英美文学_英美文学术语大全
英美文学名词解释
’s thoughts and feelings. The main purpose3. Heroic couplet: Couplet means two lines of verse with similar end-rhymes. In English literature, heroic couplet specifically refers to poetic lines of iambic pentameter rhymed in pairs.4. Iambic Pentameter：A poetic line consisting of five verse feet, which each foot an iamb__ that is, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one. Iambic pentameter is the most common verse line in English poetry.5. Blank verse: It is poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. Blank verse sounds much like ordinary spoken English. It is often used in drama and in poetry. Milton forged it anew for the epic in Paradise Lost (1667).6. Elegy: Greek for "lament": a poem on death or on a serious loss; characteristicallya sustained meditation expressing sorrow and, frequently, an explicit or implied consolation7. Paradox: An apparently untrue or self-contradictory statement or circumstance that proves true upon reflection or when examined in another light. Such as sweet pain/no light but rather darkness visible.8. Ode：A long, stately lyric poem in stanzas of varied metrical pattern, written in a dignified formal style on some lofty or serious subject. Odes are often written for a special occasion, to honor a person or a season or commemorate an event. Two famous odes are Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Ode to the West wind”and John Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn.”9. Conceit: Any fanciful, ingenious/elaborate expression or idea, especially one in the form of an extended metaphor.10. Alliteration: The repetition of the beginning accented syllables near to each other with the same consonantal sound, as in many idiomatic phrases: “safe and sound”; “thick and thin”;11. Dramatic Monologue：A monologue in verse. A speaker addresses a silent listener, revealing, in dramatic irony, things about himself or herself of which the speaker is unaware.12. Epic: A long narrative poem, typically a recounting of history or legend or of the deeds of a national hero and of reflecting the values of the society from which it originated. Many epics were drawn from an oral tradition and were transmitted by song and recitation before they were written down. Later on this literary genre was written down by the poets, such as Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained. Two of the greatest epics are Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. While in British literary history, the national epic is Beowulf.13. Personification：humans.scheme is usually abbaabba, cde cde. The two parts of the Italian sonnet play off each other in a variety of ways. Sometimes the octave raises a question that the sestet answers. Sometimes the sestet opposes what the octave says, or extends it. The Italian sonnet is often called the Petrarchan sonnet, because the Italian poet Francesco Petrarch used it so extensively. He dedicated more than three hundred sonnets to a woman named Laura.15. Satire: A kind of writing holds up to ridicule or contempt the weaknesses and wrongdoings of individuals, groups, institutions, or humanity in general. The aim of satirists is to set a moral standard for society, and they attempt to persuade the reader to see their point of view through the force of laughter. The most famous satirical work in English literature is Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels.16. Renaissance; It is a cultural movement of the rising bourgeoisie. The key word for it is humanism, which emphasizes the belief in human beings, his environment and doings and his brave fight for the emancipation of man from the tyranny of the church and religious dogmas. It originally indicates a revival of classical arts and learning after the dark ages of medieval obscurantism. Its aim is to get rid of those old feudalist ideas in medieval time and introduce new ideas that express the interests of the rising bourgeoisie. Shakespeare, Spenser, and Marlowe are all famous literary figures in this period.17. Humanism: Humanism refers to the main literary trend and is the keynote of English Renaissance. Humanists took interest in human life and human activities and gave expression to the new feeling of admiration for human beauty, human achievement.18. Metaphysical Poetry: The poetry of John Donne and other seventeenth-century poets who wrote in a similar style. Metaphysical poetry is characterized by verbal wit and excess, ingenious structure, irregular meter, colloquial language, elaborate imagery, and a drawing together of dissimilar ideas.19. Enlightenment: Enlightenment is a progressive intellectual movement, which swept over England and other lands in Western Europe in the 18th century. It’s purpose is to enlighten the whole world with the light of modern philosophical and artistic ideas with the use of reason.? Enlightenment freed and reformed the thinking of man. Enlighteners strove to clear away the feudal remnants and replace them by bourgeois ideologue.20. Neo-classicism: It is a revival of literature in the late 17C and 18th centuries,carried out at one place in no more than 24 hours.。
英美文学术语terms
