The American Court System 美国法院系统
The American Court System 美国法院系统（Three-level Court Systems）Unlike most countries in the world, actually, there are fifty-two court systems in America—one for each of the fifty states, one for the District of Columbia, plus a federal[ˈfedərəl]system—similarities abound. The state court systems are established according to the constitution of each state. The federal courts are not superior [su:ˈpiəriə, sju:-] to the state courts; they are simply independent systems of courts, which derives its authority from Article 3, Section2, of the U.S. Constitution. Although state court systems differ, Exhibit3-1 illustrates the basic organizational structure characteristic of the court system in many states. The exhibit also shows how federal court system is structured.与世界上大多数的国家不同，事实上，美国拥有52个法院系统——50个州每州一个，还有一个是哥伦比亚特区，再加上一个联邦法院系统——它们都是相似的。
美国州的法院系统是依据各州的宪法而确立的。
联邦法院不是各州的最高法院；他们是相对独立的法院系统，联邦法院起源的依据是美国联邦宪法第三条第二款的授权。
虽然各州的法院系统各有不同，如图表3-1所阐释的各州法院的基本组织结构特征。
这个图标同样显示出了联邦法院系统是怎样构成的。
1. State court System 州法院体系Typically, a state court system will include several levels, or tiers, of courts. State courts may include (1) trial courts of limited jurisdiction [ˌdʒuərisˈdikʃən], (2) trial [ˈtraiəl]courts of general jurisdiction, (3) appellate courts, and (4) the state’s highest court (often called the state supreme court). Generally, any person who is a party to a lawsuit has the opportunities to plead the case before a trial court and then, if he or she loses, before at least one level of appellate court. Finally, if a federal statute or federal constitutional issue is involved in the decision of the state Supreme[su:ˈpri:m, sju:-]Court, that decision can be further pleaded before the Federal Supreme Court.就典型的来说，美国州的法院体系有若干个层级或审级。
州法院体系可能包括(1)拥有有限司法管辖权的初审法院,(2)具有普遍管辖权的初审法院,(3)上诉法院,(4)各州的最高法院。
一般来说，案件的任何一方当事人都有申请初审法院予以审理案件的权利，而后，如果他或她败诉，还可以将案件上诉至上诉法院。
最后，如果州最高法院的判决涉及到联邦制定法和联邦宪法性的事项，那么，这个判决还可以被上诉至联邦最高法院。
a. Trial Courts 初审法院Trial courts are exactly what their name implies, courts in which trials are held and testimony [ˈtestiməni] taken. State trial courts have either general or limited jurisdiction. Trial courts that have general jurisdiction as to subject matter may be called county, district, superior[su:ˈpiəriə, sju:-], or circuit[ˈsə:kit]courts. The jurisdiction of these courts is often determined by the size of the county in which the courts sit. State trial courts of general jurisdiction have jurisdiction over a wide variety of subjects, including both civil disputes and criminal prosecutions. In some cases, trial courts of general jurisdiction may hear appeals from courts of limited jurisdiction.初审法院正如其名称所述，是进行审判和采集证据的法院。
州初审法院有普遍和有限司法管辖权之分。
拥有普遍管辖权的初审法院就受理的诉讼标的的不同分别叫做郡县法院，地区法院，高级法院和巡回法院。
这些法院所拥有的司法管辖权范围是该法院所在郡县的大小来决定的。
具有普遍管辖权的州初审法院对各种事物都有管辖权，包括民事争议和刑事指控。
在某些案件中，具有普遍管辖权的州法院可以受理具有有限司法管辖权的法院的上诉案件。
Some courts of limited jurisdiction are called special inferior[inˈfiəriə]trial courts or minor judiciary[dʒu:ˈdiʃəl]courts. Small claims courts are inferior trial courts that hear only civil cases involving claims of less than a certain amount, such as $5,000 (the amount varies from state to state). Suits brought in small claims courts are generally conducted informally, and lawyers are not even allowed to represent peoples in small claims courts for most purposes. Another example of an inferior trial court is a local municipal [mju:ˈnisipəl] court that hears mainly traffic cases. Decisions of small claims courts and municipal courts may be appealed to a state trial court of general jurisdiction.一些有限管辖权的法院被称为特殊低级法院或者是次级法院。
小额索赔法院都是只听取包括数额在某一特定范围内如5000美元以下索赔的民事案件的低级法院（这个一定数额各州不尽相同）。
小额索赔法院受理的诉讼案通常都采用的是非正式审理，并且在许多事项上,甚至不允许律师代表出庭。
低级初审法院的另一种形式是主要负责处理交通案件的地方市镇法庭。
小额索赔法院和市镇法院的判决可以上诉至具有普遍管辖权的州初审法院。
Other courts of limited jurisdiction as to subject matter include domestic relations courts, which handle only divorce actions and child-custody[ˈkʌstədi] cases, and probate courts.另外，有限管辖权法院还包括根据受理的诉讼标的不同包括只处理离婚的诉讼，子女监护权案件的家庭关系法院和遗产检验法庭。
b. Courts of Appeals 上诉法院Every state has at least one court of appeals (appellate court, or reviewing court), which may be an intermediate appellate court or the state’s highest court. About three-fourths of the states have intermediate appellate courts. Generally, courts of appeals do not conduct new trials, in which evidence is submitted to the court and witnesses are examined. Rather, an appellate court panel of three or more judges reviews the record of the case on appeal, which includes a transcript of the trial proceedings, and determines whether the trial court committed an error.每一个州都至少有一个上诉的法院（上诉法院或者是重审法院），它可能是居中仲裁的上诉法院或者是州的最高法院。
12ANGRYMEN
I. Warming-upQuestions:1.Try to work out a list of words or expressions used in acriminal court.2.Please give a simple character sketch for each of the jurors.3.See the movie to have a better understanding of the story.II. Background1.American Court SystemThe accused is deemed innocent until and unless proved “guilty beyond a reasonable doubt”;The burden of proof is on the prosecutor;In most cases, the verdict has to be unanimously reached. Themajority of a jury is not sufficient to find a defendant guilty of a felony;A trial does not aim at discovering who committed a particular crime, but rather the innocence or guilt of the accused;The system is valuable, but not infallible and can be quite precarious.2. Jury System & JurorsWho can be a jury member?A jury is made up of 12 adults.The jury is chosen at random from the local Electoral Register.Jury service is usually compulsory, however there are certain categories of people who can't be selected including: Judges, Magistrates, Solicitors, Barristers, Ministers of religion, Prisoners, MPs, Members of the armed forces, Members of the medical profession, Police and probation officers, Anyone on bail or who has been on probation within the last five years, Anyone sentenced to prison, detention centre, youth custody or community service within the last 10 years.One may be excused from Jury service if there is a strong reason why you are unable to serve, such as exams or a pre-booked holiday.How long does jury service last for?It lasts for around two