文献翻译1
外文文献及翻译
外文文献及翻译1. 文献："The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health"翻译：运动对心理健康的影响Abstract: This article explores the effects of exercise on mental health. The author discusses various studies that have been conducted on this topic, and presents evidence to support the claim that exercise can have positive impacts on mental well-being. The article also examines the mechanisms through which exercise affects mental health, such as the release of endorphins and the reduction of stress hormones. Overall, the author concludes that exercise is an effective strategy for improving mental health and recommends incorporating physical activity into daily routines.摘要：本文探讨了运动对心理健康的影响。
作者讨论了在这个主题上进行的各种研究，并提出证据支持运动对心理健康有积极影响的观点。
该文章还探讨了运动如何影响心理健康的机制，如内啡肽的释放和压力激素的减少。
总的来说，作者得出结论，运动是改善心理健康的有效策略，并建议将体育活动纳入日常生活。
2. 文献： "The Benefits of Bilingualism"翻译：双语能力的好处Abstract: This paper examines the benefits of bilingualism. The author presents research findings that demonstrate the cognitiveadvantages of being bilingual, such as enhanced problem-solving skills and improved attention control. The article also explores the social and cultural benefits of bilingualism, such as increased cultural awareness and the ability to communicate with people from different backgrounds. Additionally, the author discusses the positive effects of bilingualism on mental health, highlighting its role in delaying the onset of cognitive decline and in providing a buffer against age-related memory loss. Overall, the author concludes that bilingualism offers a range of advantages and recommends promoting bilingual education and language learning. 摘要：本文研究了双语能力的好处。
文献翻译参考
毕业设计（论文）译文及原稿译文题目一贸易能带来经济增长？原稿题目一Does Trade Cause Growth？原稿出处一Frankel J , and Romer D .Does Trade Cause Growth ? [J] . American Economic Review . 1999,89 (3): 379 -399.贸易能带来经济增长？1.构建模型A背景我们基本的想法可以表述为使用三个简单的等式模型。
首先，国家i的平均收入的函数包括：与其他国家经济交往（简称“国际贸易”），国内经济交往（“国内贸易”）和其他相关因素。
（1）.这里是个人收入，是国际贸易，是国内贸易，是与收入相关的其他影响因素。
已正如大量的文献对贸易描述的那样，贸易可以通过很多途径影响收入，贸易通过比较优势，开发来自大市场的递增收益，通过交流和旅游交换思想，通过投资和开发新产品传播科技，从而使得专业分工更加显著。
因为各种因素相互作用共同促进，我们的方法不能确定具体是哪种贸易方式影响收入。
另外两个方程式包含了国际贸易和国内贸易的决定因素。
国际贸易的函数包括，是一个国家与另一个国家的接近度和其他因素。
（2）类似的，国内贸易的函数包括国家大小，和其他因素。
（3）三个等式中的剩余因素，和，很有可能相互关联。
比如说，那些拥有良好的交通系统或者政府的政策的国家，能够促进竞争并能够依赖市场分配资源，具有地理优势给他们带来大量的国际和国内贸易，贸易又给他们带来了大量的收入。
我们假设分析的关键是判定国家的地理特征（他们的和）与另外的等式（1）和（3）是没有关联的。
相似度和规模不会被收入或者其他因素影响，而政府政策可以影响收入。
我们回顾引言，除了作用于该国居民人数与外国人或者其他人之间的相互影响，我们很难想出有效的方法证明相似度和规模可以影响收入。
给出P和S与不相关联的假设。
通过变量Y,T,W,P和S，我们可以计算公式（1）：P，S与T，W有关[通过公式(2)和公式 (3)] ，并且与无关（通过鉴别假设）。
外文文献翻译译稿
外文文献翻译译稿1可用性和期望值来自Willliam S.Green, Patrick W.Jordan.产品的愉悦：超越可用性根据人机工程学会（HFES）的观点，人机工程学着眼于“发现和共享可用于各种系统和设备设计的、关于人的特点的知识”。
人们通常只是把它作为生物力学和人体测量所关注的内容，实际上它是从更广泛的意义上的一种对人（产品用户）的全面和综合的理解。
HFES从二战中有军方从事的系统分析中发展而来。
其中的三种主要研究的是人体测量、复杂信息的解释和管理，以及在部队和装备调配中应用的系统分析。
系统分析在尺度和复杂性方面跨度很大，大的系统分析有类似于诺曼底登陆准备的大型系统规划，小到去理解如何从合理性和规模的角度才最佳的布置和装备人员。
诺曼底登陆是20世纪最复杂的事件之一。
他要求建立一个在战斗开始之前还不确定的庞大的人员和物资的合理分配系统。
在更小的规模上，装备和军事人物的布置意味着如何去组织、训练和安排战士，最大限度的发挥他们的长处。
士兵必须迅速地接受训练，并且能够有效地使用和维护在二战中发展起来的一系列技术装备。
其中，对于飞行员、潜艇人员和坦克驾驶员有神采的限制。
复杂的新装备的开发要求找到最好的税收、密码便医院、破译人员、雷达和声纳操作员、轰炸机驾驶员和机组人员。
在战后，随着公司及其产品在尺度、领域和复杂性方面的增长，很多系统分析人员在商用领域找到了发展机会。
尽管是战后的发展才导致了1957年人机工程协会（HFES）的建立，但人机研究的起源可以追溯到大批量生产方式的成型阶段，是当时提高生产效率的要求。
随着工作方式从手工生产和农业生产中的转移，新的工厂工作的概念逐步发展起来。
福特的流水生产线和泰勒的效率理论开始对生产的规划和教育产生影响。
即使在家庭生活中，妇女们也开始接受了现代家庭管理理论，并运用这些理论来组织和规划家庭。
在20世纪末，一种涵盖面更广的人机工程正在发展之中。
新的人机工程学是为了适应已经被广泛意识到的对用户行为模式更深入的需求而诞生的，它开始应用定型研究方法，并探索人的情感和认知因素。
英文文献全文翻译
英文文献全文翻译全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：LeGuin, Ursula K. (December 18, 2002). "Dancing at the Edge of the World: Thoughts on Words, Women, Places".《世界边缘的舞蹈：关于语言、女性和地方的思考》Introduction:In "Dancing at the Edge of the World," Ursula K. LeGuin explores the intersection of language, women, and places. She writes about the power of words, the role of women in society, and the importance of our connection to the places we inhabit. Through a series of essays, LeGuin invites readers to think critically about these topics and consider how they shape our understanding of the world.Chapter 1: LanguageConclusion:第二篇示例：IntroductionEnglish literature translation is an important field in the study of language and culture. The translation of English literature involves not only the linguistic translation of words or sentences but also the transfer of cultural meaning and emotional resonance. This article will discuss the challenges and techniques of translating English literature, as well as the importance of preserving the original author's voice and style in the translated text.Challenges in translating English literature第三篇示例：Title: The Importance of Translation of Full English TextsTranslation plays a crucial role in bringing different languages and cultures together. More specifically, translating full English texts into different languages allows for access to valuable information and insights that may otherwise be inaccessible to those who do not speak English. In this article, we will explore the importance of translating full English texts and the benefits it brings.