英美文学术语terms1.alliteration：It is the repetition of the same sound or sounds at the beginning of two or morewords that are next to or close to each other. It is a form of initial rhyme, or head rhyme.2.caesura：a pause in a line of verse, often coinciding with a break between clauses orsentences. It is usually placed in the middle of the line, but may appear near the beginning or towards the end.3.Sonnet - a lyric poem of 14 lines, usually in iambic pentameter, with rhymes arranged according to certain definite patterns. It usually expresses a single, complete thought, idea, or sentiment.4.Free verse: a kind of poetry that does not conform to any regular metre: the length of its lines is irregular, as is its use of rhyme.5. heroic couplet: a traditional form for English poetry, commonly used for epic and narrative poetry; it refers to poems constructed from a sequence of rhyming pairs of iambic pentameter lines.6. Paradox: a statement or expression so surprisingly self-contradictory as to provoke us into seeking another sense or context in which it would be true.7. Conceit: An unusually far-fetched or elaborate metaphor or simile presenting a surprisingly apt parallel between two apparently dissimilar things or feelings.8. Mock epic: a poem employing the lofty style and the conventions of the epic poetry to describe a trivial or undignified series of events; thus a kind of satire that mocks its subject bytreating it in an inappropriately grandiose manner, usually at some length. One of the outstanding examples in English is Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock.9. Satire: a mode of writing that exposes the failings of individuals, institutions or societies to ridicule and scorn. Satire is often an incidental element in literary works that may not be wholly satirical, especially in comedy. Jonathan Swift’s A Modest Proposal is a bitter satire on the policy of the English government towards the Irish people.10. Epigram：a short poem with a witty turn of thought, or a wittily condensed expression in prose. Originally a form of monumental inscription in ancient Greece, the epigram was developed into a literary form by poets.11. Allegory:Allegory is a story or visual image with a second distinct meaning partially hidden behind its literal or visible meaning. The principal technique of allegory is personification, whereby abstract qualities are given human shape.12. Simile:A figure of speech in which two things, essentially different but thought to be alike in one or more respects, are compared using “like,” “as,” “as if,” or “such” for the purpose ofexplanation, allusion, or ornament.13. metaphor: the most important and widespread figure of speech, in which one thing, idea, or action is referred to by a word or expression normally denoting another thing, idea, or action, so as to suggest some common quality shared by the two. In metaphor, this resemblance is assumed as an imaginary identity rather than directly stated as a comparison.14. verbal irony: it involves a discrepancy between what is said and what is really meant, as in its crude form, sarcasm..15. dramatic irony:the audience knows more about a character’s situation than the character does, foreseeing an outcome contrary to the character’s expectations, and thus ascribing a sharply different sense to some of the character’s own statements.。
英美文学名词解释整理版
英美文学名词解释1. Allegory: A tale in verse or prose in which characters, actions, or settings represent abstract ideas or moral qualities. An allegory is a story with two meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning.寓言：用诗歌或散文讲的故事，在这个故事中人物、事件或背景往往代表抽象的概念或道德品质。
所有的寓言都是一个具有双重意义、文学内涵或象征意义的故事。
2.Alliteration: The repetition of the initial consonant sounds in poetry.头韵：诗歌中单词开头读音的重复。
3.Allusion:A reference to a person, a place, an event, or a literary work that a writer expects the reader to recognize and respond to. An allusion may be drawn from history, geography, literature, or religion.典故：文学作品中作家希望读者能够认识或做出反应的一个人物、地点、事件或文学作品。
典故或来自历史、地理、文学或宗教。
4. American Naturalism: American naturalism was a new and harsher realism. American naturalism had been shaped by the war; by the social upheavals that undermined the comforting faith of an earlier age. America’s literary naturalists dismissed the validity of comforting moral truths. They attempted to achieve extreme objectivity and frankness, presenting characters of low social and economic classes who were determined by their environment and heredity. In presenting the extremes of life, the naturalists sometimes displayed an affinity to the sensationalism of early romanticism, but unlike their romantic predecessors, the naturalists emphasized that the world was amoral, that men and women had no free will, that lives were controlled by heredity and environment, that the destiny of humanity was misery in life and oblivion in death. Although naturalist literature described the world with sometimes brutal realism, it sometimes also aimed at bettering the world through social reform.美国自然主义：美国自然主义是一种新的、更具批判性的现实主义。
英美文学术语解释
英美文学术语解释Potmodernimithee某preionofthoughtandcultureinart,literature,philoophyandpoliticina dvancedcapitalitperiod.“Pot-”of“Potmodernim”itheinheritanceandreactionto“modernim”.Potm odernimwaoriginallyuedbyartitandcriticinNewYorkinthe1960andthene mployedbyEuropeantheoritinthe1970.Oncethiwritingenteredonthetage ofhitory,ithabroughtunotonlytechniqueuchaparody,fragmentation,pa tiche,collage,allegory,irony,playfulne,metafiction,butalointerte 某tualityinhitory,philoophy,ociology,etc..HumanimitheeenceoftheRenaiance.2>itemphaizethedignityofhumanbeingandtheimportanceofthepreen tlife.Humanitvoicedtheirbeliefthatmanwathecenteroftheunivereandm andidnotonlyhavetherighttoenjoythebeautyofthepreentlife,buthadth eabilitytoperfecthimelfandtoperformwonder.02.Renaiance(文艺复兴) Theword“Renaiance”mean“rebirth”,itmeantthereintroduction intowetermEuropeofthefullculturalheritageofGreeceandRome.2>theeenceoftheRenaianceiHumanim.Attitudeandfeelingwhichhadb eencharacteriticofthe14thand15thcenturieperitedwelldownintotheer aofHumanimandreformation.3>therealmaintreamoftheenglihRenaianceitheElizabethandramawi thwilliamhakepearebeingtheleadingdramatit.03.Metaphyicalpoetry(玄学派诗歌)2>witharebellioupirit,theMetaphyicalpoettriedtobreakawayfrom theconventionalfahionoftheElizabethanlovepoetry.Clacimrefertoamovementortendencyinart,literature,ormuicthatr eflecttheprinciplemanifetedintheartofancientGreeceandRome.Claicimemph aizethetraditionalandtheuniveral,andplacevalueonreaon,clarity,ba lance,andorder.Claicim,withitconcernforreaonanduniveraltheme,itr aditionallyoppoedtoRomanticim,whichiconcernedwithemotionandperon