Mass. MIT Press (1986).

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未发现矿产资源定量评价三部式方法概念

未发现矿产资源定量评价三部式方法概念Donald A Singer自从1975年，矿产资源潜力评价已在美国本土27个地区5*106KM2不同尺度下实施，使用的方法是目前称为三部式定量评价方法：（1）根据矿床类型容许地质环境圈定容许可行地段；（2）品位吨位模型研究；（3）矿床数估计。

容许可行地段圈定是该区域边界外发现该类型矿床概率可以忽略。

品位吨位模型是将地质估计结果转化为经济专家使用的语言。

估计矿床数是表达在可行地段存在未发现矿床概率（可信度），估计必须和类型、品位吨位模型一致。

关于个数估计的一些原则是：（1）已知勘探区矿床分布密度，（2）局部矿床外推，（3）统计异常和矿产地概率，（4）过程限制，（5）相对频率，（6）空间面积。

在大多数条件下，估计是主观的，就象气象、博彩和地质解释等。

在三部式评价方法中，估计在本质上是有一致性的，因为容许可行地段圈定必须和描述模型一致，矿床数估计必须和品位吨位模型一致，所有有用的信息必须都要使用，也要表达不确定性。

导言定量矿产资源评价的目的是为资源勘探工作可能结果进行预测，使用评价成果，我们能够进行勘探区划，指导土地利用，进行区域经济规划和估计在不同条件下矿产的可利用性。

典型来说，主要问题是预测未发现矿床，因为矿床是未发现的，不确定性是主要问题。

涉及该问题首篇论文是Allais (1957)关于Algerian Sahara矿床勘探可能结果评价，近年来，许多文章使用矿产资源评价不同的方法和形式（see reviews in Singer and Mosier,1981b; Harris, 1984; Shulman and others, 1992）。

在本文中，我将论述在27个区域使用的非燃料定量评价方法，本文的目的是提供读者关于本方法的一些基本概念。

三部式定量评价方法自从1975年就被USGS使用，当初目的是提供一种与经济分析一致的矿产资源定量信息，这样矿产资源价值就可以与其它土地利用价值相对比 (Singer, 1975)，最初应用是在Alaska土地分类问题，现在概率模拟功能也加进来 (Root and others, 1992)。