第四篇示例：Abstract: This article discusses the importance of translating English literature and the challenges translators face when putting together a full-text translation. It highlights the skills and knowledge needed to accurately convey the meaning and tone of the original text while preserving its cultural and literary nuances. Through a detailed analysis of the translation process, this article emphasizes the crucial role translators play in bridging the gap between languages and making English literature accessible to a global audience.IntroductionEnglish literature is a rich and diverse field encompassing a wide range of genres, styles, and themes. From classic works by Shakespeare and Dickens to contemporary novels by authors like J.K. Rowling and Philip Pullman, English literature offers something for everyone. However, for non-English speakers, accessing and understanding these works can be a challenge. This is where translation comes in.Translation is the process of rendering a text from one language into another, while striving to preserve the original meaning, tone, and style of the original work. Translating afull-length English text requires a deep understanding of both languages, as well as a keen awareness of the cultural andhistorical context in which the work was written. Additionally, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to convey the beauty and complexity of the original text in a new language.Challenges of Full-text TranslationTranslating a full-length English text poses several challenges for translators. One of the most significant challenges is capturing the nuances and subtleties of the original work. English literature is known for its rich and layered language, with intricate wordplay, metaphors, and symbolism that can be difficult to convey in another language. Translators must carefully consider each word and phrase in order to accurately convey the author's intended meaning.Another challenge of full-text translation is maintaining the author's unique voice and style. Each writer has a distinct way of expressing themselves, and a good translator must be able to replicate this voice in the translated text. This requires a deep understanding of the author's writing style, as well as the ability to adapt it to the conventions of the target language.Additionally, translators must be mindful of the cultural and historical context of the original work. English literature is deeply rooted in the history and traditions of the English-speaking world, and translators must be aware of these influences in orderto accurately convey the author's intended message. This requires thorough research and a nuanced understanding of the social, political, and economic factors that shaped the work.Skills and Knowledge RequiredTo successfully translate a full-length English text, translators must possess a wide range of skills and knowledge. First and foremost, translators must be fluent in both the source language (English) and the target language. This includes a strong grasp of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary in both languages, as well as an understanding of the cultural and historical context of the works being translated.Translators must also have a keen eye for detail and a meticulous approach to their work. Every word, sentence, and paragraph must be carefully considered and translated with precision in order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. This requires strong analytical skills and a deep understanding of the nuances and complexities of language.Furthermore, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to craft a compelling and engaging translation. Translating a full-length English text is not simply a matter of substituting one word for another; it requires creativity, imagination, and a deep appreciation for the beauty of language. Translators mustbe able to capture the rhythm, cadence, and tone of the original work in their translation, while also adapting it to the conventions of the target language.ConclusionIn conclusion, translating a full-length English text is a complex and challenging task that requires a high level of skill, knowledge, and creativity. Translators must possess a deep understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as the cultural and historical context of the work being translated. Through their careful and meticulous work, translators play a crucial role in making English literature accessible to a global audience, bridging the gap between languages and cultures. By preserving the beauty and complexity of the original text in their translations, translators enrich our understanding of literature and bring the works of English authors to readers around the world.。
文献翻译-车床1
附录附录1英文原文Lathes are widely used in industry to produce all kinds of machined parts. Some are general purpose machines, and others are used to perform highly specialized operations.Engine LathesEngine lathes, of course, are general-purpose machine used in production and maintenance shop all over the world. Sizes range from small bench models to huge heavy duty pieces of equipment. Many of the larger lathes come equipped with attachments not commonly found in the ordinary shop, such as automatic stops for the carriage.Tracer or Duplicating LathesThe tracer or duplicating lathe is designed to produce irregularly shaped parts automatically. The basic operation of this lathe is as fallows. A template of either a flat or three-dimensional shape is placed in a holder. A guide or pointer then moves along this shape and its movement controls that of the cutting tool. The duplication may include a square or