altheme.05.Enlightenment(启蒙运动)Enlightenmentmovementwaaprogreivephiloophicalandartiticmovem entwhichflourihedinfranceandweptthroughweternEuropeinthe18thcent ury.2>themovementwaafurtheranceoftheRenaiancefrom14thcenturytoth emid-17thcentury.3>itpurpoewatoenlightenthewholeworldwiththelightofmodernphil oophicalandartiticidea.4>itcelebratedreaonorrationality,equalityandcience.Itadvocat eduniveraleducation.5>famouamongthegreatenlightenerinenglandwerethoegreatwriterl ikeAle某anderpope.Jonathanwift.etc.06.Neoclaicim(新古典主义) Inthefieldofliterature,theenlightenmentmovementbroughtabouta revivalofinteretintheoldclaicalwork.2>thitendencyiknownaneoclaicim.TheNeoclaicitheldthatformofli teratureweretobemodeledaftertheclaicalworkoftheancientGreekandRomanwriteruchaHomerandVirgilandthoeofthecontemporaryFrenchone.3>t heybelievedthattheartiticidealhouldbeorder,logic,retrainedemotio nandaccuracy,andthatliteraturehouldbejudgedintermofitervicetohum anity.07.TheGraveyardSchool(墓地派诗歌)2>ThomaGrayiconideredtobetheleadingfigureofthichoolandhiEleg ywritteninacountrychurchyardiitmotrepreentativework.08.Romantici m(浪漫主义)1>Inthemid-18thcentury,anewliterarymovementcalledromanticimcametoEuropeandt hentoEngland.2>Itwacharacterizedbyatrongprotetagaintthebondageofneoclaici m,whichemphaizedreaon,orderandelegantwit.Intead,romanticimgavepr imaryconcerntopaion,emotion,andnaturalbeauty.3>Inthehitoryofliterature.Romanticimigenerallyregardedatheth oughtthatdeignatealiteraryandphiloophicaltheorywhichtendtoeethei ndividualatheverycenterofalllifeande某perience.4>TheEnglihromanticperiodianageofpoetrywhichprevailedin Englandfrom1798to1837.ThemajorromanticpoetincludeWordworth,Byron andShelley.09.ByronicHero(拜伦式英雄)Byronicherorefertoaproud,myteriourebelfigureofnobleorigin.2>withimmeneuperiorityinhipaionandpower,thiByronicHerowouldc arryonhihouldertheburdenofrightingallthewronginacorruptociety.Andwouldrieingle-handedlyagaintanykindoftyrannicalruleeitheringovernment,inreligi on,orinmoralprinciplewithunconquerablewillandine某hautibleenergie.3>By ron’chiefcontributiontoEnglihliteratureihicreationofthe “ByronicHero”10.CriticalRealim(批判现实主义)4>CharleDickenithemotimportantcriticalrealit.11.Aetheticim （美学主义）ThebaictheoryoftheAetheticmovement---“artforart’ake”waetforthbyaFrenchpoet,TheophileGautier,thefi r tEnglihmanwhowroteaboutthetheoryofaetheticimwaWalterPater.2>aetheticimplaceartabovelife,andholdthatlifehouldimitateart ,notartimitatelife.3>Accordingtotheaethete,allartiticcreationiabolutelyubjectiv eaoppoedtoobjective.Arthouldbefreefromanyinfluenceofegoim.Onlywh enartiforart’ake,canitbeimmortal.Theybelievedthatarthouldbeunco ncernedwithcontroverialiue,uchapoliticandmorality,andthatithould beretrictedtocontributingbeautyinahighlypolihedtyle.美学运动的基本原则”为艺术而艺术”最初由法国诗人西奥费尔.高缔尔提出,英国运用该美学理论的第一人是沃尔特.佩特.美学主义崇尚艺术高于生活,认为生活应模仿艺术,而不是艺术模仿生活.在美学主义看来,所有的艺术创作都是绝对主观而非客观的产物.艺术不应受任何功利的影响,只有当艺术为艺术而创作时,艺术才能成为不朽之作.他们还认为艺术不应只关注一些热点话题如政治和道德问题,艺术应着力于以华丽的风格张扬美.这是对维多利亚工业发展时期物质崇拜的一种回应,也是向艺术为道德或为金钱而服务的维多利亚传统的挑战.12.TheVictorianperiod(维多利亚时期)Inthiperiod,thenovelbecamethemotwidelyreadandthemotvitalandc hallenginge某preionofprogreivethought.Whiletickingtotheprincipleoffaithfulrep reentationofthe18thcenturyrealitnovel,novelitinthiperiodcarriedt heirdutyforwardtocriticimoftheocietyandthedefeneofthema.3>theirtruthfulpictureofpeople’lifeandbitterandtrongcritici moftheocietyhaddonemuchinawakeningthepublicconciounetotheocialpr oblemandintheactualimprovementoftheociety.4>CharleDickenitheleadingfigureoftheVictorianperiod.13.Moder nim(现代主义)2>modernimtaketheirrationalphiloophyandthetheoryofpycho-analyiaittheoreticalcae.3>thetermpertaintoallthecreativeart.Epeciallypoetry,fiction, drama,painting,muicandarchitecture.4>inEnglandfromearlyinthe20thcenturyandduringthe1920and1930, inAmericafromhortlybeforethefirtworldwarandonduringtheinter-warperiod,modernittendenciewereattheirmotactiveandfruitful.5>afaraliteratureiconcerned,Modernimrevealabreakingawayfrome tablihedrule,traditionandconvention.frehwayo flookingatman’poiti onandfunctionintheunivereandmanye某perimentinformandtyle.Itiparticularlyconcernedwithlanguageandhow toueitandwithwritingitelf.14.Streamofconcioune(意识流)(orinteriormonologue)Inliterarycriticim,Streamofconciounedenotealiterarytechnique which eektodecribeanindividual’pointofviewbygivingthewrittenequi valentofthecharacter’thoughtprocee.Streamofconciounewritingitro nglyaociatedwiththemodernitmovement.Itintroductionintheliteraryc onte某t,tranferredfrompychology,iattributedtoMaySinclair.Streamofconci ounewritingiuuallyregardedaapecialformofinteriormonologueandicha racterizedbyaociativeleapinynta某andpunctuationthatcanmaketheproedifficulttofollow,tracingatheydo acharacter’fragmentarythoughtandenoryfeeling.Famouwritertoemplo ythitechniqueintheEnglihlanguageincludeJameJoyceandWilliamFaulkn er.学术界认为意识流是一种通过直接描述人物思维过程来寻求个人视角的文学写作技巧。
英美文学重要名词解释-英汉解释-综合整理版
名词解释ENGLISH &AMERICAN LITERATURE--DEFINITION OF TERMS: A long narrative poem telling about the deeds of a great hero and reflecting the values of the society from which it originated.Beowulf is the greatest national epic of the Anglo-Saxons. John Milton wrote three great epics: Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes.marking stressed syllables in a line of poetry or prose. Used to emphasize meaning and thus can be effectively employed in oratory.the elements of historical truth they contain.knightly adventures or other heroic deeds.3) Chivalry (such as bravery, honor, generosity, loyalty and kindness1)Ballad is a story in poetic form to be sung or recited.down from generation to generation. 3) Robin Hood is a famous ballad singing the goods of Robin Hood. Coleridge’s TheHeroic couplet refers to the rhymed couplet in iambic pentameter Heroic couplets are lines of iambic pentameter that rhyme in pairs (aa, bb, cc).The Heroic Couplet: 1) It means a pair of lines of a type once common in English poetry, in other words, it means iambic pentameter rhymed in two lines. 2) The rhyme is masculine. 3) Use of the heroic coupletfollowed by a stressed syllable. Iambic pentameter is the most common verse line in English poetry.fourteen iambic pentameter lines, restricted to a definite rhyme scheme.A nine-line stanza with the following rhyme scheme: ababbabcc. The first eight lines are written in iambic pentameter. The ninth line is written in iambic hexameter and is called an alexandrine.斯宾塞诗节：斯宾塞诗节是有九行组成的诗节，其押韵形式通常为ababbabcc。
