大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter 4 Syntax
语言学+chapter+4
AP (Deg程度) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to
PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near thier
X Head
Complement
Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.
X’ Theory
heads
More…
Phrase elements
Specifier Head complement
Specifiers
Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head;
syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.
Phrase structure: a representation of the set of constituents that an expression contains.
新编简明英语语言学教程ch4
4.2.1 Word-revel categories
Major lexical categories Examples
Noun (N)
book, boy, love, sheep
Verb (V)
run, read, play
Adjective (A)
happy, tall, clear
CP[that John kicked the ball] C CP
“that” in an embedded clause is a complementizer, thus a C category.
Every phrasal category is analyzed to be projected from a HEAD (a lexical category)
NP
IP=S
I’
I
VP
NP
V
V’ NP
Det N
e -ed John kick the ball
[S[NP John ][IP [I kicked ][NP the ball ]]]
by WU Gengtang 广东技术师范学院 2011年 Copy Left
Tree representation of XP
Chapter 4 Syntax
Gengtang Wu Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University Guangzhou, September 2011
by WU Gengtang 广东技术师范学院 2011年 Copy Left
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words arc com-bined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Syntax II
The structure: specifier + head + complement
Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement---- the words on the right side of the heads
On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties. The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, Subject + Verb +
Object (clausal type) an apple (object).
Mary (subject) Determiner
ate (verb) + Noun (phrasal type)
this (determiner) edition (noun)
The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction’s “makeup”, with the terms such as “subject, predicate, object, determiner, noun”.
语言学教程_第三版_第四章_句法学
4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence ■It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. ■For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase.
三、Discussion Essays
Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic
relations? [北京航空航天大学2008研] 【答案】In Saussure‟s view, language is a system of signs, each of which consists of two parts: “signified” (concept) and “signifier”(sound image). And the relationship between these two parts is arbitrary. Therefore the linguist cannot attempt to explain individual signs in a piecemeal fashion. Instead he must try to find the value of a
戴炜栋简明英语语言学教程Chapter4Syntax
Discussion: Discuss with your deskmate whether the following phrases have the same structural mechanism. NP: the student who likes linguistics AP: very curious of the answer VP: quite like Peking Opera PP: right in the park
➢ The snow might have blocked the road.
Det A Aux Aux V
Det N
➢ He never appears quite mature.
N Qual V
Deg A
4.2 Categories 2. Phrase categories and their structures Discussion: Which sentence is not considered grammatical? a. The student liked the linguistics lecture. b. The linguistics lecture liked the student. c. Liked the student the linguistics lecture.
Syntactic category: a word (called a word/lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrase category) that performs a particular function in a sentence.
英语语言学Lecture 4 Syntax
2. Syntactic Relations
It refers to the relation between words in a sentence, which can be studied from both vertical and latitudinal perspectives.
Three types: 1)positional relation, 2)relation of substitutability 3)relations of co-occurrence.
How to do it
1. Brackets ( (Poor) (John) ) ( (ran)( away) )
2. Tree diagrams The girl chased the dog.
Features of IC Analysis
Advantages: Through ICA, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities will be revealed.
Problems: First, binary divisions of ICA is not
always possible. Second, there exist technical problems for tree diagrams in ICA. Third, there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis .
1.1 Definition of Syntax
Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.
简明语言学教程第4章Syntax解析
degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).
2. What are the criteria to determine a word’s categories? ① meaning; ② inflection; ③distribution. Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution. 3. What are major/minor lexical categories?
3. the generative approach (生成学派)； 4. the functional approach (功能学派). American linguists A. N. Chomsky (1928-)
Category (P42) refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
英语专业语言学课件unit 4
Word-level categories
Traditional and non-traditional classification Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.
(serving as heads: NP, VP, AP, PP.) Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Aux,
PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.
( ): optional; ……:other options
The XP rule
XP
Specifier
X
Complement
Head
Note: abstraction of all phrases: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X, as a variable, stands for N, V, A or P.
the categories must be of the same type;
the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type the elements being conjoined.
Categories
Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech/word class.)
Chapter 4 语言学第四章总结
Chapter 41.SyntaxSyntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelation between elements in sentence structure. It studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. Syntax is a brand of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic Relation:a.Positional relation (word order) is a manifestation of oneaspect of syntagmatic relation, also called horizontalrelation or chain relationb.Relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets ofword substitutable for each other grammatically insentences with the same structure. It refers to groups ofmore than one word which may be jointly substitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set. Itcalled associative relations, vertical relations, choicerelations.c.Relation of co-occurrence2．Grammatical construction (construct)The boy ate the apple.A: the boy B and C: ate the appleA: external B and C: internal (immediate constituent)To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called immediate constituent in this way is called immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis.3.Endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent.Exocentric construction is a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.4.Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English andother languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction.(and ,but, or)Subordination refer to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.5.Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguisticform and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.a.Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.It includes grammatical subject and logical subject. Its characteristics include word order, pro-forms, agreement with verb content question, tag questionb.Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentencestructure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.c.Object include direct object and indirect object6.Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow senseand refers to the defining properties of these general units.a.Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis ofword classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural.b.Gender display such contrasts as masculine, feminine,neuter.c.Case is used in the analysis of word class to identify thesyntactic relationship between word in a sentence accusative, nominative, detived.Agreement (concord)7.Phrase is a single element of structure containing more thanone word and lacking the subject-predicate structure typicalof classes. Sentence is the minimum part of languages that express a compete thought.8.Recursiveness: there is no limit to the number of embeddingone relative classes into another relative classes.Conjoining refer to the process where one clause s coordinated or conjoined with another.Embedding refer to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination.Sentential connection include hypotactic and paratactic.Cohension is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refer to relations of meaning that exist within the text. (conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substitution)9.Categories: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfillthe same or similar functions in a particular language such asa sentence, a new phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories: a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.Word-level categories: major lexical categories (N.V.A.P.) and minor lexical categories (determiner, degree words meaning, inflection, distribution qualifier, auxiliary,conjunction)Phrase categories: syntactic unit that are built around a certain word category are called phrases. It contains: head, specifier, complement10.P hrase structure ruleSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase.NP----(Det) N (PP)…VP---(Qual) V (NP)…AP---(Deg) A (PP)…PP---(Deg) P (NP)…XP rule: XP---(specifier) X (complement)The coordination rule: X---X’ Con X11.P hrase elementsSpecifier semantic roles：help make more precise themeaning of the headSyntactic roles: mark a phrase boundary Complement are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and location whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.The XP rules (revised)XP---(specifier) X (complement)’Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers (CS). The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. The whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase (CP) and the construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.Modifiers: specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.The Expanded XP rule:XP---(spec) (mod) X (complement’) (mod)。
英语专业语言学课件unit 4
Criteria on good grammar
Observational adequacy Descriptive adequacy Explanatory adequacy The ultimate goal for any theory is to
explain. TG differs from traditional grammar in that
it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation.