tapered shoulder, grooves, tapers, and contours. Work such as motor shafts, spindles, pistons, rods, car axles, turbine shafts, and a variety of other objects can be turned using this type of lathe.Turret LathesWhen machining a complex workpiece on a general-purpose lathe, a great deal of time is spent changing and adjusting the several tools that are needed to complete the work. One of the first adaptations of the engine lathe which made it more suitable to mass production was the addition of multi-tool turret in place of the tailstock. Although most turrets have six stations, some have as many as eight.High-production turret lathes are very complicated machines with a wide variety of power accessories. The principal feature of all turret lathes, however, is that the tools can perform a consecutive serials of operations in proper sequence. Once the tools have been set and adjusted, little skill is required to run out duplicate parts.Automatic Screw MachinesScrew machines are similar in construction to turret lathes, except that their heads aredesigned to hold and feed long bars of stock. Otherwise, there is little different between them. Both are designed for multiple tooling, and both have adaptations for identical work. Originally, the turret lathe was designed as a chucking lathe for machining small castings, forgings, and irregularly shaped workpieces.The first screw machines were designed to feed bar stock and wire used in making small screw parts. Today, however, the turret lathe is frequently used with a collet attachment, and the automatic screw machine can be equipped with a chuck to hold castings.The single-spindle automatic screw machine, as its name implies, machines work on only one bar of stock at a time. A bar 16 to 20 feet long is fed through the headstock spindle and is held firmly by a collect. The machining operations are done by cutting tools mounted on the turret and on the cross slide. When the machine is in operation, the spindle and the stock are rotated at selected speeds for different operations. If required, rapid reversal of spindle direction is also possible.In the single-spindle automatic screw machine, a specific length of stock is automatically fed through the spindle to a machining area. At this point, the turret and cross slide move into position and automatically perform whatever operations are required. After the machined piece is cut off, stock is again fed into the machining area and the entire cycle is repeated.Multiple-spindle automatic screw machines have from four to eight spindles located around a spindle carrier. Long bars of stock, supported at the rear of the machine, pass through these hollow spindles and are gripped by collets. With the single spindle machine, the turret indexes around the spindle. When one tool on the turret is working, the others are not. With a multiple spindle machine, however, the spindle itself indexes. Thus the bars of stock are carried to the various end working and side working tools. Each tool operates in only one position, but all tools operate simultaneously. Therefore, four to eight workpieces can be machined at the same time.Vertical Turret LathesA vertical turret lathe is basically a turret lathe that has been stood on its headstock end. It is designed to perform a variety of turning operations. It consists of a turret, a revolving table, and a side head with a square turret for holding additional tools. Operations performed by any of the tools mounted on the turret or side head can be controlled through the use of stops.Rolling Contact BearingsThe concern of a machine designer with ball and roller bearings is fivefold as follows:（a）life in relation to load; （b）stiffness, i. e. deflections under load; （c）friction; （d）wear; （e）noise. For moderate loads and speeds the correct selection of a standard bearing on the basis of load rating will become important where loads are high, although this is usually of less magnitude than that of the shafts or other components associated with the bearing. Where speeds are high special cooling arrangements become necessary which may increase frictional drag. Wear is primarily associated with the introduction of contaminants, and sealing arrangements must be chosen with regard to the hostility of the environment.Because the high quality and low price of ball and roller bearings depends on quantity production, the task of the machine designer becomes one of selection rather than design. Rolling-contact bearings are generally made with steel which is through-hardened to about 900 HV, although in many mechanisms special races are not provided and the interacting surfaces are hardened to about 600 HV. It is not surprising that, owing to the high stresses involved, a predominant form of failure should be metal fatigue, and a good deal of work is based on accepted values of life and it is general practice in the bearing industry to define the load capacity of the bearing as that value below which 90 per cent of a batch will exceed a life of one million revolutions.Notwithstanding the fact that responsibility for the basic design of ball and roller bearings rests with the bearing manufacturer, the machine designer must form a correct appreciation of the duty to be performed by the bearing and be concerned not only with bearing selection but with the conditions for