英美文学术语解释
英美文学术语解释Postmodernism is the expression of thought and culture in art, literature, philosophy and politics in advanced capitalist period、“Post-” of “Postmodernism” is the inheritance and reaction to “modernism”、Postmodernism was originally used by artists and critics in New York in the 1960s and then employed by European theorists in the 1970s、Once this writing entered on the stage of history, it has brought us not only techniques such as parody, fragmentation, pastiche, collage, allegory, irony, playfulness, metafiction, but also intertextuality in history, philosophy, sociology, etc、、英美文学名词解释(2013-06-29 16:58:29)转载▼标签: 转载原文地址:英美文学名词解释作者:kiwi01、Humanism(人文主义)Humanism is the essence of the Renaissance、2> it emphasizes the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life、Humanists voiced their beliefs that man was the center of the universe and man did not only have the right to enjoy the beauty of the present life, but had the ability to perfect himself and to perform wonders、02、Renaissance(文艺复兴)The word “Renaissance”means “rebirth”, it meant the reintroduction into westerm Europe of the full cultural heritage of Greece and Rome、2>the essence of the Renaissance is Humanism、Attitudes and feelings which had been characteristic of the 14th and 15th centuries persisted well down into the era of Humanism and reformation、3> the real mainstream of the english Renaissance is the Elizabethan drama with william shakespeare being the leading dramatist、03、Metaphysical poetry(玄学派诗歌)Metaphysical poetry is commonly used to name the work of the 17th century writers who wrote under the influence of John Donne、2>with a rebellious spirit, the Metaphysical poets tried to break away from the conventional fashion of the Elizabethan love poetry、3>the diction is simple as compared with that of the Elizabethan or the Neoclassical periods, and echoes the words and cadences of common speech、4>the imagery is drawn from actual life、04、Classcism(古典主义)Classcism refers to a movement or tendency in art, literature, or music that reflects the principles manifested in the art of ancient Greece and Rome、Classicism emphasizesthe traditional and the universal, and places value on reason, clarity, balance, and order、Classicism, with its concern for reason and universal themes, is traditionally opposed to Romanticism, which is concerned with emotions and personal themes、05、Enlightenment(启蒙运动)Enlightenment movement was a progressive philosophical and artistic movement which flourished in france and swept through western Europe in the 18th century、2> the movement was a furtherance of the Renaissance from 14th century to the mid-17th century、3>its purpose was to enlighten the whole world with the light of modern philosophical and artistic ideas、4>it celebrated reason or rationality, equality and science、It advocated universal education、5>famous among the great enlighteners in england were those great writers like Alexander pope、Jonathan swift、etc、06、Neoclassicism(新古典主义)In the field of literature, the enlightenment movement brought about a revival of interest in the old classical works、2>this tendency is known as neoclassicism、The Neoclassicists held that forms of literature were to be modeled after the classical works of the ancient Greek and Roman writers such as Homer and Virgil and those of the contemporary French ones、3> they believed that the artistic ideals should be order, logic, restrained emotion and accuracy, and that literature should be judged in terms of its service to humanity、07、The Graveyard School(墓地派诗歌)The Graveyard School refers to a school of poets of the 18th century whose poems are mostly devoted to a sentimental lamentation or meditation on life、Past and present, with death and graveyard as themes、2>Thomas Gray is considered to be the leading figure of this school and his Elegy written in a country churchyard is its most representative work、08、Romanticism(浪漫主义)1>In the mid-18th century, a new literary movement called romanticism came to Europe and then to England、2>It was characterized by a strong protest against the bondage of neoclassicism, which emphasized reason, order and elegant wit、Instead, romanticism gave primary concern to passion, emotion, and natural beauty、3>In the history of literature、Romanticism is generallyregarded as the thought that designates a literary and philosophical theory which tends to see the individual as the very center of all life and experience、4> The English romantic period is an age of poetry which prevailed in England from 1798 to 1837、The major romantic poets include Wordsworth, Byron and Shelley、09、Byronic Hero(拜伦式英雄)Byronic hero refers to a proud, mysterious rebel figure of noble origin、2> with immense superiority in his passions and powers, this Byronic Hero would carry on his shoulders the burden of righting all the wrongs in a corrupt society、And would rise single-handedly against any kind of tyrannical rules either in government, in religion, or in moral principles with unconquerable wills and inexhaustible energies、3> Byron’s chief contribution to English literature is his creation of the “Byronic Hero”10、Critical Realism(批判现实主义)Critical Realism is a term applied to the realistic fiction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries、2> It means the tendency of writers and intellectuals in the period between 1875 and 1920 to apply the methods of realistic fiction to the criticism of society and the examination of social