weeks, however, if at the end of this timethe trial is still going, you may be asked if you are able to stay on. You can be a juror for more than one trial during your jury service.Who can I talk to about the trial?Once you are a juror you may only discuss the trial in the jury room when all the jury are present. You must not talk about the trial to anyone who is not a member of your jury.It is an offence for anyone outside your jury to try to influence you about the case. If anyone approaches you about the case tell a court official or police officer at once.It is an offence for anyone to impersonate a juror and to serve onhis or her behalf.How are jurors selected for a particular trial?First, the court clerk selects anywhere from 15 to 35 prospective jurors at random from the larger jury pool. This smaller group of potential jurors is seated in a courtroom. Then the judge’s clerk or bailiff places each person’s name on a separate slip of paper. Allof these slips are then placed in a box. The clerk shakes the box vigorously to ensure a completely random selection of names. Afterthe slips are mixed the clerk begins drawing names one at a time from the box. When an appropriate number of names have been drawn and called, those potential jurors take an oath. This begins the most important step in jury selection, which is called “voir dire”.III New wordsGet familiar with the new words and expressions in Glossary.Pay attention to the pronunciation and special usage.IV Text Analysis1.General introduction•Plot: A young delinquent awaits sentencing for the manslaughter of his aggressive father.One juror feels there is a reasonable doubt—to the frustration of his elevencolleagues—thus preventing a quick verdict. During the heated deliberations,the hidden preconceptions and prejudices of the jurors are revealed.•Setting: jury room•Protagonists: 12 jurors2.Theme:✓The idea, that one person, or a small group of people, canactually make a significant difference. It's easy to becomedisillusioned by a barrage of facts, supposed facts,obfuscations, and outright lies, whether in a court or in anelection. But finding the strength to push all these aside andparticipate in the process to the best of your ability is animportant part of what Twelve Angry Men is all about.✓Twelve Angry Men is about one individual's ability to stand upfor what he believes, even when others ridicule him. It is alsoa powerful study not just of the criminal justice system, butalso of the diversity of human experience, the nature of peerpressure, and the difficulty of ever fully knowing the truth.Lecture two (two hours)3.Further DiscussionFill in the blanks, and figure out which juror changes his vote each time a vote is called for.Guilty Not guilty1st vote No. 82nd vote3rd vote4th vote5th vote6th vote7th vote8th vote4.Paraphrases:What do you think that trial cost? (Para. 20)According to the U.S. law any citizen has a right to a proper trial, and if he can’t pay, the trial will be paid by the government. That’s why No. 10 here reminds No. 8 angrily that the boy has cost a lot of public money.Since when is dishonesty a group characteristic? (Para. 21)I’m surprised to hear you say that as if dishonesty has ever been a group characteristic. This is a retort to No. 10’s remark from No. 9 who is opposed to stereotyped opinions about the poor people. Some individuals are dishonest. They might be rich or poor. It has nothing to do with the social group they belong to. To condemn a whole group of people as immoral or inferior is the common attitude of racists and other bigots.It’s hard to put into words. I just think he’s guilty. I mean nobody proved otherwise. (Para. 26)It’s hard to express my views. I just think he’s guilty. I mean nobody proved him innocent. No. 2 obviously doesn’t know the principle that the boy is innocent until proven guilty. His use of the word “think” show that he is not basing his judgment on facts but his feelings.Innocent until proven guilty. The burden of proof is on the prosecution. (Para. 27)The accused is not guilty unless we prove him guilty. And it is the prosecutor’s responsibility to present the evidence.The American legal system is based on the confrontation principle with the prosecutor trying his utmost to prove the accused guilty and the defense lawyer trying his best to prove his client not guilty. When all the facts are out, then the jury makes a decision.You don’t believe the boy’s story. How come you believe the woman’s? She’s one of THEM, too, isn’t she? (Para. 36)No. 8 is pointing out a flaw in No. 10’s logic. No. 10 first says that you can’t believe those slum people, then he begins to quote of those people’s testimony, but he is not aware of his self-contradiction.Lecture three (two hours)5.Discussion: Characteristics of the 12 jurors （assignmentin class）VI. ExtensionOral Work1.Recreation of the court scenes.2.What was the evidence against the boy? How did it fall piece bypiece through the discussion?3.Why do you think Juror No. 8 could stand up against all theopposition and finally won this argument?4. Do you think we are all prone to prejudices just like thejurors? Why?5. What is the difference between the American judicialsystem and the Chinese one? Does reasonable doubt also playa part in the Chinese judicial system?Appreciation of Quotes•Common sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by ageeighteen.–Albert Einstein•The greatest friend of Truth is time, her greatest enemy isPrejudice, and her constant companion Humility. –CharlesCaleb Colton•Everyone is a prisoner of his own experiences. No one caneliminate prejudices–just recognize them. –EdwardR. Murrow•If we were to wake up some morning and find that everyone wasthe same race, creed and color, we would find some othercause for prejudice by noon. –George Aiken•There are, in every age, new errors to be rectified and new prejudices to be opposed.–Samuel Johnson汉译英：在一些西方国家里，有一条指导刑事法庭的原则，即法庭必须排除任何有理由疑点而确定被告的罪行。
美国政治
Others are appeals from lower courts
Strict interpretation Broad interpretation
The “power of judicial review”
司法审议权 The right to declare laws and actions of the federal, state, and local governments unconstitional.
