcribed as [splt].2.2.4 Classification of English speech soundsAn initial classification will divide the speech sounds in English into two broad categories: vowels and consonants. Two definitions of vowels as a general phonetic category are quoted below:"V owels are modifications of the voice-sound that involve no closure, friction, or contact of the tongue or lips." (Bloomfield) "A vowel is defined as a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a continuous stream through the pharynx and mouth, there being no audible friction." (Jones)The two definitions point to one important feature of vowels, i.e. in producing a vowel the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction whatsoever. This marks the essential difference between vowels and consonants. In the production of the latter category it is obstructed in one way or another.2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types:stops: When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. The English stops fall into three pairs: [p][b],[t][d],and [k][g].fricatives: When the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point, the speech sound thus produced is a fricative.affricates: When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates.liquids: When the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue (the tip or the sides ) and the roof of the mouth, the sounds thus produced are called liquids. The English liquids are [ I ] and [ r ]. [ 1 ] is called a lateral soundbecause in the production of it the surface of the tongue, instead of being more or less flat, is made slightly convex and causes stoppage in the centre of the roof of the mouth while allowing air to pass at the sides. In the production of the other liquid [r], the tip of the tongue is curled back and the air passes over it. It is also called "retroflex".nasals: When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals. There are three nasals in English [m] [n] and [η].glides: Glides, sometimes called "semivowels", are a rather marginal category. The English glides are [w] and [j], both voiced. They are formed in the same manner as the vowels [u] and [I ], with a narrower passage between the lips or between the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction.In terms of place of articulation, the English consonants can be classified into the following types:bilabial: In the production of these sounds, the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. The English bilabials are [p] [b] [m] [w].labiodental: In the production of these sounds, the lower lip isbrought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction. The labiodental sounds in English are [f] and [v].dental: The obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. There are two dental sounds in English; they are [θ] and [ð].alveolar: The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge to create the obstruction. The alveolar sounds are [t][d][s][z] [n][l][r].palatal: The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate.velar: The back of the tongue is brought into contact with the velum, or the soft palate. The sounds thus produced in English are [k][g] and [η].glottal: The vocal cords are Drought momentarily together to create the obstruction. There is only one glottal sound in English, i.e.[h].The two classifications are combined in the table below, with the help of which we can adequately describe a consonant, or identify a consonant when given its phonetic features:2.2.4.2 Classification of English vowelsAs in the production of vowels the air stream meets with no obstruction, they cannot be classified in terms of manner of articulatioa:0r place of articulation as consonants. Other criteria have to be found for their classification. V owel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. A front vowel is one in the production of which the front part of the tongue main-tains the highest position; If it is the central part of the tongue that is held highest, the vowels thus produced are called central vowels. Then if we raise the 'back of the tongue higher than the rest of it.To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. The following diagram summarises our classification by applying the two criteria.A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, i.e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be notedthat some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.After applying the three criteria, we can now aptly describe some of the English vowels. For example, the vowel [e] can be described as front, semi-close, and unrounded. But the feature "unrounded" is usually omitted since all front vowels in English are unrounded.Then the English vowels can also be classified according to the length of the sound. Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense and lax vowels. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels. When we pronounce a long vowel, the larynx is in a state of tension, and in the pronunciation of a short vowel, no such tension occurs, the larynx is quite relaxed.So far we have been classifying the individual vowels, also known as monophthongs. In English there are also a number of diphthongs, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.2.3 Phonology2.3.1 Phonology and phoneticsBoth phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language -- the speech sounds. But while both are related to thestudy of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. As we have seen in the last section, phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Now'let's take the [1] sound in English as an example and see how the same sound can be investigated from both the phonetic and the phonological point of view. As we know, the [1] sound in the two English words leap and peel is pronounced differently. The first one is what we call a clear [l] and the second one a dark .The difference between these two sounds is what the phoneticians are interested in. But phonologically these sounds are regarded to be two versions of the same one basic entity. From the phonological point of view, these two sounds are fundamentally the same, since they have one and the same function in communication, in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation. If someone should pronounce the dark in the word :"peel" incorrectly as a clear [l], an English speaker would not for this reason fail to Understand him, he would still understand what action he is talking about but would only find his pronunciationa little bit strange. The phonologists have found that the various versions of the [I] sound do notoccur at random in English; their distribution follows a nicely complementary pattern: we use clear [1] before a vowel, such as loaf, and dark at the end of a word after a vowel or before a consonant, such as tell, quilt. This is an important phonological conclusion. But phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, so the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language is very often language specific and should not be applied to another language without discretion. What is true in one language may not be true in another language.2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophoneA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [p h] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p h](as in tip).But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't. For example, [s] and [t] do , as [si:m] and [ti:m] are two words with totally different meanings, and [t h ] and [t ] don't, as [stDp] and [st h op] mean the same to a speaker of English. Again, we should remind ourselves that what does not distinguish meaning in one language may probably do in another language.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract: unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, when we pronounce the two words peak and speak, we are aware that the sound [p] is pronounced differently. In the word peak, the [p] sound is pronounced with a strong puff of air stream; but the same stop sound is pronounced slightly differently in the word speak, the puff of air is withheld a little. The [p] sound in peak is called an aspirated [p], and the [p] sound in speak is an nnaspirated [p]. The relation between aspirated [p ] and unaspirated [p] corresponds to that between clear [1 ] and dark: there is a slight difference in the way they are pronounced, but such a difference does not give rise to difference in meaning. So /p/is a phoneme in the English sound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different contexts. Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets, and phonemes in slashes. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme/1/in English can be realized as dark, clear [1] , etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /1/.Then, how a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard; it isrule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out these rules. The rule that governs the distribution of clear [1] and dark is an example.Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimal elements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. It is just because of its distinctive features that a phoneme is capable of distinguishing meaning. A native speaker of English can tell by intuition that the following sound combinations all carry different meanings: [ mæn ], [ pæn ], [ bæn ], [ tæm ], [ ræm ], [ kæn ], [ðæm]. This is because they all contain a different phoneme. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features.2,3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairIt can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might berelated in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit]and [bit ], [roup]and [roub]. If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. For instance, the clear [1]。
语言学(第五版) 笔记 重点
第一章1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2.Design features of language①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)②Duality（二层性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)3.Functions of language①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive(情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & paroleCompetence & performance6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Prescriptive(规定性)—lay down rules for“correct and standard”linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar:“never use a double negative”)7.Synchronic study(共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study (历时)—description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)第四章1．What is Syntax（句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to formsentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2．Four Approaches :The traditional approach传统语言观(Parts of speech、Syntactic Function 不考、Category范畴、Concord and government一致关系和支配关系)、The structural approach 结构语言观、The generative approach、The functional approach功能语言观3．