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Special issue of Instructional Science, V ol. 6.abilities, 17–18acceptability, 78–9procedures, 48accessibility, 78–9 accommodation, 67adjacency pair, 75–7aims, 6–7and course design, 82–3and learner needs, 20–3and objectives, 12, 20–1, 31,32–3, 80–1, 83–5, 90–1and register analysis, 33 ambiguity, 36, 59–61 assimilation, 67questions, 82authenticity, 30Bloom, B. S., 21–2Boys, O., 95Bransford, J. D., 72Brown, P., 78capacity, 7–8, 17, 23–8, 67, 106 relationship with competence, 11 Chomsky, N., 26, 38, 39 Cicourel, A., 68, 70–1Clark, H. H., 68–9, 70–1clause-relations, 73cognitive style, 102–4 coherence, 69–71collocation, 65 communication, 30–1and schemata, 40 communicative categories, 30–1 communicative competence, 7–8 deﬁnition, 23–5and needs analysis, 10 communicative operations, 95 communicative skill, 17–18 competence, 7–8, 23–8, 106relation with capacity, 11 comprehension questions, 82, 92 connotation, 65co-operative imperative, 47, 78–9 co-operative principle, 62, 63, 68 routine procedures and, 74, 75 Corder, S. P., 26Coulthard, R. M., 75–6course design, 12, 80–104, 107–8 and purpose, 9historical perspectives, 14–16 courses‘narrow-angle’, 81‘wide-angle’, 81creativity, 8cultural thought patterns, 103 decontextualization, 51van Dijk, T., 55–6, 77–8 discourseand schemata, 37coherence in, 69–71literary, 37structure, 58discrimination questions, 82 Dooling D. J., 72education, 80and language, 80–1‘pure’, 19and training, 16–20English for Academic Purposes(EAP), 9English for Occupational Purposes (EOP), 9English for Speciﬁc Purposes (ESP), 5–6, 107–10 development, 16historical perspectives, 14–16 methodology, 87–91, 95–100Index‘narrow-angle’ courses, 81, 89,90objectives and aims, 12–13 subdivisions, 9textbooks, 96, 97–9‘wide-angle’ courses, 81, 89–91 error, 27Ewer, J. R., 93–4, 95–6, 98 expansions, 71, 77face-threatening acts, 78 Fanshel, D., 75Fillenbaum, S., 60Firth, J. R., 28, 57formulae, 106formulations, 46, 77–8frames of reference, 37, 39, 41, 55–6, 59, 63and procedures, 42–3, 67–74,77function words, 94Garﬁnkel, H., 68Garrod, S. C., 57, 61general purpose English (GPE), 5–6nature of, 109genre, 101–2gist, formulation of, 46, 77 Grice, P., 68Halliday, M. A. K., 28, 38, 39, 56 Haviland, S. E., 68–9, 70–1 Hutchinson, T., 93–4Hymes, D., 23, 56–7 idealization, 50–2ideational schemata, 55, 63, 69 illocutionary act, 43 illocutionary intent, 48, 49, 74 indexical meaning, 60–1, 62, 63 indices, 52interpersonal schemata, 55–7, 74, 76interpretative procedures, 70–3 and schemata, 40–6 Johnson, M. K., 72Kaplan, R. B., 103Krashen, S. D., 27Labov, W., 75Lachman, R., 72Lackstrom, J., 58language acquisition, 38, 39 device (LAD), 26language functions and coursedesign, 87language learner, good, 102–3 language learning, 108aims, 12language teaching, historicalperspectives, 14–16 language use, idealizations, 32–3 language-forming capacity, 26 languages, restricted, 29learner needs, and aims andobjectives, 20–3learning, 18needs, 20–1Levinson, S., 78linguistic competence, 7–8, 25, 35 and course design, 82and register analysis, 9 linguistic skill, 17logical sequence relation, 73 Lyons, J., 26, 62McIntosh, A., 28macro-structures, 77matching relation, 73meaningperception of, 65–7potential, 17, 27membership categorization devices, 63metaphor, 41, 62–5 methodology, 87–91, 95–100,107‘microacts’, 95, 96–7Morris, I., 14Munby, J., 20–1, 52–3, 86, 95–6needs analysis, 9–10, 20–2, 28–9 and course design, 33, 85–7 Neisser, U., 65–7objectives, 6–7and aims, 12, 20–1, 31, 32–3,120Learning Purpose and Language Use80–1, 83–5, 90–1and course design, 82–3and learner needs, 20–3and register analysis, 33 Palmer, H. E., 14, 15, 26, 27 perception, 65–7perceptual cycle, 66Peters, R. S., 16–19plan, 56pragmatic normalization, 60 presentation, communicativeapproach to, 81–2 procedural negotiation, 45 procedural vocabulary, 92–5 procedures, 40–50, 88–9 acceptability, 48co-operative, 47frames of reference, 42–3 interpretative, 40–6, 70–3and language skills, 86 protective, 48–9and rhetorical routines, 43–5 routine, 74–7types, 102–4propositional contentand frames of reference, 37, 49 protective procedures, 48–9 purpose, 6and course design, 9 learning, 5–31questionsassimilation, 82 comprehension, 82, 92 discrimination, 82 reference, 82reading, 61reference questions, 82register analysis, 9, 28–9, 84and course design, 32–3 restricted languages, 29 rhetorical process chart, 58–9 rhetorical routines, 37, 41, 58, 101 and procedures, 43–5 Robinson, P., 15routine, 57procedures, 74–7Ryle, G., 18–19Sacks, H., 71, 75Sanford, A.J., 57, 61scenario, 57, 58schemata, 34–40, 54–9and course design, 81–2, 88and language functions, 87and procedures, 40–50 ideational, 55, 63, 69 interpersonal, 55, 56, 57, 74, 76 prospective function, 65types, 101–2schematic anticipation, 61–2 schematic projections, 61 schematic vocabulary, 94scientiﬁc English, 96script, 56–7Selinker, L., 58sentenceambiguity, 36connectors, 73side sequence, 77situational presentation, 81–2 skills, 17–18itemization, 52–4language and course design,86–7learning, 30speciﬁcity, 105–6speechevent, 56–7situation, 56–7Strevens, P. D., 15, 28structural syllabusesand learner needs, 20word counts in, 94–5Swales, J., 101–2symbols, 51tautology, 62–5taxonomy, 54teachability, 95teaching, 18technical language, 93territorial imperative, 47, 78–9 topics, 85, 91training, 8, 10, 11, 80and education, 16–20 language, 80‘pure’, 19transition relevance, 76Index121T rim, J. L. M., 22T rimble, L., 58T rimble, M. T., 58Tyler, S. A., 54upshot, formulation of, 46, 77 utterance ambiguity, 36 verbal art, 27vocabulary‘common-core’, 84, 92–3 procedural, 92–5 schematic, 94 Waters, A., 93–4 Winter, E. O., 58, 73–4 word counts, 94122Learning Purpose and Language Use。