Checks
checks To prevent the executive and the Congress from abuse of power
To create the Supreme Court To provide for a sharing of functions beslative branches.
3. A supreme national court
A supreme national court: to police the constitutional structure. The written Constitution would be treated as the highest law of land, and would be enforced by the Supreme Court against the other branches of national government and the states.
Separation of powers
Congressman/woman
The legislative branch:
the Senate
100 senators two from each state represent all of the people in a state 1/3 elected every 2 years for six-year terms of office
英美政府机关名称中英对照
Institution 机关；机构Congress 国会court 法院；法庭Constitution 宪法Amendment 修正案；修订案the Bill of Rights (美)人权法案ambassador 大使；使节envoy 使节embassy 大使馆federalism 联邦主义；联邦制度the Supreme Court （美）最高法院the Cabinet 内阁bicameralism 两院制the chamber 议院the Senate 参议院impeachment 弹劾parliament 议会the House of Representatives 众议院the district courts 地方法院levy tax 征税the courts of appeals 上诉法院Democrat 民主党员two-party system 两党制Republican 共和党员Democratic party 民主党platform（美）政党竞选纲领Libertarian 自由党者Department of Justice 司法部jury Socialist 社会党员government intervention 政府干预global economy 全球经济Monetary and fiscal policies 财政政策protectionist 保护贸易论tariff 关税foreign affairs 外交magistrate （张有司法权的）行政长官；治安法官administration 政府intermediate courts of appeals 中级上诉法院agenda 议事日程appellate court of last resort 最终求助上诉法院arbitration 仲裁bill 议案cabinet 内阁Capitol Hill 美国国会checks and balances 权力制衡committee 委员会cold war 冷战congressional record 国会记事录convention 政党代表大会federal reserve system 联邦储备系统First Amendment 第一修正案floor 议员席foreign policy 外交政策governor 州长;省长；镇长incumbent 现任者Internal Revenue Service(IRS)（美国）国内收入署left-wing 左翼legislation 立法Pentagon 五角大楼President 总统primary 初选Prime Minister 首相shirtsleeve diplomacy 非正式外交diplomat 外交官socialism 社会主义imperialism 帝国主义speaker 众院议长subcommittee 小组委员会revolution 革命amnesty 赦免apartheid 种族隔离arms race 军备竞赛balance of power 力量均势banishment 驱逐bilateralism 双边关系Common Market 公共市场communism 共产主义confederation 联邦consul 领事consulate 领事；领事馆courier 外交信使delegate 代表developing nation 发展中国家dictatorship 独裁human rights 人权diplomatic immunity 外交豁免权AIDS SARS respire respiratory conspire inspire Disarmament 裁军draft 征兵propaganda politician politics statesman dragon dry winenews reader announcer news anchor anchorage talk show host guest moderatorpresenter ceremony master M.C. emcee coined wordInternational Court of Justice 国际法庭international law 国际法internationalism 国际主义interpreter 议员Kremlin 克里姆林宫league 联盟multilateralism 多边主义nationalism 国家主义；民族主义nationality 国籍；民族neutrality 中立NATO= The North Atlantic Treaty Organization 北约premier 总理Peaceful coexistence 和平共处police state 极权国家refugees 难民Secretary of state 国务卿Security Council 安理会sovereignty 主权summit 峰会；首脑会议superpower 超级大国terrorism 恐怖主义totalitarianism 极权主义unilateralism 单边行动war games 军事演习National Security Council 国家安全委员会the Treasury (英国)财政部Her Majesty’s Government （英国）女王陛下政府the civil service 文官部；文职部门First Lord of Treasury （英国）首席财政大臣Minister for the Civil Service （英国）文官部大臣The Chancellor of the Exchequer\the Chancellor （英国）财政大臣The secretary of state for Home Affairs\the Home Secretary （英国）内务大臣The Secretary of state for Defense\ the Defense Secretary （英国）国防大臣Secretary of State （英国）国务大臣state government （美国）州政府The Federal Government (美国)联邦政府general assembly （美国）州议会Military government 军人政府dictator 专政者；独裁者provisional government 临时政府political pluralism 政治多元化national government 国民政府the White House 白宫radical party 激进党conservative party 保守党the judiciary 司法部门law-enforcement official 司法官员Act of Parliament 议会法案Agency 政府分支机构magistrate\Justice of the Peace地方法官；治安法官administration 行政当局anarchism 无政府主义antigovernment 反政府的anarchy 无政府状态appoint 任命asylum 政治避难authorities 当局；官方chauvinism 沙文主义CIA=Central Intelligence Agency 中央情报局Donkey 驴（指代美国民主党）Downing Street 唐宁街（英国政府或首相府）Elephant 象（指代美国共和党）Elysee Palace 爱丽舍宫（法国政府或总统府）FBI=Federal Bureau of Investigation （美）联邦调查局Foggy Bottom 雾谷（指代美国国务院）The Department of the Interior （美）内政部the Secretary of the Interior （美）内政部长Joint Intelligence Service （英）联合情报委员会Communications Intelligence 通讯情报处Defense Intelligence Staff 国防情报处plenary （指会议）全体出席的Plenary session 全会white paper 白皮书（政府真是报告）Chairman （中、朝等国）主席，委员长，议长king (丹麦等国)国王chancellor（英）大臣；（德等一些欧洲国家）总理mayor 市长the Chancellor of the Exchequer (英)财政大臣the Minister of Education 教育部长the Minister of Foreign Affairs 外交部长the Prime Minister 首相，总理，行政院长parliamentarian （国会）议员politician 政客premiership 总理、首相之任期president （中）国家主席，（美等国）总统secretary of state 国务卿 a Cabinet Minister 内阁大臣a cabinet member\officer 阁员Chamber of Deputies （意大利）众议院Congress 美国国会the Senate 参议院The House of Representative 众议院（the House）House Representative 众议员Member of Congress 国会议员Department of State （美）国务院Council of State （印）联邦院（上院）House of the People 人民院（下院）Federal Assembly （德）联邦议院Federal Council (德)联邦参议院Indian National Congress 印度国民大会党LD=Liberal Democracy （法）自由民主党KPRF=Communist Party of the Russian Federation （俄）联邦共产党LDP=Liberal Democratic Party （日）自民党National Assembly （法、波兰等国）国会Parliament 英国议会the House of Parliament 上下两院The House of Lord 上议院Lord High Chancellor 