Paragraph Coherence
有关于段落展开的方式英语有范文
有关于段落展开的方式英语有范文英文回答：Paragraph development is a crucial aspect of writing that enhances the coherence, clarity, and overall effectiveness of a text. There are several strategies employed to develop paragraphs, each serving a specific purpose and contributing to the writer's intended message.Topic Sentence:A topic sentence is the central idea or main point of a paragraph. It often appears at the beginning, although it can also be placed strategically elsewhere. The topic sentence sets the direction for the paragraph, guiding the reader's understanding of the subsequent sentences.Supporting Sentences:Supporting sentences provide evidence, examples, orexplanations that support the topic sentence. Theyelaborate on the main point by providing specific details, anecdotes, data, or analysis. These sentences work together to build a coherent and well-supported paragraph.Transitions:Transitions are words or phrases that connect sentences and paragraphs smoothly. They indicate relationships between ideas and help readers follow the logical flow of the text. Transitions can show cause and effect, comparison, contrast, addition, or conclusion.Parallelism:Parallelism is a stylistic technique that uses similar grammatical structures or formats to create balance and emphasize key points. It can be achieved through the use of parallel phrases, clauses, or sentences. Parallelism enhances readability and makes the text more memorable.Emphasis:Writers employ various techniques to emphasize important points within a paragraph. This can be done through the use of italics, bold, underlining, or placement within the text. Additionally, using strong verbs, vivid imagery, or sensory details can draw the reader's attention to specific ideas.Paragraph Length:Paragraph length can vary depending on the complexity of the topic and the writer's purpose. However, it is generally recommended to keep paragraphs concise and focused. Long paragraphs can be difficult to read and may lose the reader's attention.Paragraph Unity:Paragraph unity ensures that all the sentences within a paragraph are related to the topic sentence and contribute to the overall meaning. Irrelevant or tangential information should be avoided, as it can distract thereader and disrupt the flow of ideas.Conclusion:Paragraph development is an essential skill foreffective writing. By employing the strategies outlined above, writers can create coherent, well-supported, and engaging paragraphs that effectively convey their intended message to the reader.中文回答：段落展开的方式。
英文写作名词解释
What is a summary?A summary is a short piece of writing that gives the main facts or ideas of a story or article,etc. The qualities of a good summary?It should be objective,that is,the writer does not include any ideas of his/her own. It should be complete ,that is,the writer does not leave out important facts or ideas.It should be balanced,in other words,the writer gives equal attention to each main idea.The goal of a summary?It is to give readers an objective,complete,accurate and balanced view ofsomething(an article,a story ,a novel,a play,etc)Paragraph unityA unified paragraph contains only sentences that explain or support the general statement made in the topic sentence.Any sentence that does not relate to (=is not connected in some way)the main idea will not develop it.How to achieve paragraph unity?Begin with a discussable point and express it in a topic sentence.Stick to this single point throughout,that is,all other sentence should be aboutthis point.Prove or develop the point;don 't merely repeat it.Link your sentence to make your ideas easy to follow.How to outline (=to give the main facts about something) a story?Divide the story into smaller parts. Summarize each part in one sentence.Number your sentence summaries to make them an outline of the story.What is a narrative paragraph?A narrative paragraph is one that briefly describes an incident or a personal experience. Requirements that a good narrative paragraph should meet?Though its length is limited,it is complete,that is,it has a beginning,middle and end.It includes as little conversation as possible.Its sentences are connected by suitable linking words or expressions.Here are some common time linking words/expressions.Afterward later when shortly afterward soon while the next day/night then Paragraph coherence(Coherence is connection )A coherent paragraph is one in which every sentence after the first is connected to the one before it,to the topic sentence ,or to both ,and readers can readily follow the writer 's train of thought(= a related series of thoughts)An incoherence paragraph is one in which the sentences are badly connected or not connected at all,and the readers are likely to lose their way.How to achieve paragraph coherence?Arrange sentence in a clear order.Use correct pronounsUse correct linking words and expressions.What is exposition?Exposition is explanatory writing.Its purpose is to explain or clarify a point. Patterns of expositionExemplificationProcess analysis Cause-Effect analysis Comparison and contrast Classification Definition Analogy What is exemplification?Exemplification is a method of supporting a thesis statement with a series of specific examples or sometimes,with a single extended example.It is one of the most common and most useful means of developing a paragraph or an essay.What is an essay?An essay is a related group of paragraphs written for some purpose.Types of essaysEssays can be classified into types,or modes,according to