The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words , so it pays great attention to the study of words, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of function of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc.4. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.5．The term Category范畴in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units:the categories of the noun名词的范畴, include number, gender, case and countability（case）; the categories of the verb动词的范畴: tense, aspect, voice, etc.6．Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative主格, accusative受格, and genitive与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive所有格In English, the case of noun is realised in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order9. Tense时态: the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present.Since the fut ure time does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do not refer to a “future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect体: It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed. Perfective（完成体）and Imperfective（进行体）Perfective and Progressive (in English)11. Voice语态: describe the relationship between verb and subjectPassive被动语态and active主动语态12. Concord and government①Concord (一致关系)refers to agreement between words, especially between a verband the subject of a sentence.②Government (支配关系)is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements ina sentence.In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nouns or between prepositions and nouns.13.The Structural Approach，由Ferdinand de Saussure提出14.Syntactic Relations：Positional relations位置关系、Relations of substitutability替代关系、Relations of co-occurrence同现关系15.Immediate constituent(直接成分)is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysis.16.An endocentric construction(向心结构)is a construction that contains:1) a head, which is the single obligatory element in the construction;2) one or more optional elements subordinate to the head.17.them e(主位) refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listener Rheme(述位)refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or listenerThe linguists of the Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side.subject, predicate (grammatical side)theme, rheme (functional side)第五章1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning ofwords,phrases andsentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:①Conceptual meaning概念意义②Connotative meaning内涵意义③Social meaning社会意义④Affective meaning感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥）⑤Reflected meaning反射意义⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义⑦Thematic meaning主位意义3.Conceptual meaning(概念意义)is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (联想意义)is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic meaning (主位意义)is“what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of orde r and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6.The Referential Theory（指称理论）：①The Referential Theory②The Semantic Triangle③Sense and Reference7.The referential theory指称理论is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle语意三角is the indirectrelation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.12.Sense Relations涵义关系①Synonymy（同义关系）②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）③Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系)、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17.Sense relations between sentences①Synonymity (同义)a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence②Inconsistency(矛盾)a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.③Entailment (蕴涵)a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.④Presupposition(前提预设)It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.⑤Contradiction(矛盾)⑥Semantic anomaly(语义反常)18. An integrated theory﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words﹡The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）﹡A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.第七章nguage and Culture：①Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis②Evidence Given by Whorf ③Implication of SWH ④Relation between Language and Culture2．SHW can be broken down into two basic principles:Linguistic determinism (语言决定论):the language we use determines the way we view about the world around us.Language may determine our thinking patterns. (语言决定思维) P1623. Relation between Language and CultureLanguage influences thought and culture，Language varies in categories and concepts, thus reflecting the different world views of different language users, that is, culture and thought are conditioned by languageCulture influences language，Every language is a part of a culture. As such, it can not but serve and reflect cultural needs. When a culture experience radical changes, the vocabulary also undergoes corresponding alterationsnguage and SocietyRelation between Language and SocietyVarieties of language（Dialects、Registers）Bilingualism and DiglossiaPidgin and Creole5.Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.6.Dialectal Varieties：Regional dialect、Social dialect（Sociolect、Language and gender、Language and age、Idiolect、Ethnic dialect）7.Social dialect refers to a variety of language associated with a particular social group, such as a particular social class, or ethnic group, or those based on age, gender and occupation.8.An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.9.Idiolect refers to the speech variety of an individual. Every speaker has his own way of expressing his or her idea.10.Register refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in a context of situation.11.Halliday’s Register TheoryLanguage varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.Halliday distinguishes 3 variables that determine the register:field of discourse (语场)、tenor of discourse (语旨)、mode of discourse (语式)12.Bilingualism (双语制): the use of two languages, esp with equal or nearly equal fluency.13.Diglossia (双语体现象): when two varieties of a language exist side by side; and each is used for different purposes, this is called diglossia.14．