Chomsky is much more interested in the similarities (language universals) between
Phrase categories and their structures
Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).
Coordination rule
Coordination structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.
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式(Mood)
Mood involves a choice between indicative , imperative and subjunctive forms of the verb on the semantic basis of the factuality. “式”牵涉到在直陈式、祁使式、虚拟式动 词词形间做出选择，这种选择以语义为依据， 视动词所描述的事件真实与否而定。
4.2 Categories
Category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense ,e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.
Grammatical Categories
The term “grammatical category” is used by some linguists to refer to word classes. In TG grammatical categories are syntactic units indicated by “category symbols” such as S, NP, VP, Det , A, etc.
体(Aspect)
Aspect deals with how the event described by a verb is viewed. English has two aspect constructions, the perfective and the progressive, realised by “have +ed participle” and “be+-ing participle” respectively.
Gender masculine feminine
Noun actor actress
Pronoun He She
Many English pronouns have different forms corresponding to the distinction of subjective(nominative), objective (accusative and dative) and genitive cases, as in I, me, my; we, us, our; he , him, his, etc. 英语中有许多代 词的不同的形式，分别对应主格、宾格、属格 等等
The passive voice of English is realized by “be+ed participle” .The doer in the active sentence is omitted in the passive or is indicated by a “by-phrase”.
有些语言学家用“语法范畴”这个术语来表 示词类。在转换生成语法中，语法范畴是用S, NP, VP, Det , A等“范畴符号”表示的句法 单位。
数(Number)
Number is a grammatical category with a clear semantic basis primarily for nouns with two forms: singular / plural (boy/boys). Not all the English nouns have a singular-plural distinction. Those nouns that have this distinction are called “count nouns”. Their regular plural forms are clearly marked by plural suffixes.
人称(person)
The category of “person” is overtly marked in English pronoun system. It also belongs to the verbs because the number of subject is indicated in the verb form when the subject is in the third person and the verb is in the present tense. It hurts; they hurt
The English imperative has only a “tenseless” be as formal marker. Subjunctive mood is used to indicate some of the nonfactual and hypothetical situations. English has two formal markers of subjunctive mood, the base form and were.
范畴指的是某一种特定的语言中执行相同或 相近功能的一组语言项目，如句子、名词短 语、或者动词。
Word-level categories
The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories. 对于句法研究最核心的范畴是词层次范畴。 Here word level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories. MAJOR lexical categories play a very important role in the sentence formation.
范畴这一术语在一些学派中指 的是狭义的词类和词语的功能， 例如名词、动词、主语、谓语、 名词短语、动词短语等。
More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units:
更具体一些，范畴指的是这些一般性单位的 甄别性特点： The categories of the noun, include number, gender, case and countability; 名词的范畴包括数、性、格和可数性； The categories of the verb, for example, person, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc. 动词范畴则含有人称、时、体、式、态等。
人称在英语代词体系中是明确标示出来的。 人称也适用于动词，如果动词是第三人称现 在时，主语的数就会在动词的词形上表现出 来的。
时(Tense)
Tense shows the relationship between the form of the verb and the speaker‟s concept of time. In English, the formal indication is between past and non-past, with the past formally marked in regular verbs by suffix -ed “时” 表示动词的词形和说话者的时间概念之间 的关系。在英语中，用词形区分的时态分过去时 和非过去时，对规则的动词而言，用后缀-ed表示 过去时。
许多屈折语言里有三种和意义相关的性：阳性、 阴性、中性。 In English gender contrast can be only observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns which shows the biological gender.
In our textbook, categories refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
英语中的祁使式只是一个形式标记，即“无 时态”的 be。
虚拟式用来表示与事实不符的／假设的情况。 英语中的虚拟式有两种标记，即动词原形和 were。
态(Voice)
Voice makes it possible to view the action of a sentence in either of the two ways without the changes in the facts reported. “态” 使人能从两种角度看待句子描述的动 作但不改变句子描述的事实。
Number
singular plural
man men
He They
Many inflectional languages have three meaning-related gender distinction: masculine, feminine and neuter.
性 (Gender)
格(Case)
格(Case)
Apart from the pronoun system, English has only one case distinction in nouns-the genitive case indicated by the suffix/-iz/, /-z/ and /-s/ in phonetic forms and “apostraphe+s”(boy‟s), or apostrophe only (boys‟) in writing. 英语中除了代词之外，只有名词有格的变化， 即名词所有格。