议长Lords Spiritual 上议院神职人员（高级神职人员）Lord Temporal 上议院世俗议员（柜组成员）The House of Commons 下议院（Lower House）Member of Parliament 下议院People’s Party （印度等国）人民党PS=Socialist Party （法）社会党Buckingham 白金汉宫（指代英国皇室）crown prince 皇太子，王储Czar(Tzar)（俄国）沙皇barnstorm (尤美)巡回演说ASEAN=Association of Southeast Asian Nation 东南亚国家联盟Asian-African Conference 亚非会议Commonwealth 英联邦ASPAC=Asian and Pacific Council 亚洲及太平洋理事会CAEC=Council for Asia-Europe Cooperation 亚欧合作理事会CSCAP=Council on Security Cooperation on Asia and Pacific Region 亚太安全合作理事会EAC=East African Community 东非共同体ECHR=European Commission of Human Rights 欧洲人权委员会EU=European Union 欧洲联盟G7=Group of Seven 七国集团（八国集团的前身）G8 summit 八国峰会NACC=North Atlantic Cooperation Council 北大西洋合作理事会NATO=North Atlantic Treaty Organization 北大西洋公约组织NC=Nordic Council 北欧理事会OIC=Organization of the Islamic Conference 伊斯兰会议组织OSPAALA=Organization of Solidarity of the people of Africa, Asia and Latin American亚非拉人民团结组织WPC=World Peace Council 世界和平理事会South-South Conference 南南会议WEU=Western European Union 西欧联盟UNESCO=United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 联合国教科文组织WHO=World Heath Organization 世界卫生组织IMF=International Monetary Fund 国际货币基金组织The people's Republic of China (P. R. China) 中华人民共和国Province (Hebei Province) 省Prefecture (Cangzhou Prefecture) 区Municipality (Beijing Municipality) 市City (Cangzhou City) 市County (Cangxian County) 县Autonomous 自治(Autonomous District [ Prefecture/ County]) Capital (Provincial Capital) 省会Communist Party of China 中国共产党National Party Congress 全国代表大会Fifteenth National Congress 第十五次全国代表大会(十五大)First Plenary Session 第一届中央全会(一中全会)Central Committee 中央委员会member of the Central Committee 中央委员alternate member of the Central Committee 候补中央委员Political Bureau 政治局member of the Political Bureau 政治局委员alternate member of the Political Bureau 政治局候补委员Standing Committee of the Political Bureau 政治局常务委员会member of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau 政治局常委Secretariat of the Central Committee 中央书记处General Secretary 总书记Central Commission for Discipline Inspection 中央纪律检查委员会Military Commission of the Central Committee 中央军事委员会International Liaison Department 对外联络部Organization Department 组织部United Front Work Department 统战部Propaganda Department 宣传部State President 国家主席President of PRC 中华人民共和国主席Vice President of PRC 中华人民共和国副主席National People's Congress 全国人民代表大会Standing Committee 常务委员会Chairman 委员长Vice Chairpersons 副委员长Members of the NPC Standing Committee 常务委员会委员Central Military Committee 中央军事委员会Chairman 主席Vice Chairman 副主席CMC Members 委员Supreme People's Court 最高人民法院President 最高人民法院院长Supreme People's Procuratorate 最高人民检察院Procurator-General 最高人民检察院检察长State Council 国务院Premier 总理Vice Premier 副总理State Councillors 国务委员Ministry of Foreign Affairs 外交部Ministry of National Defense 国防部State Development Planning Commission 国家发展计划委员会State Economic and Trade Commission 国家经济贸易委员会Ministry of Education 教育部Ministry of Science and Technology 科学技术部Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense 国防科学技术工业委员会State Ethnic Affairs Commission 国家民族事务委员会Ministry of Public Security 公安部Ministry of State Security 安全部Ministry of Supervision 监察部Ministry of Civil Affairs 民政部Ministry of Justice 司法部Ministry of Finance 财政部Ministry of Personnel 人事部Ministry of Labor and Social Security 劳动和社会保障部Ministry of Land and Natural Resources 国土资源部Ministry of Construction 建设部Ministry of Railways 铁道部Ministry of Communications 交通部Ministry of Information Technology and Telecommunications 信息产业部Ministry of Water Resources 水利部Ministry of Agriculture 农业部Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Co-operation 对外贸易经济合作部Ministry of Culture 文化部Ministry of Health 卫生部State Family Planning Commission 国家计划生育委员会People's Bank of China 中国人民银行Auditing Administration 审计署Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference 中国人民政治协商会议National Committee 全国委员会Standing Committee 常务委员会Chairman 主席Vice-Chairpersons 副主席democratic party 民主党派Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang 中国国民党革命委员会（民革）China Democratic League 中国民主同盟（民盟）China Democratic National Construction Association 中国民主建国会（民建）China Association Promoting Democracy 中国民主促进会（民进）Chinese Peasants' and Workers' Democratic Party 中国农工民主党China Zhi Gong Dang 中国致公党Jiu San Society 九三学社Taiwan Democratic self-government 台湾民主自治同盟（台盟）people's organization 人民团体All-China Federation of Trade Unions 中华全国总工会（全总）Communist Youth League of China 中国共产主义青年团（共青团All-China Federation of Youth 中华全国青年联合会（全国青联）All-China Students' Federation 中华全国学生联合会（全国学联）China Young Pioneers 中国少年先锋队（少先队）All-China Women's Federation 中华全国妇女联合会（全国妇联）China Association for Science and Technology 中国科学技术协会（中国科协）China Federation of Literary and Art Circles 中国文学艺术界联合会（文联）All-China Federation of Returned Overseas Chinese 中华全国归国华侨联合会（全国侨联）China Welfare Institute 中国福利会Red Cross Society of China 中国红十字会Chinese People's Liberation Army 中国人民解放军Headquarters of the General Staff 总参谋部General Political Department 总政治部General Logistics Department 总后勤部General Armament Department 总装备部State Ethnic Affairs Commission 国家民族事务委员会。
法律英语(Topic_2_Legal_System)