their purposes. Narrative essays relate a sequence of events,whether factual or not.Descriptive essays create a word picture of a scene,a person,or an object.Expositive essays explain--to inform,instruct,clarify,illustrate,or define. Argumentative essays state an opinion and defend it logically.Basic structure of an expositive essayAn expositive essay has three parts: A beginning called the introduction. A middle called the body.An end called the conclusion.Elements of the expositive essay OutliningThesis statementTitleTransitionWhat is an outline?An outline is a method of organizing materials in logical order.It is a list that shows the main ideas and the structure of something you are planning to write.In other words,it is a plan for a piece of writing.Constructing an outline makes the writing of your essay easier.Types of outline1.Topic outline,which uses only key words and phrases.2.Sentence outline,which uses complete sentence.Format(the arrangement ,design,or organization of something)A topic outline looks like this:Thesis:In my first year at college,I learned to spend my money wisely.What is process analysis?A process analysis is a step-by-step explanation of how to do something,or how something works/done or made,or something happened.What is process analysis used for?1.To give directions to people who want or need to perform the process.(giving instructions )2.To give information to those who want to understand the process but may not actually performit.(giving information)3.To explain how something happened.(giving the history) What are the major typesof process analysis?1.Directive process analysis which is aimed at explaining how to do or make something.rmative process analysis which is aimed at explaining how something is done/works or how something took place/happened.What is comparison/contrast?Comparison/contrast is a method of developing a paragraph or an parison shows similarity while contrast shows difference.The word comparison is sometimes used to mean both comparison and contrast.What is comparison/contrast used for?1.To clarify something unknown or not well understood.2.To lead a new way of viewing something familiar.3.To bring one or both of the subjects into sharper focus.4.To show that one subject is better than the other. What is classification? Classification is the method of grouping objects,people,or ideas systematically.Itis one of the most useful organizational strategies in writing.What is classification used for?1.To organize and perceive the world around us.2.To present a mass of material by means of some orderly system.3.To deal with complex or abstract topics by breaking a broad subject intosmaller,neatly sorted categories.What is definition?1.Definition is the explanation of the meaning of a word or concept.2.Definition is also a method of developing an essay.What is analogy?Analogy is an extended comparison based on the similar features of two things of different classes,one familiar one easily understood,the otherunfamiliar ,abstract,or complicated.It is an important method of exposition.What are transition?Transition,also called ”transitional devices ”,are words,phrases,and even whole sentences that link sentence to one another.What is a journal?A journal is a record of experiences,ideas,or reflections kept regularly for private use.It is something “for you eye only ”.So you can write from your heart and letideas and feelings flow freely.Journal writing is a form of free-writing,which involves writing whatever comes to your mind about what happens around you and what you observe and think about. Argumentation and persuasion defined.Argumentation-persuasion is the type of writing in which writers try to encourage readers to accept their point of view on a controversial issue.In argumentation ,writers use objectives,logical reasoning,facts,and hard evidence to demonstrate the soundness of a position.Their purpose is to encourage readers to accept their point of view.In persuasion,writers use emotional language and dramatic appeals to readers' concerns,beliefs and values,often in the hope of encouraging then to take a specific action,besides,encouraging acceptance of an opinion.Argumentation and persuasion are frequently used together in an essay.Also,the two terms are often used interchangeably.The claim definedClaims,or propositions,represent answers to what you are trying to prove in an argumentative essay.Although they are the conclusions of your arguments,they often appear as these statements. Abstract&concrete wordsConcrete words identify persons and things that can be perceived by the senses--seen,heard,tasted,felt,smelled,e.g.table,boy,rose,etc.Abstract words denote qualities,concepts,relationships,acts,conditions,ideas that we can 't perceive directly through our five senses,e.g.honesty,friendship,life,etc. Most words are neither wholly abstract nor concrete.They are between the two extremes,e.g.exercise,rest,answer,etc.General&specific wordsSpecific words identify individual items in a group,e.g.BuickGeneral words relate to categories,an overall group,e.g.carMost words are neither wholly general nor specific.They are between the two extremes,e.g.child,student,flower,etc.The support definedThe ideas and information intended to convince readers that the claim is sound or believable. What is conciseness?Conciseness means being direct and to the point.Redundant words or wordy writing is not concise.Do not over-use words to deliver the message in your writing.Refutation definedRefutation is attempts to prove views against the writer 's position wrong or false.It is often an indispensable part of an argumentative essay,for it shows that the writer is aware of opposing viewpoints and has thought about both sides.Essays that mainly refute opposing views are known as rebuttal arguments.Fallacies definedFallacies are statements that may sound reasonable or true but are not logically defensible and may actually be deceptive.The emotional appeal definedEmotional appeal is a strategy writers and public speakers use to persuade,which is to arouse the reader's/audience's feelings to reinforce an argument.