基督教堂建筑空间的发展与演绎

基督教堂建筑空间的发展与演绎摘要：本文主要分析基督教堂随着基督教的发展而在历史进程中所出现的空间形式与最后所确定下来的空间模式。

早期的基督教建筑延承着之前历史所传承的两种空间形态：巴西利卡和集中向心式，随着基督教的发展与基督礼拜仪式的需要，逐渐确定了拉丁十字的空间结构。

本文以“中心”和“路径”为空间模式分析了基督教空间，以及现代基督教堂对此的演绎。

关键词：巴西利卡集中式拉丁十字中心路径广义的基督教包括天主教、东正教、及更正教，一般人称前二者为旧教、后者为新教。

狭义的基督教则仅指新教，由马丁·路德·金在16世纪倡导宗教改革而后分别在欧洲大陆及英国建立。

教堂、礼拜堂、聚会处、聚会所，都是指基督教徒门聚会所使用的建筑物，尤指礼拜天主日崇拜时所使用的空间，且都属于“教会空间”。

英文Cathedral、Church、Chapel 三个词汇，均含有“教堂”的意思，但各不相同，第一种专指天主教堂，一般规模较大，教会内部组织完备，是统领一片教区的主教堂，教堂内有红衣主教，这种天主大教堂称之为Cathedral；Church多指教区中除了天主大教堂的其它中型教堂，宗教改革后的基督新教教会，也大多采用这个单词。

而Chapel通常专指提供聚会的独立小教堂，功能单纯。

一、巴西利卡的改良公元313年，罗马帝国确定基督教为国教。

由于基督教具有“平民化”特性，人人是平等的，因此，教堂的空间要大到能容纳所有归属他的子民，且内部没有阶级差别。

因此罗马人作为群众聚会的集会所，即巴西利卡（Basilica）（图1），巴西利卡在古罗马是一种法庭，可以满足多数人的聚会的这种大空间结构，恰可以满足基督教所需要的这种平等且无阶级差别的空间。

早期基督教堂虽然沿用罗马巴西利卡式的空间形式，但作了部分修改（图2），为了更适合于信徒们聚会使用，也更加合乎人体尺度。

一方面，巴西利卡内部其中一侧的环形柱廊因功能不再需要而取消，这样，巴西利卡巨大的容量就可以容许圣餐仪式礼拜的进行；而原来堂皇壮丽的入口，被设置于对面圣坛的另一短边上，这样就打破了这种长方形平面的双向对称性，只保留纵向一条轴线，也就是人流活动的方向线，强调教徒进入教堂对上帝的崇拜，这种入口长向路线的确定使“路径”这一空间概念得以显现。

