Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论(现代语言学)
语言学1.intoduction
animal languages?
The features that define our human languages can be
called design features.
（1）Arbitrariness (Saussure)
It refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs /
2.2 Design features of languages
Language is human-specific. Only human beings
possess language, which is quite different from animal communication system. But it is hard to specify what makes our language advantageous over animal languages. No doubt animals are not really using languages.
for human communication.
Language is used for human communication. It is human-
specific. Communication, in simple words, is to exchange information and to express emotions. From the perspective of function, we may say that language is the most important tool for human thinking and recording the achievement of human civilization.
现代汉语第一章 绪论
章一绪论一、名词解释1、语言：语言是人类特有的一种社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具，是以语音为物质外壳，以词汇为建筑材料，以语法为结构规律所构成的符号系统，具有任意性和线条性，有口语和书面语两种形式。
【附】线条性：由于人类发音器官的限制而导致语言符号只能一个个发出，无人可于同一时间位置说出两个声音。
即语言符号只能在时间的线条上绵延，一个符号接着一个符号出现。
任意性：指语言符号的语音形式和意义内容的结合无必然联系，是社会成员共同约定俗成的，是任意的、偶然的。
2、现代汉语：从狭义而言，现代汉语指现代汉民族的共同语—普通话；从广义而言，现代汉语兼指现代汉民族使用的普通话和方言。
3、现代汉民族共同语：即狭义的现代汉语，指以北京语音为标准音，以北方话为基础方言，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的普通话。
4、方言：即俗称的地方话，是民族语言的地方分支，是现代汉语的地域变体。
只通行于一定的地域，是局部地区人民的语言，并不独立于民族语言之外。
主要有七大方言：北方方言、吴方言、湘方言、赣方言、闽方言、粤方言和客家方言。
5、现代汉语规范化：即确立现代汉民族共同语明确一致的标准，以此清除语音、词汇、语法方面的分歧。
6、文学语言：指经加工、规范所得的书面语，是民族共同语的高级形式，包括文艺作品语言、社会科学及自然科学著作语言，对民族语言的发展有极大推动作用。
7、现代汉语的社会变体：即社会方言，指由于性别、年龄、地位、文化程度等社会因素的不同，人分属不同的社会群体。
每个群体都有一些区别于其他群体的语言特点，从而形成语言的各种社会变体。
二、简答题；1、现代汉语特点？【可分述或将之与印欧语言对比，自行诠释】（1）语音方面：总体而言音节界限分明，乐音较多，语调变化，具有音乐性，具体如下：Ⅰ没有复辅音；即一个音节内不存在两个或以上辅音相连的情况，音节界限分明；Ⅱ元音占优势；音节必有元音，可仅由一个元音构成音节，乐音比例较大；Ⅲ有声调；音节均有声调，使得音节间界限分明而富于变化，有区别意义作用；Ⅳ声母与韵母内部系统性较强；即声母与韵母间配合规律规范严谨；（2）词汇方面：Ⅰ语音多为单音节，词形较短；有时一个语素即一个汉字，存在大量单音词；Ⅱ双音节占优势；汉语词汇有双音节化趋势，旧的单音节被双音节大量代替；Ⅲ新词构成广泛采用词根复合法；即“实语素+实语素”构词法，少有派生法构成；Ⅳ对于吸收的外来词多为音译兼意译，或以汉语语素对译，直接音译较少；Ⅴ成语多为四音节结构；Ⅵ存在大量表示同一事物/现象的同义词，且音节数量不定，可见汉语词汇形式的伸缩性；（3）语法方面：Ⅰ语序的变化对语法结构和语法意义起重大影响；如我们理解（主谓结构）--理解我们（述宾结构）改变了语法结构关系；又如猫抓老鼠—老鼠捉猫，则改变了语法意义；真正语法上的语序变化应为词语的次序改变使语法结构关系及语义随之变化，如：二十岁才结婚—结婚才二十岁；Ⅱ主用语序和虚词表示语法意义，无严格意义的形态变化；①有些结构有无虚词会导致结构和语义发生很大变化，如爸爸妈妈（联合结构）--爸爸的妈妈（偏正结构）；②有些结构添加虚词后，虽语法结构关系未有改变，但语义变化，如北京大学—北京的大学，一指特定学校，一指北京所有大学；③有些结构添加虚词后会导致语用意义的变化，如中国文化—中国的文化，虽都为偏正结构、修饰关系，表意相同，但前者强调“属性”，后者强调“分类”，指中国而非其他国家的文化；Ⅲ词法句法结构基本一致，都存在主谓、述宾、述补、偏正、联合五种基本语法结构关系；（地震—地面震动—地面震动了）Ⅳ词类与句法成分不存在一一对应关系；汉语词汇同一词可充当多种成分，好-a/v；Ⅴ量词和语气词十分丰富；汉语中名词与数词结合需要加入量词，且随着对象不同而变化量词，如一头牛、一棵树；语气词的变法则起到区别意义的作用；2、与古代汉语对比，现代汉语的特点是什么？（1）语音方面：总体而言语音系统简化；①浊塞音、浊塞擦音、清鼻音声母消失；②复辅音声母消失；③辅音韵尾大大减少，入声不再独立成为调类；（2）词汇方面：①新词大量产生；②词的双音节化倾向明显；③词缀和类词缀有所增加，词缀附加法构成的合成词增多；④大批印欧词语和日语汉字进入汉语词汇系统；（3）语法方面：①增加大量量词；②古汉语词类活用现象较多，现代汉语兼类词较多；③古汉中语言省略现象较常见，现代汉语则少见；④古汉的否定句和疑问句常有宾语前置现象，现汉几无；3、共同语与方言的关系？（1）共同语是通行于民族全体成员的语言，方言则是一个民族语言的地方分支，是局部地区人们使用的语言，即规范的共同语是方言的高级形式；（2）共同汉与方言存在相互影响、相互制约、相互吸收的关系；Ⅰ共同语以某种方言为基础而形成，形成后又渗透到各方言中，制约方言的传播与发展；Ⅱ方言的表达形式影响共同语的发展，共同语需吸收方言中有利成分以促进自身发展；4、如何理解语言是一个分层装置？答：语言是一个符号系统，形象而言即一个装置，其最主要特点是分层。
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 1 IntroductionⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lowerlevel of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________. 26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of language.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological psychologicalB. psychological sociologicalC. applied pragmaticD.semantic linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49. Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality56. Design Features57. Competence58. Performance59. Langue60. ParoleⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?。
ModernLinguistics
第一章Introduction1.Linguistics定义It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Nowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.The scope of linguistics 语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？1.General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study①Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication② Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication③Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words④Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences⑤Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.⑥Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use⑦Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society⑧Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.⑨Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.3.现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.4.Some important distinction in linguistics 语言学五对基本概念1、descriptive(描述性) :A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.2、prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for ―correct‖ behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.1、synchronic(共时语言学): It refers to the study of variation in language in different places and among different groups at a given point in time.2、diachronic (历时语言学): Studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.