Most fields of private law still consist primarily of case law and the extensive and steadily growing statutory continues to be subject to binding interpretation through case law. 私法的大多数领域主要包括判例法， 以及广泛的不断增加的成文法，这些 成文法继续通过判例法受制于有约束 力的法律解释。
2014-11-3
法律英语
18
When hundreds and thousands of documents strihundred years, we have a right to say that is the keynote. 当一百多年来成百上千的文件敲击出始 终如一的音调时，我们可以说这就是基 调。
2014-11-3 法律英语 22
Knowledge Technique central importance for an understanding of American law and legal methodology
2014-11-3 法律英语 23
The common law is historically the common general law —— with supremacy over local law —— which was decreed by the itinerant judges of the English royal court. 普通法在历史上是普通综合法，由英国 皇家法院的巡回法官颁布的普通综合法 地位高于地方法。
世界法律体系简介(中英文)
1.how to understand the separation of power?The separation of powers, often imprecisely used interchangeably with the triaspolitica principle, is a model for the governance of a state (or who controls the state). The model was first developed in ancient Greece. Under this model, the state is divided into branches, each with separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with the powers associated with the other branches. The typical division of branches is into a legislature, an executive, and a judiciary. It can be contrasted with the fusion of powers in a parliamentary system where the executive and legislature (and sometimes parts of the judiciary) are unified.三权分立，往往不准确交替使用的三叠纪政治学原则，是一个典范的状态的治理（或谁控制的状态）。
在古希腊最早开发的模式。
在这种模式下，状态分为分支，每个单独的和独立的权力和责任领域，使得一个部门的权力不与与其他部门相关的权力冲突。
法律英语-何家弘(课文)
Lesson One: Legal System 法律制度Background背景自从哥伦布(Christopher Columbus)于1492年航行至美洲之后，大批欧洲人便开始拥向这片"新大陆"。
不过，人们通常把第一批英国定居者(the first English settlers)于1607年到达弗吉尼亚(Virginia)的詹姆斯顿(Jamestown)视为美国法律制度历史的起点。
美国法制史可以大体上分为两个时期，即英属殖民地时期(the Period of the English Colonies)和美利坚合众国时期(the Period of the United States)。
虽然美国的法律制度是在英国法律传统的基础上形成和发展起来的，但是在近四百年的历史进程中，美国的法律制度也形成了一些不同于英国法律制度的特点，如公诉制度(public prosecution)等。
美国属于普通法系(Common Law Legal System)国家，其法律制度有两个基本特点：其一是以分散制(decentralization)为原则；其二是以判例法(case law)为主体。
美国除联邦政府外，还有州政府、县政府、市政府、镇政府等等，而且这些政府都是相互独立的，各自在其管辖范围内享有一定的立法权和执法权。
因此，有人说美国是"一个有许多政府的国家"(a country of many governments)；而美国的法律体系则是一个"零散的无系统"(fragmental no system)。
诚然，美国现在也有很多成文法(written law)或制定法(statutory law)，但是其法律制度仍是以判例法为主体的。
换言之，"遵从前例"(stare decisis)仍然是美国司法活动中最重要的原则之一。
以上两点对于理解美国的法律制度具有重要意义。
法律英语名词解释
Constitution宪法public law 公法private law 私法common law 普通法civil law 罗马法, 大陆法; 民法case law 判例法statutory law 制定法equity law 衡平法Provisions of Oxford 牛津条例writ 令状writ upon the case 本案令状court of chancery 衡平法院injunction 强制令binding interpretation 具有约束力的法律解释civil suit 民事诉讼action 法律诉讼,诉讼行为the Bar 律师业，司法界barrister 诉讼律师, 大律师, 出庭律师solicitor 非诉律师, 诉状律师, 事务律师advocacy 出廷辩护，代理诉讼single practitioner 单独开业者house counsel 专职法律顾问public prosecutors 公诉人，检察官attorney 律师；检察官Attorney General 司法部长；检察总长Chief Justice 首席大法官litigation 诉讼litigant 诉讼当事人Juris Doctor (JD) 法律博士Master of Laws (LLM) 法学硕士Doctor of Juridical Science (SJD) 法学博士curriculum 课程required course 必修课elective course 选修课the case method 案例教学法the Socratic method 苏格拉底式教学法old boy networks 老哥们关系网the modern regulatory nation 现代规制国家Federal Court System 联邦法院系统: The Supreme Court 最高法院Courts of Appeals上诉法院District Courts地区法院Special Courts特别法院Three-tiered model 三级（审判）体制：trial court （审判法院；初审法院）appellate court , court of appeals（上诉法院）supreme court 最高法院Litigant 诉讼当事人capital punishment死刑writ of certiorari调案调卷令be on the bench担任法官career judiciary职业法官popular vote普选gross misconduct严重的过失行为doctrine of constitutional supremacy宪法至上原则malfeasance 渎职行为judicial interpretation 司法解释judicial review 司法审查constitutionality 合宪性impeachment 弹劾associate justice 陪审大法官administrative law 行政法agency action 行政行为adjudication 裁定；裁决sub-constitutional 准宪法性；亚宪法性statutory law 制定法Formal adjudication 正式裁决Informal adjudication 非正式裁决Formal rulemaking 正式规章制定Informal rulemaking 非正式规章制定Criminal Law 刑法Model Penal Code 标准刑法典Criminal liability刑事责任Capital punishment 死刑Insanity defense 精神不正常辩护Homicide 杀人罪Self-defense 自卫；正当防卫forcible felony暴力性重罪gross negligence严重过失criminal homicide 有罪杀人Malice恶意Murder谋杀Death penalty死刑Felony重罪co-felons重罪共犯first degree murder一级谋杀罪manslaughter非恶意杀人；非预谋杀人criminal sanction刑事惩罚conviction rate定罪率acquittal 宣告无罪gross negligence严重过失reckless homicide疏忽大意杀人negligent homicide过失杀人civil rights law 民权法invidious discrimination 嫉恨式歧视Magistrate治安法官；司法官summary judgment motion即决审判动议cause of action诉因Contract Law合同法Agreement-in-fact事实协议Agreement-as-written书面协议Uniform Commercial Code统一商法典Offer要约Acceptance承诺Consideration对价Contract performance合同履行Tangible property有形财产Intangible property无形财产Conveyance of property财产权的转让Primary authority首要法源Secondary authority次要法源Tax evasion逃税Restatements of the Law法律重述汇编Stare decisis遵从前例Tort Law 侵权法intentional tort故意侵权negligence or negligent tort过失侵权contingent fee 成功酬金tortfeasor 侵权人intangible damage 无形损害conversion of propertyfalse imprisonment 非法拘禁defamation 诽谤invasion of privacy侵犯隐私products liability 产品责任duty of care照看义务contributory negligence 共同过失comparative negligence 比较过失strict Liability 严格责任medical malpractice 医务渎职property law 财产法tangible property 有形财产intangible property无形财产security