真题：What is the research paper?What is the process of writing it?A research paper is usually a formal,fairly long and well-documented composition. Process： 1.choosing a topic2.Collecting information3.Analyzing the information,organizing ideas and working out an outline4.Writing the first draft5.Revising the draft and finalizing the paper.What is the sentence?What is the effective sentence?A sentence contains at least a subject and a predicate verb:if the verb is transitive,there must be an object,if the verb is a link verb,there must be a predicative or complement.They are unity,coherence,conciseness,emphasis and variety.How many types of sentences according to the use?What are they?There are four.They are declarative,interrogative,imperative and exclamatory sentence.How many types of sentences according to the structure?What are they?There are four.They are simple,compound,complex and compound-complex sentence.。
英语作文的段落格式
英语作文的段落格式英文回答：The paragraph format in English essays typically follows a specific structure that ensures cohesion, coherence, and clarity in writing. Here's a breakdown of the essential elements of a paragraph:Topic sentence:Introduces the main idea of the paragraph, often in a concise and engaging way.Provides a roadmap for the subsequent sentences.Supporting sentences:Develop and expand on the topic sentence with specific evidence, examples, or explanations.Provide details, reasons, or arguments that support the paragraph's main point.Transitional sentences:Connect the ideas within and between paragraphs, ensuring a smooth flow of information.Use transitional words and phrases, such as "however," "in addition," or "similarly," to guide the reader through the text.Concluding sentence:Summarizes or restates the main idea of the paragraph.Provides closure and leaves a lasting impression on the reader.Additional points to consider:Paragraph length can vary, but it's generallyrecommended to keep each paragraph focused on a specific topic.Use clear and specific language throughout the paragraph.Avoid unnecessary repetition or redundancies.Proofread the paragraph carefully for any errors in grammar, punctuation, or spelling.中文回答：段落格式。
雅思大作文-评分标准之“CoherenceandCohesion”逻辑连贯性
雅思大作文－评分标准之“Coherence and Cohesion”逻辑连贯性事实上，上一次我们已经，提到了过文章应该有连接性，Coherence and Cohesion, 简单解释就是－逻辑连贯性，（还记得这个图吗？好文章是环环相扣的，就像看故事一样，要交代事情如何发展，不然读者会有什么感受呢？）言归正传，要保持逻辑连贯，上次提过的解决方案P(point)-E(explanation)-E(examples): 写每一个段落时先给出主要观点，然后给原因解释说明，最后给一个具体例子。
－段落内逻辑连接所以事实上，考官主要考察大家的以下几个方面：1.Paragraph 段内逻辑连接2.Logical organization of essay 文章逻辑结构3.Cohesive devices need to be used well 连接手法4.Punctuation 标点符号我们来看具体如何做到考官的要求：1.Paragraph 段内逻辑连接：文章一般都要分段，每一段有清晰的中心观点，使用相关的观点支持主要观点。
（我们之前提过，这里就不做过多解释。
）Solution：这是一个考官给同学们的解决方案：‘ Make sure that each paragraph is about one idea. In the planning stage make sure you have enough to say about an idea before you start writing about it. This means that you may choose the ideas that are easiest to write about and not the ones that are the most intelligent.’确保一个段落就一个主要观点，在开始审题的阶段就把能想到的观点罗列出来，另外，强调一点，应该把你最有把握的观点写下，而不是你认为能吸引考官眼球的例子（词汇用错了，便可能弄巧成拙），要记住，雅思考试是一个语言测试，不是智力测试。
Coherence-5 大学英语写作教学课件
7)For Consequence
(therefore, in conclusion, to sum up, consequently, as a result, accordingly, in other world)
…. Because single people live alone, their financial security depends on their own efforts. As a result, career goals becomes extremely important to them. Their single status give them the opportunity to pursue career goals based solely on their own needs.
3)Qualifying Transitions
Many cities worry about violence on television, most out of fear that it stimulates viewers to violent or aggressive acts. Our research, however, indicates that the consequences of experiencing TV's symbolic world of violence may be much more far reaching.
comes first, secondly followed by less general, then the still less general would be the third. In a word, sentence logical arrangement in a paragraph can be made according to the level of generality. Foe example, if you want to write a paragraph about "A surprise party for Marjorie Martin", the level of generality is probably written like this:
英文作文怎么调节段落