什么叫共时研究Synchronic study;？什么叫历时研究diachronic study？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the de-scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, whilea diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.1、speech and writing are the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1、langue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predica te.2、parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.1、competence(语言能力):As the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language2、performance(语言应用):the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.5、What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules. Language is arbitrary .because the fact that different languages have different words for the some object.Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages. Language is symbols.The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6、人类语言的甄别性特征design features是什么？（五个）Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness:任意性there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds .A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language, but it is not entirely arbitrary.Productivity:创造性language make possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it users. Productivity is unique to human language.Duality(二重性):Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.Displacement:移位性Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in past, present or future. or in far-away place. In other words, language can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of speakers.Cultural transmission(文化传递性) While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.5. Chomsky的语言能力和语言使用各指什么？American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950‘s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user‘sknowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker‘s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.7、Saussure 是如何区分语言和言语的？The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; It is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.第二章Phonology音系学1、语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？The speech and writing are two media or substance used by natural language as vehicles for communication.Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Linguists are not interested in all sounds; they are concerned with only those sounds that are produced by the human speech organs.2、What is Phonetics Phonetics is defined as the study of phonic medium of language. It‘s concerned with all sounds3、语音学的三个分支?研究的对象各是什么？Phonetics looks at speech sounds from 3distinct but related point of view. They are: Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): It studies the human speech organs and the way in which thee speech sounds are produced.Acoustic phonetics听觉语音学: It studies the physical properties of the speech sounds; it deals with the sound waves through the use of such machines as a spectrograph.Auditory phonetics is the study of the perception of sounds by the human ear.that occur in the world‘s language.Articulation phonetics声学语音:How a speaker uses his speech organs articulate the sounds.4、Organs of speech : pharyngeal cavity–the throat oral cavity—the mouth nasal cavity—the nose5、什么叫浊音化？它是如何形成的？V oicing 浊音化is the result of the vibration of the vocal cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a way are voiceless. When vocal cords are held together tautly so that the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced in this way are voiced.6、清音化V oiceless: when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration,7、宽式标音和严式标音有什么区别？The broad transcription is the transcription of sounds by using one letter to represent one sound.The narrow transcription is the transcription with diacritics to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.8、英语的语音的分类？English sounds can be classified two categories: vowels and consonants Consonants: 辅音the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air steam at some point of the vocal tract.V owels元音: the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.9. 英语的辅音是如何分类的？1) by place of articulation :a. bilabial such as [p],[b],[m],[w]b. labiodental such as [f],[v]c. dental such as [θ],[ ]d. alveolar such as [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]e. palatal such as [∫], [ ],[ t∫ ], [d ], [ ]f. velar such as [k], [g], [ ]g. glottal such as [h]2) by manner of articulation. 发音方式a. Stops such as [p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]b. Fricatives such as [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[ ], [∫ ], [ ], [h]c. Afficates such as [t∫], [d ]d. Liquids such as [l], [r]e. Nasals such as [n],[m],[ ]f. Glides such as [w], [j]10. 