transaction 担保交易deficiency judgment不足额判决foreclosure 取消赎回权mortgage holder 抵押权人secondary financing 间接融资Corporation Law公司法individual proprietorships个体业主partnerships 合伙Uniform Partnership Act统一合伙条例Model Business Corporation Acts标准商务公司条例Securities Exchange Act证券交易条例Blue Sky Laws 蓝天法Federal Antitrust Laws 联邦反托拉斯法separate legal entities 独立法人实体general partnerships 一般合伙Limited partnerships 有限合伙publicly held corporations公众持股公司close corporations 内部持股公司Insurance Law保险法group insurance 团体保险insurance policy 保险单accident insurance 意外保险liability insurance 责任保险insurance proceeds 保险收益buy-out agreement (股权）承买协议premium 保险费stock retirement plan 赎股计划Commercial Law商法The Uniform Commercial Code 统一商法典commerce clause 商业条款complete grant of power 完全授权commerce power 商务权力Modern Commerce Power Tests现代商务权力检验标准Modern Delegation of Power Doctrine现代授权原则rulemaking 规章制定due process 正当程序学习好资料欢迎下载。
Unit 1 American Legal System
Unit OneRegard for the public welfare is the highest law.关注公共利益的法律是最高法律。
There is no general rule without some exception.任何法律都不能面面俱到。
Part IReading and UnderstandingAmerican Legal System (Part 1)The American legal system is a common law system, where cases are settled based on tradition, common practice and interpretation of statutes. As we have already known, as a matter of practice, even in common law countries there are quite a few number of codes of law. But what should be emphasized is that the central feature of the system lies in its reliance on case law or judge-made law. That is, precedents are used as guidance to deal with the same or analogous situations arising today.The American legal system is originally based on the British legal system and the United States Constitution. Article III, Section I of the Constitution States that the judicial power of the Untied States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. So in the United States of America, a United States Supreme Court is provided by the Constitution and other courts are established by the U.S. Congress in accordance with the Constitution.1. LegislationLaw in the United States is composed of case law precedent (prior judicial decisions), just as with the British system, as well as statutory law created by both the federal government and the states.1.1 The United States ConstitutionThe United States Constitution was drafted in 1787 and was amended 26 times ever since. The Constitution separates the government into the three coordinate branches. The Constitution provides for powers to each of the three branches, as well as the states. In addition it sets limits on the powers of federal and state government.1.2 State ConstitutionBesides the United States Constitution, each of the 50 states has also adopted a constitution. The state constitution sets out both the form and operation of government in that state and provides for and sets limits on its power.1.3 Enactment of Legislative BodiesThis includes the Acts of Congress and statutes of state legislatures. The legislatures of each of the 50 states may pass and enforce their own laws without exceeding the principles establishedby the United States Constitution and the United States Congress. This results in the fact that the state law in the same fields may be different from one to another. For instance, the length of time within which one must commence a civil lawsuit or be time-barred, referred to as the statute of limitations, can vary dramatically from state to state; and various other matters such as how trade secretes or torts are defined also may vary significantly.1.4 Case LawIn a common law country, case law plays a very important part in determining the law that applies to a particular set of facts. In application of case law, the weight that case law is given by a particular court in the United States depends significantly upon the court in which the precedent occurred. For example, when a case is brought in Federal court, decisions of the Supreme Court are obviously the most binding on a particular issue, followed by decisions of the circuit court to which an appeal from a district court lies and finally, prior decisions of the district court itself. In many instances, a district court will look to the law of the appropriate state while rendering a decision in a case where issues of state law are of priority.2. Court SystemThere are 51 separate court systems in the United States of America. In addition to the federal court system, each state has a separate system under its own constitution and laws. Each of the 50 states in the United States has, within its borders, both a state court system and a federal court system. Federal and state courts exist virtually side-by-side in every state, and review both civil and criminal cases. There are large areas where the jurisdiction of federal and state courts overlaps. The parties may, at their discretion, decide on the court where they initiate a lawsuit. And there isa choice for the disputes between them as to which of the two systems they should be in.2.1 Jurisdiction of the Federal CourtsFederal courts are not