英文作文怎么调节段落To adjust paragraphs in an English essay, it'sessential to focus on coherence, unity, and transitions between ideas. Here's a guide on how to effectively organize and adjust paragraphs in your essay:1. Topic Sentences:Begin each paragraph with a clear topic sentencethat introduces the main idea or argument of the paragraph. This sentence sets the tone and direction for the entire paragraph.2. Unity and Coherence:Ensure that all sentences within a paragraph relate to the main idea expressed in the topic sentence. Avoid including irrelevant or off-topic information.Use transitions and logical connectors to maintaincoherence between sentences. These can include words like "furthermore," "however," "in addition," etc., to smoothly transition between ideas.3. Supporting Details:Provide supporting details, evidence, examples, or explanations to reinforce the main idea of each paragraph. These details help to develop and strengthen your argument or point.4. Paragraph Length:Aim for a balance in paragraph length. While some paragraphs may be longer to fully explore complex ideas, overly lengthy paragraphs can overwhelm the reader. On the other hand, very short paragraphs might lack depth.5. Logical Organization:Organize paragraphs in a logical sequence that flows naturally from one idea to the next. Consider usingchronological order, cause and effect, compare and contrast, or other relevant structures depending on the topic and purpose of your essay.6. Transitional Phrases:Use transitional phrases at the beginning or end of paragraphs to link them together and create a smooth transition between ideas. Examples include "consequently," "similarly," "on the other hand," etc.7. Revising and Editing:Review your essay to ensure that each paragraph serves a distinct purpose and contributes to the overall coherence and effectiveness of your argument.Edit for clarity, coherence, and conciseness. Remove any repetitive or redundant information and refine your language to improve clarity and readability.8. Conclusion Paragraph:End your essay with a concluding paragraph that summarizes the main points and restates the thesis statement. This paragraph should leave a lasting impression on the reader and provide closure to your essay.By following these guidelines, you can effectively adjust paragraphs in your English essay to improve clarity, coherence, and overall effectiveness. Remember to consider the specific requirements and objectives of your essay as you revise and refine your writing.。
写英文作文的段落时的统一性
写英文作文的段落时的统一性When writing an English essay, achieving unity within each paragraph is crucial to ensuring the coherence and effectiveness of your argument. Unity refers to the consistency of ideas and topics within a given paragraph, ensuring that each sentence and idea contributes to the overall development of the central theme. Here are some key elements to consider when striving for paragraph unity:1. Topic Sentence: The topic sentence is the foundation of unity in a paragraph. It introduces the main idea or focus of the paragraph and provides a clear sense of direction for the reader. By stating the central theme early on, the writer sets the stage for all subsequent sentences to build upon and develop this initial idea.2. Development of Ideas: Each subsequent sentence in the paragraph should further elaborate on or support the topic sentence. This development should be logical and sequential, building a strong argument that reinforces themain idea. Avoid introducing new concepts or tangents that do not directly connect to the central theme.3. Consistency of Focus: Unity is maintained by staying focused on a single aspect or angle of the topic sentence. Avoid shifting gears mid-paragraph by introducing unrelated ideas or concepts. Stick to the original focus and develop it thoroughly.4. Coherence and Flow: Coherence refers to the smooth transition of ideas from one sentence to the next. Use transitional words and phrases to connect ideas and maintain a logical flow throughout the paragraph. This helps the reader follow the argument and understand how each idea contributes to the overall theme.5. Elimination of Redundancy: Redundancy can disrupt the flow and unity of a paragraph. Avoid repeating the same ideas or using synonymous phrases excessively. Instead, vary your language and focus on providing new insights or examples that further support the central theme.6. Conclusion or Summary: At the end of the paragraph, it is helpful to provide a conclusion or summary that ties back to the topic sentence and reinforces the main idea. This serves as a closing argument, summing up the points made and leaving the reader with a clear understanding of the paragraph's central message.Incorporating these elements into your writing process will help you achieve paragraph unity and produce essays that are coherent, focused, and engaging. Remember to proofread and revise your work, checking for any inconsistencies or tangents that may disrupt the flow and unity of your paragraphs. By paying attention to these key elements, you can ensure that your essay is as effective as possible in communicating your ideas and arguments.。
The Paragraph (III)--Effective paragraphs 英语段落写作
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b) My younger brother’s room is always a mess. His bed is never made, and there are parts of model airplanes all over his desk and bureau. Dirty clothes are invariably piled in a corner, and chewing gum wrappers are usually scattered beneath his desk. If he doesn’t soon clean up his act, my father will discontinue his allowance.
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Examples:
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a) Spring and autumn are the two best seasons for wearing jeans, but jeans are suitable for winter and summer as well. In winter, the thick denim could make me feel warmer than some other fabrics. As summer arrives, a kind of jeans made of thinner cloth appeals to me. In my eyes, young people in jeans skirts or shorts are most handsome and beautiful. Imagine a group of youngsters in blue jeans walking towards you, under a blue sky or on a sand beach along which the blue waves are shimmering in the sun. What kind of feeling will you have? Deeply impressed by their youthful vitality, you cannot help but wonder at the visible effects created by jeans.