issues、3> Realist writers were all concerned about the fate of the common people and described what was faithful to reality、4> Charles Dickens is the most important critical realist、11、Aestheticism(美学主义)The basic theory of the Aesthetic movement--- “art for art’s sake” was set forth by a French poet, Theophile Gautier, the first Englishman who wrote about the theory of aestheticismwas Walter Pater、2> aestheticism places art above life, and holds that life should imitate art, not art imitate life、3> According to the aesthetes, all artistic creation is absolutely subjective as opposed to objective、Art should be free from any influence of egoism、Only when art is for art’s sake, can it be immortal、They believed that art should be unconcerned with controversial issues, such as politics and morality, and that it should be restricted to contributing beauty in a highly polished style、4> This is one of the reactions against the materialism and commercialism of the Victorian industrial era, as well as a reaction against the Victorian convention of art for morality’s sake, or a rt for money’s sake、美学运动的基本原则”为艺术而艺术”最初由法国诗人西奥费尔、高缔尔提出,英国运用该美学理论的第一人就是沃尔特、佩特、美学主义崇尚艺术高于生活,认为生活应模仿艺术,而不就是艺术模仿生活、在美学主义瞧来,所有的艺术创作都就是绝对主观而非客观的产物、艺术不应受任何功利的影响,只有当艺术为艺术而创作时,艺术才能成为不朽之作、她们还认为艺术不应只关注一些热点话题如政治与道德问题,艺术应着力于以华丽的风格张扬美、这就是对维多利亚工业发展时期物质崇拜的一种回应,也就是向艺术为道德或为金钱而服务的维多利亚传统的挑战、12、The Victorian period(维多利亚时期)In this period, the novel became the most widely read and the most vital and challenging expression of progressive thought、While sticking to the principle of faithful representation of the 18th century realist novel, novelists in this period carried their duty forward to criticism of the society and the defense of the mass、2> although writing from different points of view and with different techniques, they shared one thing in common, that is, they were all concerned about the fate of the common people、They were angry with the inhuman social institutions, the decaying social morality as represented by the money-worship and Utilitarianism, and the widespread misery, poverty and injustice、3>their truthful picture of people’s life and bitter and stro ng criticism of the society had done much in awakening the public consciousness to the social problems and in the actual improvement of the society、4> Charles Dickens is the leading figure of the Victorian period、13、Modernism(现代主义)Modernism is comprehensive but vague term for a movement , which begin in the late 19th century and which has had a wide influence internationally during much of the 20th century、。
英美文学名词解释
Terms Definition01.Romanticism(P211)English Romanticism is generally defined to begin in 1798 with the publication of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s Lyrical Ballads and end in 1832 with Walter Scott’s death. Romanticists place the individual at the center of art and make literature most valuable as an expression of his or her unique feelings and particular attitudes and make its accuracy a portraying the individual’s experiences.02.Aestheticism(P367)Aestheticism began to prevail in Europe at the middle of the 19th century. The theory of “art for art’s sake” was first put forward by the French poet Theophile Gautier(1811-1872). Aestheticism, a cultural phenomenon of “fin de siele”in Europe, was a kind of escapism in essence. The two most important representatives of aestheticists in English literature are Walter Pater and Oscar Wilde.03.Neo-Romanticism(P365)Neo-Romanticism, as a literary trend, prevailed at the end of the 19th century. Dissatisfied with the drab and ugly social reality and yet trying to avoid the positive solution of the acute social contradictions, some writers adopted this new trend which laid emphasis upon the invention of exciting adventures and fascinating stories to entertain the reading public. Stevenson was a representative of neo-romanticism in English literature.04.Naturalism(P364)Naturalism is a literary trend prevailing in Europe, especially in France and Germany, in the second half of the 19th century. According to the theory of naturalism, literature must be “true to life” and exactly reproduce real life, including all its details without any selection. Naturalist writers usually write about the lives of the poor and oppressed, or the “slum life”, but by giving all the details of life without discrimination, they can only represent the external appearance instead of the inner essence of real life.05.Spenserian stanza(P226 P43)Spenserian stanza, a 9-line stanza rhymed ɑbɑbbcbcc, in which the first eight lines are in iambic pentameter while the ninth line in iambic hexameter that is also called an alexandrine. It can be shown in Byron’s Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene, and Robert Burns’s The Cotter's Saturday Night.06.Byronic heroes(P224)Byronic heroes are men who have fiery passions and unbending will and express the poet’s own ideal of freedom.These heroes rise against tyranny and injustice, but they are merely lone fighters striving for personal freedom and some individualistic ends.07.Critical Realism(P276)English critical realism flourished in the forties and in the early fifties of the 19th century. The critical realists described with much vividness and great artistic skill the chief traits of the English society and criticized the capitalist system from a democratic viewpoint. They not only gave a satirical portrayal of the bourgeoisie and all the ruling classes, but also showed profound sympathy for the common people. But they didn’t find a way to eradicate social evils and didn’t realize the necessity of changing the bourgeois society.08.The Chartist Movement(P272)The Chartist Movement appeared first in London and then spread to the industrial North during the late thirties of the 19th century. The workers decided to start great demonstrations,even a general strike after the Petition was rejected by English government, after that ,who sent troops to force the strikers to work. Though it failed, Chartism signified the first great political movement of the proletariat in English history. The Chartist poetry, heroic and revolutionary, played an important role in the development of English progressive literature in connection with the working class movement.。