correct installation.The fit of the bearing races onto the shaft or onto the housings is of critical importance because of their combined effect on the internal clearance of the bearing as well as preserving the desired degree of interference fit. Inadequate interference can induce serious trouble from fretting corrosion. The inner race is frequently located axially by abutting against a shoulder.A radius at this point is essential for the avoidance of stress concentration and ball races are provided with a radius or chamfer to allow space for this.Where life is not the determining factor in design, it is usual to determine maximum loading by the amount to which a bearing will deflect under load. Thus the concept of “static load-carrying capacity” is understood to mean the load that can be applied to a bearing, which is either stationary or subject to slight swiveling motions, without impairing its running qualities for subsequent rotational motion. This has been determined by practical experience as the load which when applied to a bearing results in a total deformation of therolling-element diameter. This would correspond to a permanent deformation of 0.0025 mm for a ball 25 mm in diameter.The successful functioning of many bearings depends upon providing them with adequate protection against their environment, and in some circumstances the environment must be protected from lubricants or products of deterioration of the bearing design. Moreover, seals which are applied to moving parts for any purpose are of interest to tribologists because they are components of bearing systems and can only be designed satisfactorily on the basis of the appropriate bearing theory.Notwithstanding their importance, the amount of research effort that has been devoted to the understanding of the behavior of seals has been small when compared with that devoted to other aspects of bearing technology.Machining CentersMany of today’s more sophisticated lathes are called machining centers since they are capable of performing, in addition to the normal turning operations, certain milling and drilling operations. Basically, a machining center can be thought of as being a combination turret lathe and milling machine. Additional features are sometimes included by manufacturers to increase the versatility of their machines.Numerical ControlOne of the most fundamental concepts in the area of advanced manufacturing technologies is numerical control （NC）. Prior to the advent of NC, all machine tools were manually operated and controlled .Among the many limitations associated with manual control machine tools, perhaps none is more prominent than the limitation of operator skills. With manual control, the quality of the product is directly related to and limited to the skills of the operator. Numerical control represents the first major step away from human control of machine tools.Numerical control means the control of machine tools and other manufacturing systems through the use of prerecorded, written symbolic instructions. Rather than operating a machine tool, an NC technician writes a program that issues operational instructions to the machine tool. For a machine tool to be numerically controlled, it must be interfaced with a device for accepting and decoding the programmed instructions, known as a reader.Numerical control was developed to overcome the limitation of human operators, and ithas done so. Numerical control machines are more accurate than manually operated machines, they can produce parts more uniformly, they are faster, and the long-run tooling costs are lower. The development of NC led to the development of several other innovations in manufacturing technology:1.Electrical discharge machining.ser cutting.3.Electron beam welding.Numerical control has also made machine tools more versatile than their manually operated predecessors. An NC machine tool can automatically produce a wide variety of parts, each involving an assortment of widely varied and complex machining processes. Numerical control has allowed manufacturers to undertake the production of products that would not have been feasible from an economic perspective using manually controlled machine tools and processes.Like so many advanced technologies, NC was born in the laboratories of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The concept of NC was developed in the early 1950s with funding provided by the U. S. Air force. In its earliest stages, NC machines were able to make straight cuts efficiently and effectively.However, curved paths were a problem because the machine tool had to be programmed to undertake a series of horizontal and vertical steps to produce a curve. The shorter is the straight lines making up the steps, the smoother is the curve. Each line segment in the steps had to be calculated.This problem led to the development in 1959 of the Automatically Programmed Tools （APT）language. This is a special programming language for NC that uses statements similar to English language to define the part geometry, describe the cutting tool configuration, and specify the necessary motions. The development of the APT language was a major step forward in the further development of NC technology. The original NC systems were vastly different from those used today. The machines had hardwired logic circuits. The instructional