文献综述

微型金融的社会福利影响和社会绩效评估吸引无数学者的兴趣，福利主义代表Johnson 和Rogaly[2]（1997）研究微型金融和扶贫的关系；Khandker 和Shahid[3（] 2001）利用调查数据，分析小额信贷对家庭消费和降低贫困的影响，发现小额信贷提高人们的消费水平和生活水平；Hulme[4（] 2002）分析微型金融产生的社会影响，阐述传统的小额信贷影响链条和类型，并提出评估社会绩效的方法；Zeller[5] (2003)则提出小额信贷机构社会绩效的SPI 框架，较为全面地分析小额信贷的社会影响和各个层次影响的评估指标；James Copesetake[6（] 2007）认为，社会绩效管理是实现其社会扶贫目标的重要保证，但是行业内还缺乏社会绩效评估的标准，这造成微型金融社会发展目标的失败。

因此提出从目标设定、战略规划、后续研究和定期审查等方法对微型金融的社会绩效进行管理的观点。

总的来看，国外学者对微型金融的社会福利和社会绩效的研究不少，但由于其复杂性，现在尚不存在统一的评估标准有待于进一步的研究。

杜晓山[7（] 2004）总结我国农村小额信贷的实践，认为我国农村小额信贷的生命力初步显现，但大中型项目还没有出现，各种类型的小额信贷也存在着各自的问题，他提出了发挥小额信贷扶贫功能、加强规范和监管及利率市场化等等原则性的政策建议，并提出在我国建立可持续发展的农村普惠金融体系的建议。

孙若梅[8（] 2002）通过对中国小额信贷的组织和制度、方法和基本假设的梳理，勾勒出中国小额信贷发展的基本轮廓，认为目前中国小额信贷发展面临最主要的因素是组织制度，尽管同时也需要技术创新和改善管理。

制度的制约，使得我国的农村的小额信贷供给仍然停留在供给驱动发展，不能满足市场的实际需求。

在可持续性和覆盖率方面，汪三贵[9（] 2000）从外部障碍和内部障碍两个角度分我国小额信贷的困境，提出小额信贷机构的分化和正规金融的介入是实现小额信贷可持续性展的出路。

南京师范大学自考论文写作格式及要求(模板)

`（请耐心地读完此文，否则，论文稿很可能问题百出、错误百出；同时将此信保留，以便撰写论文期间随时核对时间安排．．．．。

）．．．．和论文格式考生：你好！现将论文撰写的时间安排、撰写格式规定如下：一．撰写时间安排：（I、II、III时段都可以提前完成）I.2013年8月1日之前：（邮寄或发送电子邮件）提交论文提纲II.2013年9月20日之前：（邮寄）提交论文初稿（初稿必须严格按照论文模版的格式撰写，务必电脑打印、装订、存盘、自留电子及文字底稿）III.2013年10月10日之前：（邮寄）提交论文终稿（终稿必须电脑打印、装订成册（沿左边）、一式三份，也必须严格按照论文模版的格式撰写。

）IV.2013年10月中旬：外国语学院成人教育办公室寄发论文答辩时间通知V.2013年10月下旬或11月上旬：按照答辩通知时间到南师大外国语学院参加毕业论文答辩VI.指导教师的联系方式为：南京宁海路122号南京师范大学外国语学院ⅹⅹ老师收邮编：210097 VII.论文严禁抄袭。

如有抄袭，一经查实，按作弊处理。

VIII.请各位同学严格按照要求撰写论文及按时提交，否则将不安排答辩。

祝各位同学论文撰写顺利！以下为论文撰写格式，请严格执行！二．论文纸张大小：A 4 （210 x 297毫米）；字号：小四；字体：Times New Roman；行间距：1.5倍。