英美文学名词解释
名词解释（英国）Epic（叙事诗）: Epic is a narrative poem on the grand scale and in majestic style concerning the exploits and adventures of a superhuman hero (or heroes) engaged in a quest or some serious endeavor. Among noted epics are Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, old English Beowulf and Milton’s Paradise Lost.Romance（传奇）：A Romance is a long composition, in verse or in prose, describing the life and adventures of a noble hero. It generally concerns knights and involves a large amount of fighting as well as a number of miscellaneous adventures and a series of love stories.Ballad（民谣）：Ballad is an anonymous narrative song, usually in 4-line stanzas, with the second and the fourth lines rhymed.Renaissance（文艺复兴）：The word “Renaissance” means “rebirth”(of learning). The Renaissance period was marked by a reawakening of interest in learning, in the individual and in the world of nature. The revival of learning led scholars back to the culture of Greece and Rome. The rebirth of interest in the individual gave rise to a new appreciation of beauty, to a desire for self-expression in varied activities and to the creation of great works of art. The renewal of curiosity about the natural world ultimately drew men to discover new lands and new scientific truth. Humanism（人道主义）：Humanism was a literary and philosophic system of thought which attempted to place the affairs of mankind at the centre of its concerns. According to humanists, man should mould the world according to his own desires, and attains happiness by removing all external checks by the exercise of the human intellect.Sonnet（十四行诗）：A sonnet is a fourteen-line poem in iambic pentameter with a carefully patterned rhyme scheme. Puritanism（清教主义）：Puritanism was the religiousdoctrine of revolutionarybourgeoisie during the EnglishRevolution. It preached thrift,sobriety, hard work andunceasing labor, with noextravagant enjoyment of thefruits of labor. Worldlypleasures were condemned asharmful. Puritans opposedchurches,squandering property.Enlightenment（启蒙运动）：The movement, on the whole,an expression of the struggle ofthe bourgeoisie againstfeudalism, class inequality,stagnation and prejudices. Theenlighteners believed in thepower of reason and thewatchword was CommonSense.Neo-classicism（新古典主义）：Modeling itself on theliterature of ancient Greece andRome, neoclassicism exalts thevirtues of proportion, unity,harmony, grace, taste, manners,and restraint. It values realismand reason over imaginationand emotion. Wit and satireflourished in this period, as didthe ode and verse written inheroic couplets.Romanticism（浪漫主义）：Romanticism is a movementprevailing the Western world inthe 19th century in literature,art, music and philosophy,beginning as a reaction andprotest against the bondage ofrules and customs ofneo-classicism to unfetterhuman spirit. It returned tonature and plain humanity formaterial. It is a movement ofexpression of individualoriginality. Imagination ishighlighted and a dream ofgolden age is required againststern reality.Critical Realism（批判现实主义）：Critical realistsdescribed with much vividnessand artistic skill the chief traitsof the English society andcriticized the capitalist systemfrom a democratic viewpoint.In their best works, the greedand hypocrisy of the upperclasses are contrasted with thehonesty and good-heartednessof the obscure “simple people”of the lower classes. Humorand satire abound. Withoutfinding a way of solution, theydo not point toward revolutionbut rather evolution orreformism with happy endings.Aestheticism（唯美主义）：Thebasic theory of the Aestheticmovement---“art for art’s sake”.Aestheticism places art abovelife, and holds that life shouldimitate art, not art imitate life.According to the aesthetes, allartistic creation is absolutelysubjective as opposed toobjective. Only when art is forart’s sake, can it be immortal.Stream of Consciousness（意识流小说）：First, it reveals theaction or plot through themental processes of thecharacters. Second, characterdevelopment is achievedthrough revelation of extremelypersonal and often typicalthought processes. Third, theaction of the plot seldomcorresponds to realchronological time, but movesback and forth through presenttime to memories of pastevents and dreams of the future.Fourth, it replaces narration,description, and commentarywith interior monologue andfree association.Women’s Movement（女性运动）：feminism is a belief in thesocial, political and economicequality of the sexes, and amovement organized aroundthe conviction that biologicalsex should not be thepre-determinant factor shapinga person's social identity orsocio-political or economicrights.Oedipus Complex（恋母情结）：In Greek myth, Oedipus isthe king who is said to kill hisfather and marry his mother.According to Freud, childrenmay have sexual drivessubconsciously toward theopposite parent. Here, Oedipuscomplex refers to that boy’sobsession to his mother. InEnglish literature, Lawrence isthe first to introduce malecharacters’ impotence tofemales because of mother’sexcessive love.。
英美文学名词解释