courts of general jurisdiction but rather more limited jurisdiction as prescribed by the US Congress. The United States Constitution established the Supreme Court and vests certain original and appellate jurisdiction in it. The courts in the federal court system include Supreme Court, courts of appeals, district courts, courts of claims, courts of customs and patent appeals, customs courts, tax courts and courts of military appeals. The Supreme Court is the highest appellate review for either federal courts or state courts. It also has the original jurisdiction in those cases affecting ambassadors, ministers and consuls and those cases to which a state is a party.2.2 Jurisdiction of the State CourtsEach state has its own court system and each state court system has a trial court level and two levels of appellate review. With reference to the jurisdiction of a court to hear a lawsuit, state courts are courts of general jurisdiction. Hence, as long as the defendant is served notice of the pending lawsuit, a state court may exert personal jurisdiction (also referred to as “territorial jurisdic tion”) over the defendant and hear any civil matter. A state court may exercise territorial jurisdiction in the following cases: (1) a defendant consents to be used in the state where the state court is located; (2) the defendant is physically present in the forum state; or (3) such state has a statute which authorizes the exercise of territorial jurisdiction over persons or properties outside the state’s borders; (4) the forum state is where the defendant is domiciled. In addition to the above state courts with general jurisdiction, state courts are also courts with specialized trial jurisdiction, such as criminal courts, circuit courts, civil courts, juvenile courts and probate courts.2.3 Administrative AgenciesIn addition to the above court systems, some administrative agencies have been established out of the court system to monitor compliance with various federal statutory schemes and are empowered to commence proceedings or actions for violations of those laws. For example, the United States Department of Justice monitors and investigates compliance with the antitrust laws and is empowered to commence suits on behalf of the United States to remedy or correct violations. The Federal Trade Commission is the governmental agency that monitors compliance with law relating to trade regulations and is empowered to take actions to ensure compliance. The Securities and Exchange Commission monitors compliance with a broad range of laws governing all aspects of securities transactions. Besides, there are other federal administrative agencies with similar functions, such as Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Interstate Commerce Commission, and the Federal Communications Commission, etc.2.4 Arbitration and MediationArbitration is the most traditional and well-known form used in the dispute resolution out of court. Arbitration is characterized by flexibility and mutual acceptance of means of conflict resolution. But recently, arbitration has been criticized as overly formal, expensive and almost as time-consuming as traditional litigation. Consequently, commercial parties often seek less formal and more efficient means to settle their disputes, such as mediation.Mediation is a process in which disputing parties are aided by a neutral third party to attempt to settle their dispute. Mediation, unlike arbitration, is not generally binding. The parties may, however, agree to enter into a settlement agreement. Mediation is voluntary and non-binding and its process is under the control of the parties themselves. Settlement will be reached only if it is acceptable to all the parties. If mediation fails, the dispute usually will go on to arbitration or litigation. (to be continued)New Wordsstatute n.法令，法规code n.法规，法典reliance n.信赖，依靠precedent n.先例，前例guidance n.引导，指导analogous a.类似的Constitution n.宪法vest v.授权，给与ordain v.任命，命令draft v.起草，征兵amend v.修正，改善coordinate a.同等的，等位的enactment n.颁布，制定commence v.开始time-barred a.由于时间被禁止的tort n.侵权行为binding a.有约束力的appeal n.恳求，上诉render v.提供，致使priority n.优先权virtually ad.几乎，实际上jurisdiction n.司法权，审判权，管辖权overlap v.重叠，重复discretion n.辨别力，考虑initiate v.开始，创始appellate a.控诉的，上诉的ambassador n.大使pending a.未决定的，待决的exert v.发挥，运用，施以影响consent n.同意，许可domiciled a.指定支付地点的probate n.遗嘱查验，遗嘱查讫证monitor v.监视，监督compliance n.承诺，遵从empower v.授予权力，允许remedy v.治疗，矫正arbitration n.仲裁，公断mediation n.调停，调解litigation n.诉讼，起诉Phrases and Expressions common law 普通法，习惯法common practice 惯例case law 案例judge-made law 法官法judicial power 司法权Supreme Court 最高法院in accordance with 按照，根据，与……一致statutory law 成文法Acts of Congress 国会法length of time 诉讼时效circuit court 巡回法院with reference to 关于（根据）forum state 审判地所在国家Nuclear Regulatory Commission 核管制委员会Interstate Commerce Commission 州际商业委员会Federal Communications Commission 联邦电讯委员会Notes1. common law system普通法体系。
余志远《英语国家概况》(2015年版)复习笔记和课后习题详解(第15章 美国政治)【圣才出品】