英语的元音是如何分类的？1) V owels may be distinguished as front vowels such as [i:] [i] [e] [ ] [a], central vowels such as [ :], [ ],[ ]and back vowels such as[u:] [ ] [ :] and [ :] in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels such as [i:],[ i],[u:],[ ], semi-close vowels such as[e], [ : ] , semi-open vowels such as [ ], [ : ] , and open vowels such as [?], [a], [Λ] and [ɑ:].3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound. The long vowels include [i:] [ :] [ : ] [u:] [ɑ:]，while the rest are short vowels.11、Phonology音系学: the study of sound system—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.12.语音学phonetics和音系学Phonology有什么区别？They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.13、音素、音位和音位变体有什么区别？Phones(音素) are the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.; some do, some don‘t.A phoneme （音位is a basic unit in phonology; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not a sound, but a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone.Allophone（音位变体）The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.14.什么叫音位对立Phonemic contrast？什么叫互补分布complementary distribution？什么是最小对立对？If two phonetically similar sounds can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. If two phonetically similar sounds are two allophones of the same phoneme and they occur in different environments, they are said to be in complementary distributionMinimal pair（最小对立）:Two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.15、Some rules in phonology: 音系学的一些规则（三个）1 Sequential rules The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules, which is language-specific.2 A ssimilation rulesIt assimilates one sound to another by ―copying‖ a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, caused by articulatory or physiological processes.3. Deletion rulesIt tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. 16.Suprasegmental features:超切分特征the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .the main suprasegmental features are: stress, tone, intonation.1 Stress Word stress and sentence stress. In English, word stress is free. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress may also be employed to distinguish meaning in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns; Sentence stress refers to the relative force, which is given to the words in a sentence.2 Tone Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.3 Intonation When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.17、什么是超音位特征？它是如何影响语义的？1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and import. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compund noun a a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs, etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to ac hieve different effect. Take the sentence ―He is driving my car.‖ for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said. Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1定义Morphology It is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules that form the words.Morphology is two sub-branch: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.2.词素可以划分成哪些类别？Morpheme定义: the smallest meaningful unit of language. (A phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.)Type of morphemes分类:（两类）free morphemes and bound morphemes (include root and affixes)(1)Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used fre ely all by themselves, for example, ―book-‖ in the word ―bookish‖.(2)Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as ―-ish‖ in ―bookish‖.※Bound morphemes 分为两类can be subdivided into roots and affixes.词缀A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as ―gene-‖ in the word ―generate‖.※Such roots are numerous in English for example: "geo-―bears the meaning of ―the earth‖. When it combines with another root ―-ology‖meaning ―a branch of learning‖,we got the word ―geology‖ which means ―the study of the earth‘s structure.※Affixes词缀are of two types: inflectional 曲折词缀and derivational派生词缀. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as ―-s‖ in the word ―books‖ to indicate plurality of nouns. -(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns.-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense.-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons.-ing, indicating progressive aspect.-er, indicating comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs.-est, indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs.-‗s, indicating the possessive case of nouns..Derivational affixes派生词缀are added to an existing form to create a word such as ―mis-‖ in the word ―misinform‖※The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem※Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes.Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word, modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.Suffixes at the end of a word, are added to the end of stems. They modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.3. Morphological rulesWe must guard against overgeneralization. Different words may require different affixes to create the same meaning change.pounding 的地位is popular and important way of forming new words in English. In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed ad the addition of affixes to stems to form new words, and compounding the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.5.Features of compounds 复合词有什么特点？1.orthographically(拼写特征): a compound can be written as one with or without a hyphen, or as two separate words. For example: armchair, follow-up, thunder bird.2.syntactically(句法特征): the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element. For example: ice-cold (adj.) greenhouse (noun).3.sematically（语意特征）: the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of the meanings of its components. For example:a blackleg is not a leg that is black, it means cheater4.phonetically（语音特征）: the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.第四章Syntax 句法学1.Syntax 定义is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Sentences are structured according to particular arrangement of words.2、Syntax as a system of rules. as a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to formgrammatical sentences3、Sentence structureSubject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject.A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.2.Type of sentence英语的句子中的三种基本类型是什么？Traditionally, three major types of sentences are distinguished. They are simple sentence, coordinate or compound sentence and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. For example, ①John reads extensively. the sentences contains a single clause and can stand structurally independent.A coordinate sentence并列句contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as ―and‖, ―but‖, ―or‖. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other. For example, ③John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence have unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause子句, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix sentence主句. For example, ⑤Mary told Jane [that John liked linguistics]. In the above examples, the clauses in the square brackets are embedded clauses. They are subordinate to the clauses outside the brackets which are called matrix clauses.A complex sentence 的特征：Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sentence.1、an embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.2.most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator, such as ―that‖,‖ if ‖.3.an embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes.3、linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly(随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构)Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that gro ups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.5、Syntactic categories: 句法类型1.lexical categories词类(four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories)2. Phrasal categories 短语类(lexical items have certain combinational properties thatallow them to combine with words of different categories to form phrase. NP VP PP AP)6、Grammatical relations(语法关系) The structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)7、Combinational rules组合规则1、Phrase structural rules The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.2、Syntactic movement and movement rules Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).3、什么是X-标杆理论?X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world.4、Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)（generate）―――D-structure (deep structure)―――Movement Rules（transform）―――― S-structure (Surface structure)A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.4 More α-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of anyconstituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means ―move any constituent to any place‖. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate that only ―certain constituents‖ move to ―certain positions‖.7、Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary.8、画出―Flying planes can be dangerous.‖ 的树型图。
Chapter 1 Introduction
Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
to be and describing how things are
Prescriptive: the early study of language aims to lay down
rules for correct and standard behavior in using languages, such as grammars, to set models for language users to follow. Descriptive: the study of language aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, be it correct or not; modern linguistic study is supposed to be scientific and objective, they believe that whatever occurs in language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.
Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the formation of words. Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.
新编简明英语语言学教程chapter 1 Introduction
Example:
男生做完头发:
甲：呀，剃头了？ 乙：呵呵，剃了。 甲：真“瓜”。 乙：滚！
1.1.2 The Scope of Linguistics
Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics
语音学 音系学 词汇学 句法学 语义学 语音学
Writing: later developed
Langue vs. Parole (Saussure)
Langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.
Parole: the realization of langue in actual use.
Example:
甲：就是呀，我觉得她长得多漂亮呀！特别像ⅹⅹⅹ。 乙：哦，对了。听说ⅹⅹⅹ拍了一部新电视剧，你看 了吗？ 甲：我也听说了，不过一直没找到什么地方能下载呀。 怎么？你下了？ 乙：没有，不过男朋友给我带来了。 甲：你看看，你男朋友对你多好。我男朋友能有他一 半就好了。 乙：你男朋友也不错的，那次你感冒了看把他忙的！ 甲：什么呀！我感冒还不是因为他！要不是陪他去买 电影票能感冒吗？乙：哦，那次你们看的什么电影？ 甲：是ⅹⅹⅹ，没意思。不过主演ⅹⅹ还是很帅的。 乙：ⅹⅹ？哦，就是演ⅹⅹⅹⅹⅹ的那个吧！ 甲：就是了，他其实演技一般，就是那双眼睛特别迷 人。
(2) Class attendance and participation 30%
Chapter One Introduction
语言学论文 Introduction部分
Sample Thesis Introduction
Title: The Differences between Sentence Combining and Sentence Making in EFL Learners’ Receptive Vocabulary Acquisition
●This part presented the results of the previous research, which gave us a general background information of the research.
Establish a research territory:
3. The terms and constructs: Incidental vocabulary learning refers to that EFL learners are asked to finish a word-based task while intentional vocabulary learning means to study words only. The most obvious distinction between incidental vocabulary acquisition and intentional vocabulary acquisition is whether a consequent memory test is given or not. ●This part explained the terms of incidental vocabulary acquisition and intentional vocabulary acquisition, and introduced the distinction and relation between the two terms. It helps us understand the terms and the following research better.
新编简明英语语言学 第一章
What is linguistics?
---It is a scientific study because it is based on the systemetic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
> Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.
---Hall, 1968
语言是“人类利用约定俗成的任意性视听符号借以相互交流和影响的习惯体 系”。
---霍尔 ， 1968
What is language?
From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.
synchronic and diachronic
>The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.
对历史上某一时间点的语言状况 所作的研究是共时研究
>The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
现代语言学概论中文版
第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学？1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。
为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。
1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。
对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。
语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。
语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。
语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。
心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。
它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter One: Introduction1. Linguistics and English linguistics1) As the name suggests, linguistics is the study of language in general and of particular languages, their structure, grammar, history, culture, and so on.2) According to John Lyons（约翰·莱昂斯），linguistics is divided into types: general linguistics（普通语言学）and descriptive linguistics (描述语言学).A. Differences:i. General linguistics deals with language in general, or the whole human language. Descriptive linguistics studies particular languages.ii. General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general. Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish models that describe the rules of particular languages like Chinese, German, English, etc.B. Relationship:They explicitly or implic itly depend on each other.i. On the one hand, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which a particular language can be analyzed and described.ii. On the other hand, the descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguists. Thus, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other.3) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics. It deals with a particular language --- English, for the purpose of constructing a model to represent the unconscious linguistic knowledge possessed by a fluent English speaker.Actually the study of any particular language is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2. The nature of language(s)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable.1) Language is a system.i. Every language consists of a set of rules, including phonological rules, morphological rules, syntactic rules, semantic rules, grammatical rules, and so on. These rules underlie people's actual speech or writing.ii. In de Saussure's（索绪尔）term, the system of language is called langue（语言体系）and the speaker's speech is called parole (言语).iii. According to Chomsky（乔姆斯基）, competence（语言知识）is "the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language"，while performance（言语行为）is "the actual use of language in concrete