Metaphysical Poetry玄学派诗歌: The term "metaphysical poetry" is commonly used to name the work of the 17th century writers who wrote under the influence of John Donne. Metaphysical poetry is characterized by verbal wit and excess, ingenious structure, irregular meter, colloquial language, elaborate imagery, and a drawing together of dissimilar ideas. The metaphysical poets tried to break away from the conventional fashion of the Elizabethan love poetry.Blank Verse素体诗：V erse written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. Blank verse has been the dominant verse form of English drama and narrative poetry since the mid-sixteenth century. It was introduced by Henry Howard from Italy, and then Shakespeare transformed blank verse into a supple instrument, uniquely capable of conveying speech rhymes and emotional overtones.Romance传奇文学: it was a long composition ,sometimes in verse, sometimes in prose, describing the life and adventure of a noble hero. //Any imagination literature that is set in an idealized world and that deals with a heroic adventures and battles between good characters and villains or monsters.Heroic Couplet英雄双韵体: Heroic couplet is a rhymed couplet of iambic pentameter. It is Chaucer who used it for the first time in English in his work The Legend of Good Woman.Epic史诗: An epic is a long oral narrative poem that operates on a grand scale and deals with legendary or historical events of national or universal significance. Many epics were drawn from an oral tradition and were transmitted by song and recitation before they were written down.Sonnet十四行诗: abab cdcd efef gg A fourteen-line lyric poem, usually written in rhymed iambic pentameter. It was introduced by Wyatt and developed by Surrey and was thereafter widely used, notably in the sonnet sequences of Shakespeare. A sonnet generally expresses a single theme or idea.Puritanism清教主义: Puritanism was the religious doctrine of the revolutionary bourgeoisie during the English Revolution. It stressed the virtue of self-discipline, thrift, hard work and unceasing labour. It advocated a strict moral code which prohibited many worldly pleasures.Naturalism自然主义: naturalism is a literary trend prevailing in Europe, especially in France and Germany, in the second half of the 19th century. According to the theory of naturalism, literature must be “true to life”and exactly reproduce real life, including all its details without any selection. Naturalism writers usually write life of the poor and oppressed, or the “slum life”, but by giving all the details of life without discrimination, they can only present the external appearance instead of the inner essence of real life. Humanism人文主义:Humanism is the key-note of the Renaissance. According the humanists, both man and world are hindered only by external checks from infinite improvement. They emphasizing the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life. Man could mould the world according his desire, and attain happiness by removing all the external checks by the exercise of reason.Aestheticism唯美主义: prevailing at the middle of the 19th century. Aestheticism places art above life, and holds that life should imitate art, not art imitate life. All art creation is absolutely subjective and should be free from any influence of egoism. Only when art is for art’s sake, can it be immortal. They believe art should be unconcerned with controversial issues.Sentimentalism感伤主义: Sentimentalism came into being as a result of a bitter discontent among the enlighteners with social reality. The representatives of sentimentalism continued to struggle against feudalism, but they sensed the contradictions in the process of capitalist development at the same time. Dissatisfied with reason, which classicists appealed to, they appealed to sentiment, “the human heart”.Critical Realism批判现实主义：critical realism is one of the literary genres that flourished mainly in the 19th century. The English critical realists of the 19th century not only gave a satirical portrayal of the bourgeoisie and all the ruling classes, but also showed profound sympathy for the common people. Hence the use of humor and satire in the realistic novels. But the trend of their works is not of revolution but rather of reformism.Neo-Romanticism新浪漫主义:a literary trend prevailing at the end of the 19th century. Dissatisfied with the drab and the ugly social reality and yet trying to avoid the positive solution of the acute social contradictions, the neo-romanticists laid emphasis upon the invention of exciting adventures and fascinating stories to entertain the readers.Modernist现代主义：prevailing during the 20s and 30s of the 20th century. It was a movement of experiments in new technique of writing. Modernist fiction put emphasis on the description of character s’psychological activities, and so has sometimes been called modern psychological fiction.Stream of Conscience意识流:a psychological term indicating “the flux of conscious and subconscious thoughts and impressions moving in the mind at any given time independently of the person’s will”. In the 20th century, under the influence of Freud’s theory of psychological analysis, a number of writers adopted the “stream of conscious” method of novel writing. The striking feature of these novelists is their giving precedence to the depiction of the characters’ mental and emotional reaction to external events, rather than the events themselves.。
英美文学名词解释1
英美文学名词解释11. Allegory: A tale in verse or prose in which characters, actions, or settings represent abstract ideas or moral qualities. An allegory is a story with two meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning.寓言：用诗歌或散文讲的故事，在这个故事中人物、事件或背景往往代表抽象的概念或道德品质。
所有的寓言都是一个具有双重意义、文学内涵或象征意义的故事。
2. Alliteration: The repetition of the initial consonant sounds in poetry.头韵：诗歌中单词开头读音的重复。
3. Allusion: A reference to a person, a place, an event, or a literary work that a writer expects the reader to recognize and respond to. An allusion may be drawn from history, geography, literature, or religion.典故：文学作品中作家希望读者能够认识或做出反应的一个人物、地点、事件或文学作品。
典故或来自历史、地理、文学或宗教。
9. Analogy: (a figure of speech) A comparison made between tow things to show the similarities between them. Analogies are often used for illustration or for argument. 类比：（修辞）把两种事物放在一起进行对比从而发现他们的相同点，类比一般用于说明或论述。