第15章美国政治15.1复习笔记【知识框架】Ⅰ.The U.S.Constitution1.The Federal system2.Separation of powers:checks and balances3.Provisions for amendment4.Bill of RightsⅡ.The Legislative Branch1.A Two-chamber Congress2.The House of Representatives3.Senate4.Functions of the CongressⅢ.The Executive BranchⅣ.The Judicial Branch1.The Supreme Court2.Courts of Appeals and District CourtsⅤ.State GovernmentⅥ.Local Government【重难点归纳】Ⅰ.The U.S.ConstitutionThe American Constitution is the oldest written constitution in the world.It was drawn up in1787and went into effect in1789.Ⅰ.美国宪法美国宪法是世界上最古老的成文宪法。
1787年制定，1789年生效。
1.The Federal systemThe Constitution set up a federal system of government which has two layers of rule.There is federal government.There are also state and local governments.1.联邦系统宪法规定了具有两层规则的联邦政府系统，包括联邦政府与州和地方政府。
2.Separation of powers:checks and balancesThe government is divided into three branches,the legislative,the executive and the judicial.And each branch can check the actions of the other branches.The three branches are thus in balance.This is called“checks and balances”.2.三权分立，相互制衡政府分为三个分支机构，即立法，行政和司法。
(完整word版)法律英语词汇重点
L1:cause of action诉因,案由social norm 社会规范substantive law,实体法,立法procedural law, 程序法resolve disputes, 争端解决public law公法private law私法constitutional law,宪法administrative law,行政法criminal law,刑法sources of law,法律渊源coercive force, ? 强迫力 ?civil law system, 民事法律制度Roman law,罗马法judge-made law, 法官法common law system,一般法系case law, 判例法binding precedent,有拘束力的先例judicial decision,司法判决in effect, 奏效的the United States Congress 美国国会L2:substantive right,实体性权益choice of law rule, 法律选择规范choice of forum,法庭选择trial court,审讯法庭inferior court,初级法院,下级法院at issue,conflict of law,法律矛盾intermediate appellate court,中间上诉法院court of limited jurisdiction,有限管辖法院court of general jurisdiction,广泛管辖权法院at the discretion of, ....state court, 州法院subject matter jurisdiction, 对事管辖权diversity jurisdiction,多元管辖district court,the federal court system,联邦法院系统amount in controversy, 争议数额circuit court巡回法院“ federal question” jurisdiction,联邦问题管辖the United States Court of Appeals,美国上诉法院the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, 哥伦比亚区的上诉法院the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, 联邦巡回上诉法院original jurisdiction, 初审管辖the Supreme Court of the United States,美国最高法院appellate jurisdiction上述管辖L3:adversary system, 当事人主义legal controversy, 法律争议enabling legislation, 受权性法例find the facts,civil case, 民事案件the inquisitorial system, 纠问制mode of trial, 庭审模式 directexamination,直接质证procedural safeguard,程序保护due process, 正当诉讼程序 ,采用性resort to law,诉诸法律L4:commence a lawsuit, 提起诉讼courts of inferior jurisdiction,federal jurisdiction,personal jurisdiction,对人管辖权under penalty of default judgment, service by publication,通告送到pleading-in-answer,辩论状counter-claim,反诉L5:the opposing party, 对方judicial process,司法程序regulatory legislation, 规范性法例trial procedure, 审讯程序apply the law,法律合用criminal case, 刑事案件 pre-trial investigation,庭前审察settlement offer,cross examination, 间接质证interested parties 当事人admissibility of evidence,凭证的可resort to force诉诸武力bring sb. into court, 提起诉讼file with把...登记存案minimum contact 最低限度的联系service of process,送到程序 legal relief, 法律救援make a motion to dismiss, 驳回动议 affirmative defense, 踊跃抗辩n essence实质上pre-trial discovery,审前取证take depositions of, 录取誓言question sb. under oath,经起誓后责问某人lay a basis for, 为 ....打基础written interrogatory, 质询书interrogating party, 质询方personal injury case,人身损害案compulsory physical examination,强迫体检the pending action, 待决判决the violating party,违犯的一方pretrial conference, 审前会议settle the suitsummary judgment, 即决判决decide the case in favor of,做出有益动议方的判决legitimate function,合法功能notice of trial,set the case for trial, 把案件提交庭审jury trial 陪审团判决的案件L6:an action for damages,金钱补偿诉讼impanel the jury,构成陪审团peremptory challenge, 绝地异议directed verdict, 指令性判决charge the jury, 给陪审团上课preponderance of evidence,优势凭证post-trial motion, 审后动议constitutional provision, challenge for cause,相对异议opening statement,公然申明讲话the non-moving party,非动议方burden of proof,举证责任the losing party,judgment n.o.v.否认陪审团判决的判决L7:render a judgment on default, 作出缺席判决writ of execution, 履行令judgment creditor, 判决债权人judgment debtor,判决债务人reverse the judgment, 颠覆原判written brief, ruling of law, 法治 ..（注意不是法制）affirm the judgment, 保持原判modify the judgment,改判concurring opinion, 赞同建议dissenting opinion,反对建议res judicata, 已决案件set aside attachment驳回L8criminal process, 刑事程序find sb. guilty, 发现某人有罪deprive sb. of ,剥夺某人的the right to remain silent,保持缄默的权利the right to bail,double jeopardy,一事不再罚summary arrest,即行拘捕grand jury,大陪审团preliminary hearing,预审nolo contendere,不争论不提异议plead guilty,伏罪plea bargaining,认罪辩诉协议on probation,在缓刑时期,在监外履行期suspended sentence,缓刑reverse the conviction, 颠覆犯法writ of certiorariL9（Unit 2，L1 ）Chief Justice,lay down,provide for,the judiciary,commander-in-chief,prime minister,American presidency,presidential democracy,regulatory agency,the Interstate Commerce Commission,the Civil Aeronautics Board,congressional election,the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation,the Export-import Bank,House of Representatives,the Federal Reserve Bank System,Secretary of State,express legislative competency,maritime law,President of the Senate,enter into force,two-thirds majority,election district。