英文写作手册第4-6章(精简版)
英文写作手册第4-6章（精简版）Part FourThe ParagraphA paragraph is a unit of thought;Ⅰ. Effective Paragraphs1. UnityUnity of a paragraph is concerned with its content. If all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified. The central theme is usually summarized in what is called the topic sentence. It often appears at the beginning of the paragraph; however, it may also be found in the middle or at the end of a paragraph.One of the central preoccupations of the arts and humanities is the observation of human beings. Painters and sculptors create images of the human form; writers tell stories or compose poems about human experience; musical artists give melodic contours to the human spirit; historians and philosophers ponder the essential qualities of human civilization and nature. And in our own lives, in our own ways, we spend a great deal of our energy and attention on our fellow creatures, being in families and other kinds of relationships, observing people with curiosity and interest in the course of the day, thinking about and forming our own character - deciding what kind of person we wish to be - as we grow.2. CoherenceCoherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form, or its organization. The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order, and the transitions should be smooth and natural. As a result, the reader finds it easy to follow the writer's train of thought and understand what he is talking about.There is some feeling nowadays that reading is not as necessary as it once was. Radio and especially television have taken over many of the functions once served by print, just as photography has taken over functions once served by painting and other graphic arts. Admittedly, television serves some of these functions extremely well; the visual communication of news events, for example, has enormous impact. The ability of radio to give us information while we are engaged in doing other things - for instance, driving a car - is remarkable, and a great saving of time. But it may be seriously questioned whether the advent of modern communications media has much enhanced our understanding of the world in which we live.- Mortimer J. Adler3. TransitionCoherence may not be perfect even if the writer arranges his sentences in a clear, logical order. He has to use good transitions so that one sentence runs smoothly to another.The following ways may help the writer to produce a fluent paragraph:A. Using parallel structures;B. Repeating words or word groups;C. Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences;D. Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbs.In the following paragraph, note how the writer makes use of all these ways to achieve coherence.Americans are queer people: they can't play. Americans rush to work as soon as they grow up. They want their work as soon as they wake. It is a stimulant - the only one they are not afraid of. They used to open their offices at ten o'clock; then at nine; then at eight; then at seven. Now they never shut them. Every business in America is turning into an open-all-day-and-night business. They eat all night, dance all night, build buildings all night, make a noise all night. They can't play. They try to, but can't. They turn football into a fight, baseball into a lawsuit, and yachting into machinery. They can't play. The little children can't play; they use mechanical toys instead - toy cranes, hoisting toy loads, toy machinery spreading a toy industrial depression of infantile dullness. The grownup people can't play; they use a mechanical gymnasium and a clockwork horse. They can't laugh; they hire a comedian and watch him laugh.- Stephen LeacockⅡ. Ways of Developing Paragraphs1. Planning a Paragraph2. Development by TimeIn telling a story or recounting an event, the easiest and clearest way is to describe things in order of time: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last thing last. This method is also called chronological sequencing.James Murray was born in Scotland in 1873, the son of a village tailor. He went to a parish school, but he left at 14 and he educated himself with pertinacity. He loved knowledge and he loved to impart it. He became a schoolmaster; he learned language after language and was alive to geology, archeology and phonetics, as well as to local politics. He had to leave Scotland because of the illness of his first wife, and he became a bank clerk in London. By sheer energy of scholarship, and without benefit of any university education, he made himself indispensable to the other remarkable philologists of his day. He returned to school-teaching and lived a 72-hour day for the rest of his life. For the invitation to edit what became the O.E.D. was one that he could not refuse. At first he combined it with his school work; later he moved to Oxford and dedicated himself to building the best sort of monument - best in that it was not a monument to himself, and best in that it was not a monument to something dead but rather to something living: the English language.- Christopher Ricks3. Development by ProcessWhen you have to explain how something is done, you usually follow a chronological sequence and give a step-by-step description. As the steps must occur one after another, the exact order in which they are carried out is most important. In giving instructions, imperative sentences and sentences with the indefinite pronoun you as the subject are often used.First, place the victim on his back and remove any foreign matter from his mouth with your fingers. Then tilt his head backwards, so that his chin is pointing up. Next, pull his mouth open and his jaw forward, pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air which you blow into his mouth from escaping through his nose. Then place your mouth tightly over the victim's. Blow into his mouth until you see his chest rise. Then turn your head to the side and listen for the outrush of air which indicates an air exchange. Repeat the process....4. Development by SpaceBefore we begin to describe a place, whether it is a large country or a small room, we have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details. For this we should find out the space relationships between them and arrange our description accordingly.Mr. Cook, a renowned American historian, arranges the books on his bookshelves in a unique way. In the upper right hand corner, there are books about the development of the early colonies in New England and the War of Independence. Right under them can be found books on the slave trade, the plantation system and the growth of the southern states. The left side of the shelf contains hundreds of books concerning subjects of the Westward Movement, Indian culture, the cowboys' contributions to American society and the Gold Rush in California. From the description above, one can see that Mr. Cook regards his bookshelves as a map of the U.S. and arranges his history books accordingly. It is odd, but it is convenient.5. Development by Example or GeneralizationSupporting a topic sentence with examples or illustrations makes a general statement specific