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(英雄双韵体)l r b r ll r l英雄双韵体五步抑扬格双韵体称英雄双韵体30 (涵)lrl r r g r直接义词面义或词义3 (结局)l rl r lr r r rrv l结局戏剧或叙事场景结3 (措辞)rr r r rg, rlrl r lr, v, r措词讲话或写出表述清晰言简赅对词语使用或选择33 (不协和)r r grbl b ; r3 r lg (戏剧独白)k rrv rr k r r lr rl r gv35 lg (挽歌)r g ll l r r挽歌挽诗专门悼念某死者所写诗或歌36 bl g (象征)vrbl r gr lg r rl r rlg g37 (史诗)x rrv lv r g lgg, lbrg lgr r rl r rlg vl r rg r r r rl r r r b g r br r r Lr lrr gr r b , r L, r Rg gr r r l l Br lrr r, l Bl rg R, rl r z史诗用严肃或庄重语言写成叙事长诗歌颂传奇或历史上英雄丰功伟绩38 gr (隽语), lvr, rxl , ll r隽语简明机智常常似是而非陈述,常以诗形式出现39 gr (引语开场白)r q bgg lrr , g r引语部学作品开头引言警句阐明主题0 lg (结语收场白)r r lg lrr rk, lg r rr l ll , l ll rr结语学作品结束简短附加或总结性节常常关作品人物也作义上也可称作 rr(顿悟)ll, ll rr r r rk顿悟对现实真谛顿悟或洞察,通常出现作品结尾(墓志铭)r b r r r b墓志铭刻墓碑上用以怀念死者碑铭3 (表述词语)r rrz r r g表述词语用表示某人某物特性表达(散)r lrr gl b, ll rg rl v r散容通常论及主题短通常表达作者人观5 xl (说教故事)l, ll r x r, llr rl rl说教故事种短体现某种道德原则故事性通常出现布道6 bl (寓言)br r l r rl, r rl l寓言种体现某种道德观念或实用价值说教性7 r (轻喜剧)k b rl , r rr轻喜剧种以可笑情节基础喜剧通常包含固定角色8 grv Lgg (象征性语言)Lgg b rr lrl象征性语言不能直接用面义理语言9 gr (比喻)r r xr b rr lrl比喻不能直接按照面义理词语或表述方法50 lbk(倒叙)lrr v rlr v r rrv倒叙闪回镜头种学或电影表现手法往往段按正常顺序记叙叙事插入件以前发生事情5 l (陪衬)rr r rr b r陪衬用反衬其他人物人物5 rg (铺垫)r l rrv gg ll lr铺垫用预示将要发生事情线或暗示53 r vr (由诗体)Vr r rl r r rglr r由诗体既不具格式韵律又不具常规格律诗体5 rbl (夸张法)gr xggr r r夸张法种比喻使用夸张强调或产生某种效55 b r (五步抑扬格)l g v vr , b , r llbl ll b r llbl五步抑扬格种诗句形式每行诗句包含五抑扬格音步56 gr(象)r r r r r, r g, rr象用者思维唤起某种图示或形象词汇57 rl r (递进重复)r rv l r l, b lg vr v rrv z b z递进重复诗歌对上行或几行重复但每次重复都有定变化而且每节重复叙述都有所强化58 vr (倒装句)q rvrg, r vrg rl r rr倒装句种将句子正常表达方法倒置技巧59 v (开祷告)ll , g r r r r bgg r r开祷告史诗或诗歌开企神灵给予启示60 r (反语)r b rll , r b x ll反语种建立面表述和真实义上或期待产生结和真实结对比6Kg (隐喻语)grv, ll xr l r , ll l gl l r r r xl, r r kg r bl隐喻语尤指古英语和古斯堪纳维亚语诗种比喻性表名或名词常用复合表达方式如剑风暴是战争隐喻语6 Lr (抒情诗), ll r , xr kr rl g r lg抒情诗种用抒发作者感情或思想短诗63 q (假面剧)r r, ll rr b k lr rrg lgl r llgrl gr, lr gl 6 rl 7 r假面剧种戏剧性娱乐由代表神话或寓言人物佩戴面具者表演该娱乐形式6世纪和7世纪早期英国很流行6 lr (情节剧)r r rr, xggr , l llg r r r g llvl vll65 r (隐喻)gr r r r rrl g g g r, kg l r隐喻种语言表达手法通常用指某物词或词组指代他物从而暗示它们相似处66l r (玄学派诗歌)7r gl , vr rrz b llll llgg l x r rg vr lr g l r b vrbl x, g rr, rrglr r, llql lgg, lbr gr, rg gr lr玄学派诗歌7世纪英国诗人诗歌这种诗歌特是风格极具智慧引人深思善用引申暗喻对比极其不事物67 r (格律)grll rglr r r r llbl r格律诗歌通常重音节和非重音节排列模式68 (喻)gr r r r b r r ll喻种词或词组被另与有紧密系词或词组替换修辞方法69 k (讽刺史诗)lrr r r rvl b gr, r l讽刺史诗种用史诗宏风格描写微不足道事情喜剧形式70 (主旨)rrr l r r lrr rk主题艺术品或学作品反复体现、揭示主题部分7 v (动机)r, r r l, r rr bvr动机引发作品人物行理由7 (神话)r, b rl rlg rl, gv g r rl神话种释世界上神现象关神灵或宗教仪式有系故事73 rrv (叙事诗)ll r叙事诗讲述故事诗歌7 rrr (叙述者)rr r ll r叙述者讲述或叙述故事人75 rl (然主义)r rbg rl l r l lrr, xr r rl然主义学精确地描述人类现实环境实践,现实主义高表现形式76 l (新古主义)rvvl lrr l 7 8 r, rrz b rgr r ll l r, r, rr l新古主义7、8世纪晚期学复兴以尊重古代型推理形式和严谨体特征77 vl (说)bk lg l r rrv, vg rr lx l说虚构叙述性有定长较多人物和思想复杂情节78 v (八行诗)gl r z79 (颂)lx lg lr , r g rl l l r r b颂种复杂具有定长诗歌通常以高贵风格写成用表述些高尚或严肃主题80 (拟声)r r r b g b r rr拟声通模仿事物或行动声音构词方法8 xr (矛盾修饰法)rrl gr b r rr r r b, g l rl矛盾修饰法种把相矛盾或不调和词合起修辞手法如"震耳欲聋沉默"和"悲伤乐观"8 rx (似非而是)rvl k r, lg r b lrr r rl r r lrr r r rv r rl r x r lg似非而是种面上看起相矛盾却体现着定真理说法83 rlll (并行)r, l, r r lr r lr rr r g并行结构或义相近词汇子句句子并用8r (模仿诗)r rk r r r rlrgll, " g g b" r r x r b l r, r , r xggr r r r r l r rk r, rk, brrg r r r r rr r g rr glg k r xr_r_r模仿诗种取得喜剧或嘲讽效而对某艺术作品进行滑稽模仿85 rl (田诗)k , l lz r r l田诗种用理想手法体现牧羊人乡村生活诗歌86 (悲怅)ql rk lrr r r r rr lg , rr, r r rr悲怅学艺术作品种引发者怜悯情或伤感特质87 r (拟人)gr b r br r ql r r rr g r q rg br, g, r l r k r, r r br , lk lv, l b V, r vrl, k b l k lk 拟人给无生命东西或者抽象东西赋予人性或绘以人形象88 l (情节)l v r r vl, rrv r r情节说故事,或戏剧事件概要或主要故事89 v (视角)r r r r视角作者阐述故事角90 rg (主角)rr r r r lrr rk主角戏剧或其他学作品主要人物9 l (赞美诗)g r lr r G赞美诗用颂扬上帝诗歌或抒情诗9 (双关语)r r r gg r r g双关语用词表示两涵93 Qr (四行诗)z r r l9 Rl (现实主义)rr r r lrr b, , r l ll r, lz r r br r r r, rr rvl r r, rv klg, r, g vr vl, q rg G vr现实主义艺术或学将事物行或社会状况按其起初情况进行表现而不用模糊形式表现或理想化95 Rr (副句)r, vr, r gr vr r rvl rg g r , ll z副句副歌短语、句诗或组诗句首歌或诗每隔段重复次尤其每诗节结尾处96 R (压韵)r r r r r r r l r ( R, lr llg) r b g r r r ll r lrbl, , rrl, rrl Lk r grv lgg, r rv lr rv r lll b r lr lr, lk r压韵音两或两以上词汇或短语重复97 R (格律)rrg r r llbl r重音节和非重音节固定排列模式98 R (传奇故事)gv lrr lz rl l r vr bl b g vl传奇故事设定想象世界以英雄冒险和善恶斗争题材学作品99 R (浪漫主义)r lll v rgg r l 8 r vl xr g, rr r r l浪漫主义起8世纪末期欧洲种重人情感和想象力表达艺术和知识上运动它与古主义观和形式相悖00 r (讽刺)k rg l rl r k rgg vl, r grlkg rrv rl r, , , ll, r, bl讽刺种讽刺人习俗或人性缺或错误体0 (韵律分析)l vr r r韵律分析将诗划分成音步分析方法0 (六行诗)xl r z03 g (背景), l, r rrv, r, r vl k l背景记叙、戏剧或说发生、地和环境0 l (明喻)r b g rg r r明喻两种事物借助比喻词汇进行比较05 llq (独白)r r lrr r r rr rvl rr g l r r r r rr独白种戏剧或学说话形式其某角色独人或不知道其他角色存情况下展示角色思想06 g (歌)r lr l ql, rll r b歌种具有型音乐特征抒情诗体通常谱曲而作07 (十四行诗)l vr r ll r b r十四行诗种由十四行组成诗歌形式通常以五步抑扬格押韵形式08 r z (斯宾塞诗体)l z llg r bbbb09 r (识流)l rg rl l rr g, lg rl, l g rr xr识流种模仿作品人物思想思维精神活动然程写作技巧0l(风格)r rr rg ,r b r, rrg r , rl r风格由词汇选择句子词汇安排句子关系形成某作特定写作方式(悬念)ql r, vl, r r k rr r r b v悬念说故事戏剧所具有使者对结局产生不安或紧张感觉特质bl (象征)b, r, l, r g l l r g lrgr l, ql, , r bl象征身具有义用体现高身义思想观人物行地3 bl (象征主义)lrr v l9 r, rrz b bl rr g象征主义十九世纪种学潮流运用象征体现事物(提喻法)gr r r l提喻法种以局部代表整体修辞方法5 rz r (三行体)l vr r g r r l z l l z r r r l llg z(b bb , ) 6 (主题)grl r g b l rr xr lrr rk作者作品表现对生活总观或看法7 (调子)rr k r r r b, rr, r调子作者对作品主题人物和者所持态8 rg (悲剧)grl, lrr rk rg r r悲剧以主人公可悲或灾难性结局结束故事9 (睿智)brll qk r b lvr xr睿智巧妙思维和睿智表达结合0x (评)r rrv r r, r bkgr r rvl评记叙或戏剧向者介绍主要背景情况部分ll rg 8 r, r r g l, r rl rl l l l 7 r B, v r r rl gl vl l rl l bl lrr rk Rr l; Gl Vr kl; r l r rg r l r, v Gr lg r r rr, Gl r Vllg, r k, vr bl lr lr l rrr lrr r k gl R k r l v gv xr_r_r lg r r b, v3 Rlrl v rg brg k r r , z bl bg, vr g brv g r r r r rlg g rgll rvvl ll r lrg r rk g br g r l l r xr r rg brg kr, r, rl r ll lrr gr rlglg rgrv lll v, vr gl r l r r 8 r lg r rr kg lgr rv lr l r rl b brg lg5 R Ll r , , b r x l6 RR l vr ( l l), g r l r, bgg, r rl r, l7rl ; gl, llbl g lg llbl r llbl8 Grr l ll lrgr r lrr v, rgl lg "" blg Grk k r gr rlr, , r r gr, r r bgr r r b r, r xl, r br b rk (g, vl) rk (g, ) l gr, b vl r, r r r b kg lrr r l l b g r r v lv9 rr r b B l rg r, rg lg lg , lq b, lr l r vr rr r r, rr r lk rr30 rl RR l, rr bgg (l r) r ( r); l, r g l l3vlrvlr r rr kg, ll lv B vlr r lg r, l lg, r g, b rl l l r g lg , b r r lgr l rbg g r l rr l l3lrl l' l, rlrl bl rl rl l r, vr l rl r b rr。