三．提纲（Outline）格式如下：Outline论文标题：__________________________________ Thesis statement（中心论点句）：_____________________________ __________________________________________________.1 Introduction（序号一律以阿拉伯数字表示）1.1 #####################################################################1.1.1 ################################################################1.1.2 #################################################################1.2 #################################################################1.2.1 #################################################################1.2.2 #################################################################2 ##########################################################################2.1 ##########################################################################2.1.1 ###################################################################2.1.2 ###################################################################2.2 ############################################################################2.2.1 ###################################################################2.2.2 ##################################################################2.3 ############################################################################2.3.1 ####################################################################2.3.2 ####################################################################3 #############################################################################3.1 ##########################################################################3.1.1 ###################################################################3.1.2 ###################################################################3.2 ############################################################################3.2.1 ###################################################################3.2.2 ##################################################################3.3 ############################################################################3.3.1 ####################################################################3.3.2 ####################################################################4 ##########################################################################4.1 ##########################################################################4.1.1 ###################################################################4.1.2 ###################################################################4.2 ############################################################################4.2.1 ###################################################################4.2.2 ##################################################################4.3 ############################################################################4.3.1 ####################################################################4.3.2 ####################################################################5 Conclusion5.1 ###########################################################################5.2 #######################################################################四．论文格式（以下7部分）：1.论文初稿和终稿都需要（沿左边）装订成册，论文稿必须包含有：封面、Contents、Abstract、Key Words、摘要、关键词、Acknowledgements、正文、Bibliography。

“旋律方法”习得英语研究述略

“旋律方法”习得英语研究述略/h1 ----本站首页免费课件免费试题整册教案教育资讯计划总结英语角幼儿教育文书写作海量教案免费论文网站地图设为首页收藏本站语文科数学科英语科政治科物理科化学科地理科历史科生物科中考备战高考备战高考试题中考试题教学论文作文园地教学论文经济论文理工论文管理论文法律论文行政论文艺术论文医学论文文史论文农科论文英语论文课程改革教育法规教育管理家长频道您现在的位置：3edu教育网免费论文教学论文英语论文正文3edu教育网,百万资源,完全免费,无需注册,天天更新！“旋律方法”习得英语研究述略摘要:随着近年二语习得理论的研究和英语教学规律的探索,音乐歌曲作为一种教学手段越来越多地运用于英语课堂。

本文将回顾该教学法研究的发展及现状,思考其研究存在的问题并预测该研究未来发展将呈现的趋势。

关键词:旋律方法;英语习得;问题;发展趋势Abstract: With recent researches on SL acquisition theory and English teaching techniques, singing is being more and more widely used in the English classroom. This paper probes into its development and certain problems that exit in contemporary researches and predicts its tendency of development. Key words: melody singing, English acquisition, problem, tendency of development 1.引言“旋律方法”习得英语是借助暗示教学法(Suggestopeadia)的基本原理,在英语教学过程中使用音乐歌曲,从而促进人脑左右半球的共同协作,提高英语学习质量,激发学生学习动机,使学习成为一种愉悦的体验。

中央财经大学产业经济学学科培养方案

学科门类：经济学一级学科：应用经济学产业经济学学科培养方案（二级学科代码：020205 经济学院）一、学科概况产业经济学是运用经济学原理、从产业角度研究经济问题形成的一门应用经济学科。