and easy to understand. An illustration is a case, a specimen, an instance. Vivid illustrations light up abstract ideas and make them clear, interesting, memorable, or convincing.Knowledge often results only after persistent investigation. Albert Einstein, after a lengthy examination of the characteristics of matter and energy, formulated his famous Theory of Relativity, which now acts as a basis for further research in nuclear physics. Using plaster casts of footprints, fingerprints, and stray strands of hair, a detective pertinaciously pursues the criminal. After years of work Annie Jump Cannon perfected the classification of the spectra of some 350,000 stars. Investigations into the causes of polio have provided us with the means for prevention and cure of this dreaded disease only after many years of research. As students, we too are determined in our investigation to find, retain, and contribute to the store of human knowledge.Details or examples are usually arranged in climactic order: the least important comes first, followed by others in order of increasing importance.It was a typical Russian winter. The first snowstorm had turned everything white. The wind was howling, swirling and tumbling over a vast land of ice and snow, freezing and destroying whatever stood in its way. A ragged, misshapen army was staggering and struggling desperately for survival, cold, hungry and decreasing in size every day. The year was 1812. The army was the remnants of Napoleon's expeditionary force which was withdrawing from Russia after receiving its worst defeat. The war with Russia turned out to be a fiasco for Napoleon and had a devastating effect on his career.6. Development by Comparison and ContrastThe method of comparison and contrast is often used. We compare the present and the past of China, the cultures of the East and the West, Chinese and English. By comparing and contrasting we may get a clearer picture of things.Strictly speaking, a comparison points out the similarities between two or more persons or things of the same class, while a contrast, the differences between them. In practice, however, comparison and contrast often appear together, because people generally compare two things that are similar in certain ways and different in others. There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs of comparison and contrast. One way is to examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other. In this way, the aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in the same order. This method is called block comparison or block contrast. The other way is to examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point. This method is called alternating comparison or alternating contrast.The following paragraph is a good example of alternating comparison.The same qualities that make people good house guests make them good hospital patients. Good house guests can expect a reasonable amount of service and effort on their behalf, and hospital patients can also. Guests have to adjust to what is for them a change, and certainly hospital patients must do the same. No one appreciates a complaining, unpleasant, unappreciative house guest, and the hospital staff is no exception. House guests who expect vast changes to be made for their benefit are not popular for long. Certainly nurses and other personnel with their routines feel the same way about patients in their care. Just as house guests must make adjustments to enjoy their visits, so patients must make adjustments to make their stays reasonably pleasant and satisfying under the circumstances.The television western of several years ago differs greatly from the western of today. Ten years ago, for example, the swindler or bank robber in a western could be identified not by the crimes he committed so much as by the color of the clothing he wore - which was black. Today the television western reveals the villain by mannerisms and personality. At one time, every western had a superhuman, invincible "good guy" with whom the viewers could identify because he too lived out on the farm. Currently, the central figures of the west are average people who may live on a middleclass street in any part of the country. They are characters like the bus drivers, mailclerks and accountants who live next door to you in suburbia. At night they come in off the horses to ride the television range. They become persons who respect others, drink and smoke only just a bit, and are able not only to outshoot the "bad guy", but also to outsmart him with good common sense.Although Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee were fierce adversaries during the Civil War, their lives, both military and nonmilitary, had a great deal in common. Grant descended from a family whose members participated in the American Revolution. He received his commission of second lieutenant from West Point and served in the Spanish-American War. He was later summoned by President Lincoln to assume command of the Union Forces during the Civil War. After the Civil War, Grant suffered financial problems and was forced to declare bankruptcy. Lee also descended from a family which engaged in the American Revolution. He, too, received his commission from West Point and later fought in Mexico during the Spanish-American War. His fame as a military strategist during the Civil War, when he was the commander of the Confederate armies, is well known. Although it is not always pointed out by historians, he, like Grant, had financial difficulties after the Civil War and was compelled to declare bankruptcy. By securing a post as president of Washington College, he was able to avoid additional poverty.There is a special form of comparison - analogy. Analogy is tracing a striking likeness between unlike things.Electricity is transferred from one place to another in much the same manner as water. A water pipe performs the same function as a length of wire. The pipe carries water to its point of use in the same manner as wire carries electricity to its point of use. A blown fuse results from the same thing as a burst water pipe. Both give out due to extreme pressure applied to the walls of the carrier. A switch is to electricity what a faucet is to water. Both of them control the flow of the substance. Since electricity and water have some common properties, understanding the job of the plumber will help understanding the work of the electrician.- John BrowerAnalogies are especially helpful in explaining abstract ideas, for they relate ideas that cannot be experienced through the senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, or taste, to a sense experience, thus making the ideas easy to understand.Some old people are oppressed by the fear of death ... The best way to overcome it - so at least it seems to me - is to make your interests gradually wider and more impersonal, until bit by bit the walls of the ego recede, and your life becomes increasingly merged in the universal life. An individual human existence should be like a river - small at first, narrowly contained within its banks, and rushing passionately past rocks and over waterfalls. Gradually the river grows wider, the banks recede, the waters flow more quietly and in the end, without any visible break, they become merged in the sea, and painlessly lose their individual being. The man who, in old age, can see his life in this way, will not suffer from the fear of death, since the things he cares for will continue....