A pidgin: it is a special language variety that mixes and blends languages used for communicative purposes by groups of people who do not know each other’s language.15.A creole :when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.第八章1.What is PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language in context / use / communication.2 Semantics and PragmaticsSimilarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaningDifference：Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning；Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context；Pragmatic = meaning - semantics 3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of Conversational Implicature、Post-Gricean Developments4.Speech Act Theory(言语行为理论)：①Performatives and Constatives②A theory of the illocutionary act5.The utterance which performs an act is calleda performative(行事话语)。
语言学教程课堂笔记
语言学教程课堂笔记第一章导论一、性质、对象、任务语言学的性质：既古老又年轻的学科,介于自然科学与社会科学之间的学科。
语言学的研究对象：人类自然语言语言学的任务：⑴“描写—解释”层次。
从宏观、微观两个方面描写和解释语言现象、语言的结构规律和应用方式。
使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
宏观上：把语言作为一个整体对象来研究,研究它的起源、发展、本质、功能,它和思维、意识的关系等等。
微观上：对语言内部结构进行研究,研究语言内部的结构规律,各要素的关系及发展、演变等。
⑵“认知—思维”层次。
探索人类语言符号行为的奥秘,语言是怎样组织意义的,语言是怎样划分世界从而把现实符号化的,人是怎样在思维和交际中运用语言符号的,语言和心灵的关系是怎样的,语言和文化的关系是怎样的。
⑶“技术—实用层次。
积极地为计算机对语言文字进行信息处理等工程技术服务,为言语矫治等语言病理的治疗工作服务,或者为语言教学、外语教学等服务。
二、语言学的分类⑴根据研究性质、范畴和对象,可分为理论语言学和应用语言学A、理论语言学：是语言学的主体,是研究语言的功能和结构的一般理论。
B、应用语言学：研究语言应用的一切学科,包括语言教学、机器翻译、失语症治疗、语言规划。
⑵从研究对象的范围上分,语言学可分为具体语言学和普通语言学。
三、语言学发展简史⑴传统语言学【语文学（语言文字学）】时期1、时间与特征：一般讲19世纪历史比较语言学产生以前的时期称为“传统语言学时期”、“古典语文学时期”。
这一时期,语言研究处于附庸地位。
还没有发展为独立的学科。
主要是为经典作注解。
2、传统语言学的三大发源地：古希腊—罗马、古印度和古代中国3、传统语言学的作用⑵索绪尔语言学理论1、区分语言（language）和言语（parole）语言：从言语中概括出来为社会公认的词语和规则的总和。
言语：个人说或写的行为和结果2、区别组合关系和聚合关系3、语言和言语的关系：A、一般和个别B、抽象和具体四、语言学的功能（为什么要学语言学概论）1、便与从事与语言相关的工作2、有利于语言规划、信息处理等语言应用3、便于观察语言现象、发现并解释语言规律4、便于提高发现、分析与解决问题的能力5、在语言理论的指导下,透过语言使用我们可以洞悉人类心理的奥秘,为更好地掌握和利用心智打下基础五、怎样学习语言学概论1、勤观察,培养对语言现象的敏锐洞察力2、多思考,培养强烈的问题求解意识3、三个充分：观察充分、描写充分、解释充分第二章语言的本质与起源一、语言的本质（什么是语言？）1、①（为什么）语言是人类特有的、②（为什么是）最重要的全民交际工具。
语言学笔记大全
语言学笔记大全第一章语言的社会功能一、什么是语言？什么是说话？语言是音义结合的符号系统，人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具。
说话是人们运用语言工具跟人们交流思想的行为。
二、语言和说话的关系要弄清楚“什么是语言”的问题，首先要弄清楚的是，语言和说话不是一回事。
语言不等于说话，也不等于说出来的话。
说话是运用语言跟人们交流思想的行为，本身不等于语言。
但是，另一方面，语言的存在又必须以说话为前提，一个人如果长期生活在孤岛上，没有说话的需要，不跟人交谈，他就会失去语言能力。
如刘连仁的例子（课本37页）。
这件事告诉我们语言与说话的联系与区别：语言好象是一种工具，需要人去用，不用就会“生锈”，就会“退化”。
而说话则是人们运用语言工具跟人们交流思想的行为，说出来的话是这种行为“生产”出来的“产品”，是为了适应他人的需要而存在的，没有这种需要，人们就会丧失说话的语言能力，这就是等于说：语言不等于说话，也不等于说出来的话。
那么，什么是语言？它在哪儿？回答是：语言存在于说话之中，人们可以从所说的话中找出语言来。
三、语言的作用是什么？语言是人类社会的交际工具。
每个社会，无论它是经济发达的社会，还是经济十分落后的社会，都必须有自己的语言，都离不开语言这个交际工具，语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素，是人类与动物相区别的重要特征之一。
语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带，没有语言，人类无法交际，人与人之间的联系就会中断，社会就会崩溃，不复存在。
四、什么是社会？什么是交际工具？所谓社会，就是指生活在同一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体，既一般所说的部落、部族和民族。
交际工具是指人们用来交流思想，进行交际的工具。
五、为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？人们在进行社会交际的时候，除了运用语言传递信息外，也可以借助其他手段传递信息，表达思想。
比如运动场上，篮球教练用手势表示谁犯规、谁发球等内容，不用语言；部队用长短不同的号声表示起床、集合、冲锋、撤退等信息；在海上，船与船之间用旗语传递信息等等。
简明语言学背诵笔记摘抄(3篇)
第1篇第一章：语言学概述1. 语言学是一门研究语言的本质、结构、功能及其发展变化的科学。
2. 语言是人类特有的符号系统，用于表达思想、传递信息、交流感情。
3. 语言学的研究对象包括语音、词汇、语法、语义、语用、方言、标准语等。
4. 语言学的研究方法有观察法、实验法、比较法、历史法、结构主义法等。
第二章：语音学1. 语音是语言的声音现象，是语言的物质外壳。
2. 语音学是研究语音的学科，包括语音的物理属性、生理属性、心理属性和社会属性。
3. 语音的分类：元音、辅音、声调、韵律。
4. 语音的物理属性：音高、音强、音长、音质。
5. 语音的生理属性：发音器官、发音过程。
6. 语音的心理属性：语音感知、语音记忆、语音识别。
第三章：词汇学1. 词汇是语言的基本组成部分，是语言的建筑材料。
2. 词汇学是研究词汇的学科，包括词汇的来源、分类、演变、语义等。
3. 词汇的分类：基本词汇、一般词汇、专业词汇、外来词汇。
4. 词汇的来源：固有词、借词、新词。
5. 词汇的演变：词义演变、词形演变、词法演变。
6. 词汇的语义：词义、词义场、语义场。
第四章：语法学1. 语法是语言的规律，是语言的结构规则。
2. 语法学是研究语法的学科，包括词法、句法、语篇法。
3. 词法：词的构成、词的分类、词的语法功能。
4. 句法：句子的结构、句子的成分、句子的类型。
5. 语篇法：语篇的结构、语篇的连贯性、语篇的衔接。
第五章：语义学1. 语义是语言的意义，是语言符号所表示的概念。
2. 语义学是研究语义的学科，包括语义的分类、语义的关系、语义的变化。
3. 语义的分类：概念语义、语用语义、社会语义。
4. 语义的关系：同义、反义、多义、歧义。
5. 语义的变化：词义演变、语义场演变。
第六章：语用学1. 语用学是研究语言在具体语境中的运用和功能的学科。
2. 语用学的核心问题是“意义”，即语言在实际运用中的意义。
3. 语用学的研究内容：语境、语用规则、语用失误、语用策略。
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语言学课堂笔记（英汉对照）第一章Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures1. language1.1 Why study language?为什么学习语言A tool for communication交流的工具An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.1.2 What is language?什么是语言1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person‟s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A webster‟s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.1.2.2 definitions一.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Why do we say language is arbitrary?Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is explained by the fact that different language have different words for the same object, it is good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famous quotation from shakepeare’s play:”Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样香的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.V ocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak and listen before they write or read also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.What is arbitrariness?任意性a. arbitrariness---- arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。