该学科的研究内容涉及产业发展规律、产业结构、产业组织、产业布局、产业政策等，具有交叉性和实用性较强的学科特征。

在信息化和全球化不断深入的新背景下，影响产业发展的因素等的变化使得产业经济学的研究内容不断丰富和完善，产业经济学也成为近年来发展迅猛的经济学科之一。

产业经济学的发展对于制定国民经济发展战略、形成合理的产业政策，促进产业协调发展和进步有极其重要的作用。

二、研究方向本学科现设产业组织研究、产业政策分析、信息经济、信息系统理论与方法等研究方向。

三、培养目标及学习年限本学科致力培养具有全球化视野、适应我国经济社会发展需要，具有严谨、求实、开拓、创新的思想作风和较高的精神文明素养，能够承担本学科教学、科研工作和较高层次的产业经济管理实务，德、智、体、美全面发展，适应社会主义市场经济需要的高层次人才。

本学科学习年限为二年。

四、业务要求本学科学生应具有扎实的经济学基础理论和较系统的产业经济学专门知识以及丰富的相关学科知识；掌握现代经济学分析方法；把握产业经济学的发展规律和趋势；形成对产业经济问题的观察分析能力、产业经济政策的实施能力和从事产业经济管理具体工作的能力；对产业经济问题的研究达成较高的学术水平。

能够较为熟练地掌握一门外国语，阅读本学科的外文资料，以及时了解本学科发展的前沿理论动态。

五、学分在规定的学习年限内，本学科硕士研究生必须累计修满32个学分，其中：德育教育1学分，课程学习30学分，调研实习1学分。

六、学位本学科授予经济学硕士学位。

七、课程设置详见《产业经济学学科硕士研究生课程设置计划》（附专业阅读书目）。

八、留学生、港澳台研究生课程设置的调整说明①政治理论课不作为留学生和港澳台研究生的必修课，可作为选修课；②对外汉语（4学分，72学时，第一、二学期各2学分，36学时，国际文化交流学院开设）作为留学生的必修公共外语课，专业英语课作为留学生的必修专业课；③中国经济与社会（2学分，36学时，第二学期，社会发展学院开设）作为仅限于面向留学生的必修课。

从语迹论到复制论的演变看生成语法动向

摘要:本文通过研究语迹论到复制论的演变去发掘生成语法的最新发展动向,并以此展现生成语法的魅力。

关键词:生成语法; 语迹论 ;复制论 ;发展动向引言自然语言有一条基本属性:移位性,也就是一些表达式出现在句子的某个位置,却要在另外一个位置上进行语义解释。

各语言流派都要对自然语言的这一基本属性进行解释,生成语法当然也不例外。

生成语法学家设想有一条原则:任何一个成分都可以移到任何一个位置。

但这条原则生成力太强,于是生成语法学家又设想了一些限制性条件,其中与之联系最紧密的就是语迹论,语迹论后来又改为复制论。

本文尝试从语迹论到复制论这一微小的变化探测生成语法的宏观发展动向。

1. 语迹论1.1 语迹语迹指移位成分移位后在基础位置上留下的空语类,用trace 的首字母t表示。

试看下面的句子:1.2 支持语迹存在的证据语迹这一概念并非生成语法学家凭空捏造,有理论和事实证据支持其存在。

1. 2.1 理论依据语迹的存在可以从语言机制中存在的一些普遍原则中推导出来,例如投射原则,扩展的投射原则,扩展的向心性条件,扩展的结构保存原则等。

如投射原则要求各句法层面上的表达式(也就是lf. ds和 ss) 都是由词库投射而来的,也就是它们都遵守词汇的次语类特征(subcategorization features)。

因此当一个成分发生移位时,按照投射原则的要求,必须有一个成分存在来满足词汇的次语类特征的要求,这个成分就是语迹。

如果没有语迹的存在,句子成分移位后,不但词汇的次语类特征不能的得到满足,而且结构保存原则(structure preserving principle)也不能遵守,这样的语法理论必然是有缺陷的。