- Bertrand Russell7. Development by Cause and EffectOne might wonder why, after the Norman Conquest, French did not become the national language, replacing English entirely. The reason is that the Conquest was not a national migration, as the earlier Anglo-Saxon invasion had been. Great numbers of Normans came to England, but they came as rulers and landlords. French became the language of the court, the language of the nobility, the language of polite society, the language of literature. But it did not replace English as the language of the people. There must always have been hundreds of towns and villages in which French was never heard except when visitors of high station passed through.This surge of demand for oil will soon begin to send shock waves through the American economy and transportation system. The impact of these tremors can already be anticipated: to the consumer they signal the end of a long love affair with the car, and to Detroit they offer an early warning that its 1985 growth aims are dangerously unrealistic. Unless we exercise foresight and devise growth-limits policies for the auto industry, events will thrust us into a crisis that will lead to a substantial erosion of domestic oil supply as well as the independence it provides us with, and a level of petroleum imports that could cost as much as $20 to $30 billion per year. Moreover, we would still be depleting our remaining oil reserves at an unacceptable rate, and scrambling for petroleum substitutes, with enormous potential damage to the environment.8. Development by ClassificationTo classify is to sort things into categories according to their characteristics. Essential to a good classification is parallelism. T here are three kinds of book owners. The first has all the standard sets and best-sellers - unread, untouched. (This deluded individual owns woodpulp and ink, not books.) The second has a great many books - afew of them read through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean and shiny as the day they were bought. (This person would probably like to make books his own, but is restrained by a false respect for their physical appearance.) The third has a few books or many - every one of them dog-eared and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked and scribbled in from front to back. (This man owns books.)9. Development by DefinitionThere are three basic ways to define a word or term: to give a synonym, to use a sentence (often with an attributive clause), and to write a paragraph or even an essay.When we give a definition, we should observe certain principles.First, we should avoid circular definitions.Second, we should avoid long lists of synonyms if the term to be defined is an abstract one.Third, we should avoid loaded definitions.A "liberated woman" is simply a woman who controls her own life, rather than allowing it to be controlled by other people, traditions, or expectations. A "liberated woman" can be found pursuing any line of work, including housework, or no work at all. She may or may not be married; she may or may not have borne children. She may belong to any race; she may have attained any age. She may be poor or wealthy, educated or illiterate. She need have only one trait in common with her "liberated sisters": she makes her own choices, whether they be the colors on her walls or the advanced degrees she seeks. She acts of her own volition, responsible to herself, and not out of fear of what her mother, lover, or neighbor might say.2. Types of OutlinesAn outline like the above one subdivides the controlling idea or thesis of the essay into smaller parts, which are then developed into separate paragraphs. Roman and Arabic numerals and letters of the alphabet are generally used to number and order ideas as in the following:Thesis (controlling idea)Ⅰ. IntroductionⅡ. Main ideaA. Sub-ideaB. Sub-idea1. Supporting detail2. Supporting detaila. Fact 1b. Fact 2Ⅲ. Main ideaA. Sub-ideaB. Sub-idea1. Supporting detail2. Supporting detail3. Supporting detailC. Sub-ideaⅣ. ConclusionThere are two commonly used types of outlines: the topic outline and the sentence outline. All entries in a topic outline consist of nouns and their modifiers, or their equivalents, that is, gerund phrases or infinitive phrases, whereas the entries in a sentence outline are complete sentences. A topic outline is brief and clear, and it gives an instant overview of the entire paper. A sentence outline, on the other hand, provides a more detailed plan of the paper. Compare the following two outlines for a paper on foreign trade:A Topic OutlineThesis: Foreign trade is beneficial to and indispensable for all nations.Ⅰ. Introduction: the foundation of foreign tradeⅡ. The necessity of visible tradeA. Lack of certain commoditiesB. Insufficiency of particular itemsC. Comparative advantage in certain itemsD. Latest innovations and different styles of commoditiesE. The importance of a favorable balance of tradeⅢ. The necessity of invisible trade - exchange of services between nationsA. TransportationB. InsuranceC. TourismD. TechnologyⅣ. Conclusion: the purpose of foreign trade and the importance of the balance of paymentsA Sentence OutlineThesis: Foreign trade is beneficial to and indispensable for all nations.Ⅰ. Introduction: the utilization of different economic resources and the development of different skills form the foundation of foreign tradeⅡ. Trade in commodities (visible trade) is necessary between nations.A. No nation has all the commodities it needs.B. A nation may not have enough of certain commodities.C. A nation may sell certain commodities at a profit.D. Latest innovations and different styles of commodities may make foreign trade necessary.E. All nations strive to maintain a favorable balance of trade so as to be assured of the means to buy necessary goods.Ⅲ. Exchange of services between nations (invisible trade) is part of foreign trade.A. Nations vie in providing transportation for foreign trade.B. Prudent exporters purchase insurance for their cargoes.C. Tourism brings a nation huge profits.D. Technology is also exported and imported.Ⅳ. Conclusion: the purpose of foreign trade is to earn money for necessary imports and it is important to keep the balance of payments.