situations".iv. Langue or competence is abstract and not directly observed, while parole or performance is concrete and directly observable. It has to take in a definite time and place, and in a particular situation.2) Language is symbolic.i. What is a symbol? How many parts does a symbol consist of?A symbol is essentially made up of two parts: a concrete object or form, and the meaning or the idea that it conveys.ii. There are a few words which cannot be classified as symbols such as the, a, an, etc.3) Language is a system of vocal symbols.i. Two types: visual symbols, auditory symbolsii. Not all sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols. For example, sneezes, coughs and so on usually do not have symbolic value.iii. Language is primarily speech, and not the written form. Three reasons: A. Biolog ically speaking, children begin to learn to speak much earlier than to learn to read and write. B. Functionally speaking, the spoken form is used more frequently than the written form in our daily life. C. Historically speaking, all human languages were spoken before they were written and there are still many languages in the world today which have not been written down.4) Language is arbitrary.i. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.ii. By saying language is arbitrary, we mean that we cannot give a reason why a certain linguistic form should represent a certain meaning and why a certain meaning should be represented by a certain form.iii. It does not imply that any individual speaker has the freedom to determine the pronunciation of a word.5) Language is creative.i. Every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.ii. The length of a sentence has no limit in theory.6) Language is double-structured.Two levels: grammatically --- meaningful and sound --- meaningless7) Language is changeable.Language has changes in three systems: sound system, lexical system and grammatical system.3. Scientific method3.0 Definition: Generally speaking, a scientific method is the procedure adopted by scientists in conducting their investigation and establishing their conclusion.3.1 Scientific method in generalFour stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions3.2 Scientific method in linguisticsFour stages: gather data, construct a tentative rule, examine the tentative rule, finalize the ruleAn important principle --- objectivity3.2.1 ObjectivityThree common linguistic biasesA. Some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced.B. Only the standard variety is the pure form of a language.C. Change is not natural for living languages and such a change is a sign of corruption and decay.3.2.2 Sources of dataA. Collecting data is the initial work for any linguistic description.B. If the linguist describes a language that he does not know himself, he may find a suitable native speaker of that language as his informant（（为语言学调查）提供资料的本地人），who is usually a bilingual.3.2.3 Rules constructionA. The essential task of linguistic description is to construct rules which may account for a native speaker's implicit knowledge about the language.B. How does a linguist construct a rule?Step 1: the linguist starts with collecting data.Step 2: based on the data collected, he may construct a very simple rule as a tentative version.Step 3: then he examines the tentative rule against further data. If the additional data do not agree with it, he has to modify it.Step 4: he keeps on testing the rule and, accordingly, revising the rule until the rule can account for all the relevant data collected.Attention: very likely, the data gathered are not complete. Thus, the rule formed is open to further modifications.4. The goal of linguistics4.0 Definition: the goal of linguistics is to establish a model of a native speaker's competence.4.1 Modeli. There are two kinds of models:A. a physical or literal model --- it can be used to investigate the function and construction of the real object.B. a conceptual or theoretical model --- it can be used to examine something unobservable such as the nature of economy.Which type does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to? --- The latter.ii. Two features of an adequate model of competence: explicitness（明确性）and generativeness（生成性）A. By saying a model is explicit, we mean that the rules of the language the model contains are clearly defined.B. By saying a model is generative, we mean that we can use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences.4.2 CompetenceA native speaker has four types of linguistic knowledge: phonological knowledge（音位知识）, morphological knowledge（词法知识）, syntactic knowledge（句法知识）and semantic knowledge（语义知识）i. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language.ii. Morphological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about how a word is formed.iii. Syntactic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.iv. Semantic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the meaning of language.5. Sub-branches of linguistics1) Phonetics（语音学）is the study of speech sounds of all human languages. It deals with questions like how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, how English sounds are classified and described.2) Phonology （音系学）is the science that deals with the sound system of a language.3) Morphology（词法、形态学）deals with word formation and the internal structure of words.4) Syntax（句法）is concerned with how words are combined to form phrases and how phrases are combined by rules to form sentences.5) Semantics（语义学）is the study of the meaning of words and sentences6. Saussure: The Father of Modern Linguistics1) When did modern linguistics start? --- At the beginning of the 20th century.2) What are the most influential schools of modern linguistics? --- Structural linguistics（结构语言学）and Transformational-generative Grammar (TG Grammar)（转换生成语法）3) Who is commonly acknowledged as the father of modern linguistics? --- Ferdinand de Saussure4) Why is he regarded as the founder of modern linguistics?Answer:1。
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Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论
1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation ofdata, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究，并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how languageis actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the languagestructure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料，即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法，继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. Thisdeals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methodsapplicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。它的研究对象主要是能够应用于所有语言研究的基本概念、理论、描述、模型和方法等。Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, so it ishardly possible for the linguists to deal with it all at once. They have toconcentrate on one aspect of it at a time.语言是一种包含有多个层次和方面的综合体，所以语言学家们不可能一下子都能面面俱到，每一次只能集中研究其中的一个方面。What first drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used inlanguages. This study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to theestablishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics.首先引起语言学家们注意的是语言使用中的声音现象。这种对语言交际中声音的研究最终促成了语言学的第一个分支——语音学的建立。Linguists became interested in how sounds are put together and used toconvey meaning in communication; they developed another branch of studyrelated to sounds called phonology.语言学家们开始对交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式感兴趣，这样他们又建立了和语音相关的另外一个分支——语系学。Morphology 形态学Syntax 句法学Semantics 语义学Pragmatics 语用学Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Psycholinguistics :心理语言学We as infants acquire our mother tongue. 小时候是怎么习得母语Applied linguistics 应用语言学The emergence of a new teaching approach or method often follows theemergence of a new linguistic theory.一种新的教学理念或教学方法的出现总是和某种新的语言学理论相伴而生的。1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的一些基本概念1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性 与 描述性If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive ;Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.如果一种语言学的研究是对人们实际使用中的语言进行的描述和分析，那么这种研究就是描述性的;现代语言学则基本上都是描述性的。If it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour, i.e., to tell people whatthey should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.如果某种研究的目的是在对所谓“正确的”行为制订一些规则，即告诉人们他们应该说什么，不应该说什么，那么这种研究就是规定性的。1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性 与 历时性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study.对处于某一时间点的语言所作的描述叫做共时性研究。The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronicstudy.对随时间的推移而发生变化的语言所作的描述，叫做历时性研究。1.3.3 Speech and writing 口头语 与 书面语Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary , not the written.现代语言学比较看重的是口头语言，而不是书面语言。In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importanceof the written word, partly because of its permanence.过去，传统的语法学家们都有过分强调书面语重要性的倾向，这是由于书面语的相对恒定性。The writing system of any language is always a later invention.任何语言的书写体系总是人们后来发明的。While quite a number of languages in the world today have both spoken andwritten forms.大多数语言既有口头形式又有书面形式。1.3.4 Langue and parole 语言 和 言语 Saussure 索绪尔Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.语言指的是某一特定的语言社区中的所有成员所共有的那种抽象的语言系统，言语则指的是语言在实际应用中的具体体现。Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have toabide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and theapplication of the rules.语言是语言使用者们必须恪守的一套语言习惯和规则，而言语则是指对这些习惯和规则的遵守和实际应用。1.3.5 Competence and performance 语言能力 和 语言运用Chomsky 乔姆斯基Similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is the distinctionbetween competence and performance.乔姆斯基提出了一对和语言——言语相类似的概念，即语言能力和语言运用。Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules ofhis language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge inlinguistic communication.