1.2.2事实证据1.3. 语迹的允准条件及其语迹理论的意义为了更好的解释移位现象,生成语法学者设想了移位α原则,因为此原则生成力太强,又提出了语迹论。

倘若不对语迹的存在条件加以限制,那么必然导致对移位α原则的限制成为空谈,而语迹理论也将形同虚设。

汉语的“字”与英语的“词”的联系与区别

摘要:每一种语言的研究，必有一个单位是基本单位，它是从事语言研究的出发点，在英语中是“词”，而在汉语中则是“字”，汉语的“字”与英语的“词”既有区别又有联系，他们主要体现在下面几个方面。

关键词:汉语的“字”英语的“词”联系区别1汉语的“字”与英语的“词”的联系汉语的“字”与英语的“词”存在一定的对应性，即他们都是各自语言研究的基本单位，但是只有在他们各自语言中的地位才有对应性，具体来说他们都具有四个特点：①是语言的天然单位。

②是本民族认识世界的基本点。

③是语言各平面的交汇点。

④在语言组织（语法）研究中起承上启下作用。

2汉语的“字”与英语的“词”的区别“字”是汉语的基本单位，而“词”则是英语的基本单位。

The word is the unit par excellence of tradi-tional grammatical theory.(Lyons,1968:194)“In the beginning,there was the word.”太初有道（logos ）词是英语民族认识世界的基本单位。

《圣经》创世纪第一章：Word=reason (logos)词是语言各平面研究的交汇点：Phonological/orthographical wordGrammatical wordLexeme词在语法上处于承上启下的枢纽位置，是词法和句法交汇点。

《老子》：道可道，非常道；名可名，非常名。

英语的word 即“词”，可以分为morpheme 即“词素”，而morpheme 又可以分为自由词素（free mor-pheme ）和粘着词素(bound morpheme)，自由词素可以独立成词，例如，bed，tree，sing，etc.而粘着词素则必须依赖一定的词根才能成词，例如，s 在dogs，al 在national，以及dis 在disclose 中。

而在汉语中，语素很难界定，例如，狗，幽默，巧克力，葡萄，河等。

死喻形成的认知基础及其复活的必要条件

死喻形成的认知基础及其复活的必要条件人类对隐喻的认知过程是死喻产生的关键所在，但死喻绝非代表隐喻永远“死去”，只要给予其特定的语用环境，死喻就会被激活。

本文主要从认知角度探讨死喻是如何诞生的，并提出语用环境是死喻复活不可缺少的条件。

标签：死喻激活语用环境一、引言在人类生活中，隐喻无所不在，它不仅体现了人类认知世界的正常方式，也代表了人类独有的思维特征。

从历时角度看，隐喻的发展是一个动态的、连续的过程。

Goatly（1997）声言，隐喻可分为“死隐喻”“死寂隐喻”“不活跃隐喻”和“活跃隐喻”四种；Cooper（1986）也提出，隐喻可分为“死喻”“陈喻”“俗喻”“新喻”“创喻”五种。

而束定芳（2000）从隐喻的新鲜程度和使用频度把隐喻分成死喻、一般隐喻和新鲜隐喻。

由此可见，任何隐喻都有一个被创造的过程，在其发展过程中，首先出现，即初次被使用的是隐喻性极高的新鲜隐喻，但由于人们频繁反复的使用，其隐喻性将逐渐降低直至趋向消失，最终融入常规语言体系，即变成了部分或者全部失去隐喻性的隐喻，也就是死喻。