(1) Description of a personIn describing a person, the writer should not merely give details of his appearance. He should try to reveal the person's character, thoughts, and feelings, which may be shown in what the person does and says, or in how he behaves to others. And it is important to grasp the characteristic features that distinguish him from all other people.A. Kittredge of HarvardThe sight of him as he came to the ten-o'clock class was in itself something that had to be recognized as dramatic. In the pleasant autumn or spring, men stood high on the steps or out on the turf in front and watched in the direction of Christ Church to see who could catch the first glimpse of him."There he comes!" somebody called, and then everybody who was in a position to see watched him as he hurried breezily along - a graceful, tallish man in very light gray suit and gray fedora hat, with a full square beard at least as white as his suit, who moved with energy, and smoked passionately at a big cigar. Students used to say that he smoked an entire cigar while he walked the short distance along the iron fence of the old burying ground and across the street to Johnston Gate. But as he came through the gate he tossed the remnant of his cigar into the shrubbery with a bit of a flourish, and the students still outside hurried in and scrambled up the long stairway in order to be in their places - as he liked - before he himself entered. If any of them were still on the stairway when he came in at the outer door like a gust, they gave way and he pushed up past them, and into the good-sized room and down the aisle to the front, threw his hat on the table in the corner, mounted the two steps to the platform, looked about with a commanding eye, and there was sudden silence and unrestrained expectancy.- Student(2) Description of a placePlaces may be described for their own sake, as in essays on visits to famous scenic places, but also for the purpose of revealing the personality and character of a person, or creating a feeling or mood. As in describing a person, in describing a place one should mainly write about the things that make it different from other places.2. NarrationTo narrate is to give an account of an event or a series of events. Narration often goes hand in hand with description. When planning a narrative, the writer should consider these five aspects: context, selection of details, organization, point of view, and purpose.(1) ContextWhen, where, and to whom the action in a narrative happened is often made clear at the beginning of the narrative.(2) Selection of detailsA narrative is made up of details. Only relevant details, or things that contribute to bringing out the main ideas of the narrative, are useful and effective.(3) OrganizationEvents in a narrative are usually related in chronological order, that is, in the order in which they occur. But it is also possible, and sometimes preferable, to start from the middle or even the end of the story with the event that is most important or most likely to arouse the reader's interest, and then go back to the beginning by using flashbacks.(4) Point of viewA story can be told either in the first person or in the third person, A first-person narrative may be more graphic and lifelike. But the scope of the narrative may be limited, for it is difficult to recount events that happen in different places at the same time. A third-person narrative is free from this limitation, and it may seem more objective.(5) PurposeThe writer may want to prove a theory, to illustrate a concept, to praise a virtue, to condemn a vice, etc.Part SixThe Summary and Book ReportⅠ. The SummaryA summary is a brief restatement of the essential thought of a longer composition. When one writes a summary, one should not interpret or comment. All one has to do is to give the gist of the author's exact and essential meaning.2. Procedure(1) Reading.A. First read the passage through carefully to get the gist of it.B. Give a title to your summary. Think of some word, phrase or short sentence that will sum up briefly the main idea of the passage.C. You should now be in a position to decide what parts of the passage are essential and what parts are comparatively unimportant and can be omitted without much loss.D. Jot down in brief notes the main points - the subject, the title, and the details which you consider essential or important.(2) Writing.A. A summary should usually be about one-third to one-fourth as long as the original passage.B. The summary should be all in your own words.C. You should follow the logical order of the original passage, if possible (and desirable). Ideas and facts need not be rearranged.D. The summary should be self-containedE. Summary writing is an exercise in compression. In writing a summary, you may:- Omit the details.- Reduce the examples.- Simplify the descriptions.- Eliminate all repetitions.- Compress wordy sentences and change phrases to words. Here are a few examples:- Use general words instead of specific words. Here is an example:- Use the shortest possible transitions.- Put the main points of a dialogue in indirect speech.For the summary of a novel or a play, an outline of the plot is sufficient. The summary may be only one-hundredth or even one-thousandth of the length of the original book. Usually, it is written in the present tense.Ⅱ. The Book ReportGenerally speaking, a book report consists of the following three main parts: information about the author and his times, a summary of the book, and comments on it.A brief account of the author's life should be given together with a description of his times. The latter shouldinclude the circumstances that led to the writing of the book under discussion and the historical and social background related to the content of the book. To make these things clear, the writer perhaps needs to read some reference material, such as biographies of the author and histories of the period described in the book.As has been mentioned in the previous section, a summary should be self-contained, clear, and easy to understand. Above all, it should be objective. Comments on and criticisms of the book should not be mixed with the summary; they can be left to the third part. The summary of a novel or a play is usually written in the present tense, while that of nonfiction, in the tense of the original work: for example, the past tense should be used for a history, and the present for a scientific work.Comments on and evaluation of the book form the third and most important part of a book report. In this part the writer expresses his or her own views on the book, names its merits and demerits, and discusses its relevance to the present time. The discussion should of course center on the content of the book, but the author's style and techniques of presentation, if interesting, can also be touched upon.11。
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In each of the following paragraphs, cross out the sentence that weakens unity:
Exercises
Parrots and mynah birds are famous for their ability to reproduce human speech. Mynah birds can imitate human vowel sounds better than parrots, but parrots can remember a large vocabulary. The record is 100 words. The parrot, with its vivid green and red feathers, is more brightly colored than the black mynah bird. Many parrots learn to associate particular words with specific actions. They may say “goodbye” when someone leaves the room or “hello” when the telephone rings. It is difficult , however, to show that such words have a real meaning for the parrot. They certainly do not serve among parrots for communication, which, after all, is the function of language.