但是死喻形成之后并不是永远处于“死亡”状态。

若将其置于特定语境中，其隐喻义就会被激活，隐喻性得到提高。

本文拟从心理学角度探讨死喻的形成，并提出激活死喻需要一个不可或缺的条件，即语用环境。

二、从认知角度界定“死喻”隐喻不是一个“非活即死”的问题。

“隐喻性有程度之分。

隐喻是一个连续体，一端是隐喻性极高的新鲜隐喻，另一端是已经失去隐喻性的死喻”（束定芳，2000）。

而“死喻”是指“隐喻义与该词的原义已经失去联系或已经成为该词的常用意义的一部分”（同上）。

费玛洛在她的《隐喻过程》（Metaphor Process）中也曾提出“隐喻是语言，而语言就是生命，所以隐喻过程就是生命过程”（Fiumara，1995）。

这一说法可以很好地解释死喻的出现、消亡这一系列过程。

隐喻如生命一样会经历新生、茁壮、老化、死亡等一系列“阶段”。

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VII. Conclusions
In this paper we have shown that for natural tasks, series elastic actuators can provide many beneﬁts when compared to traditional stiff actuators. These beneﬁts include shock tolerance, lower reﬂected inertia, more accurate and stable force control, less damage to the environment, and energy storage. Although zero motion force bandwidth is reduced as series elasticity is increased, the force bandwidth for many tasks that involve load motion is improved. This is particularly true for natural tasks that are spring- or damper-like in their output impedance[22]. We have also shown that a simple control system can generate a range of output impedances - not just that of the passive series elasticity, and have demonstrated experimentally that accurate, stable control is possible over a range of generated impedances. Since force is the direct variable of control, energy ﬁeld methods[16] may also be used with series-elastic actuators. Several avenues are open for future work: In cases where the reduction of zero motion bandwidth cannot be tolerated, one can connect the outputs of two differently tuned series-elastic actuators in parallel. The series elasticity in each actuator isolates its motor’s inertia from the output, thus making it possible to connect the output of a high frequency actuator (perhaps with lower ratio gearing and a stiffer series elasticity) to the output of a low frequency actuator (with higher ratio gearing and a less stiff series elasticity). In much the same way a hi-ﬁ speaker uses a tweeter and woofer to cover a larger frequency range, two series-elastic actuators can be conﬁgured to cover a wider bandwidth. Because frictional elements may differ in the two motors as well, a parallel connection can also improve dynamic range. This approach is currently being investigated at MIT by John Morrell and Ken Salisbury[17]. Another interesting idea is to use variable-rate springs where modulation of the bias point can effect changes in passive stiffness. This type of mechanism has been studied before[21] and a more sophisticated version is currently being investigated at MIT by Ken Salisbury. In many cases (e.g. tendon manipulators and pneumatic actuators), series elasticity is unavoidable. It is our belief that when such an actuator is to be used in natural tasks, this property should be looked on as a blessing rather than a curse. Mike Binnard at MIT is presently investigating series-elastic control in a small pneumatic robot. The revolute actuators discussed in this paper have been designed for use in the arms of the MIT humanoid robot COG. We plan to develop minitiarized versions for use in a planetary rover. In yet another project, one of the authors (Pratt) and a number of graduate students are completing a bipedal walking robot with series-elastic tendon actuators. We believe that series elasticity will endow all of these robots with better mechanical characteristics, particularly for interactions with the natural environment. [1] [2]
[18] [19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]

Raibert, M. H., “Legged Robots That Balance.” Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press (1986). Salisbury, K., Eberman, B., Levin, M., and Townsend, W., “The Design and Control of an Experimental WholeArm Manipulator”, Proc. 5th Int. Symp. on Robotics Research. (1989) Spong, M. W., “Modeling and Control of Elastic Joint Robots”, Trans. of the ASME, Vol 109, Dec. 1987, pp 310-319. Sugano, S., Tsuto, S., and Kato, I., “Force Control of the Robot Finger Joint equipped with Mechanical Compliance Adjuster”, Proc. of the 1992 IEEE/RSJ Int. Conf. on Intelligent Robots and Systems, 1992, pp 2005-2013. Whitney, Daniel E., “Force Feedback Control of Manipulator Fine Motions”, J. Dyn. Syst. Measurement Contr. 98:91-97 (1977) Whitney, Daniel E., “Historical Perspective and State of the Art in Robot Force Control”, Int. J. of Robotics Research, V6, N1, Spring 1987 pp 3-14.
VIII. References
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