programs were written on punched paper, which was later to be replaced by magnetic plastic tape. A tape reader was used to interpret the instructions written on the tape for the machine. Together, all of this represented a giant step forward in the control of machine tools. However, there were a number of problems with NC at this point in its development.A major problem was the fragility of the punched paper tape medium. It was common for the paper tape containing the programmed instructions to break or tear during a machiningprocess. This problem was exacerbated by the fact that each successive time a part was produced on a machine tool, the paper tape carrying the programmed instructions had to be rerun through the reader. If it was necessary to produce 100 copies of a given part, it was also necessary to run the paper tape through the reader 100 separate times. Fragile paper tapes simply could not withstand the rigors of a shop floor environment and this kind of repeated use.This led to the development of a special magnetic plastic tape. Whereas the paper tape carried the programmed instructions as a series of holes punched in the tape, the plastic tape carried the instructions as a series of holes punched in the tape, the plastic tape carried the instructions as a series of magnetic dots. The plastic tape was much stronger than the paper taps, which solved the problem of frequent tearing and breakage. However, it still left two other problems.The most important of these was that it was difficult or impossible to change the instructions entered on the tape. To make even the most minor adjustments in a program of instructions, it was necessary to interrupt machining operations and make a new tape .It was also still necessary to run the tape through the reader as many times as there were parts to be produced. Fortunately, computer technology became a reality and soon solved the problems of NC associated with punched paper and plastic tape.The development of a concept known as direct numerical control （DNC）solved the paper and plastic tape problems associated with numerical control by simply eliminating tape as the medium for carrying the programmed instructions. In direct numerical control .machine tools are tied, via a data transmission link, to a host computer. Programs for operating the machine tools are stored in the host computer and fed to the machine tool as needed via the data transmission linkage. Direct numerical control represented a major step forward over punched tape and plastic tape. However, it is subject to the same limitations as all technologies that depend on a host computer. When the lost computer goes down, the machine tools also experience downtime. This problem led to the development of computer numerical control.The development of the microprocessor allowed for the development of programmable logic controllers （PLCs）and microcomputers. These two technologies allowed for the development of computer numerical control （CNC）.With CNC, each machine tool has a PLC or a microcomputer that serves the same purpose. This allows programs to be input and stored at each individual machine tool. It also allows programs to be developed off-line anddownloaded at the individual machine tool. CNC solved the problems associated with downtime of the host computer, but it introduced another known as data management. The same program might be loaded on ten different microcomputers with no communication among them. This problem is in the process of being solved by local area networks that connect microcomputers for better data management.附录2中文翻译车床车床在工业生产中被广泛用来加工各种类型的机械零件。
英文文献翻译1
By: Rhonda N. T. NeseEducational and Community Supports, University of Oregon;Robert H. HornerEducational and Community Supports, University of OregonCeleste Rossetto DickeyPlacer County Office of Education, Auburn, CaliforniaBrianna StillerEugene School District 4J, Eugene, OregonAnne TomlanovichEugene School District 4J, Eugene, OregonAcknowledgement: This research was supported by the Office of Special Education Programs US Department of Education (H326S980003). Opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position of the US Department of Education, and such endorsements should not be inferred.Bullying remains a major concern in schools ( Swearer & Espelage, 2011). Behaviors such as physical aggression, taunting, teasing, name-calling, threatening, social exclusion, and harassment have negative effects both socially and academically for students engaging in the behaviors and those targeted ( Arseneault et al., 2006; Gini & Pozzoli, 2009). Prevalence estimates suggest that bullying behavior is not limited to an isolated few students, but occurs across all strata and subgroups in most schools ( Bradshaw & Waasdorp, 2011). A quarter to a third of students in elementary and middle schools report that they engage in or experience the effects of bullying behaviors ( Cook, Williams, Guerra, & Kim, 2010). Boys are more likely than girls to perform bullying behaviors ( Cook et al., 2010), and bullying is most prevalent in middle school ( Nansel et al., 2001; Pellegrini et al., 2010), especially at points of transition from elementary to middle school, and middle school to high school.Many programs have been proposed to prevent or reduce bullying behavior in schools ( Vernberg & Biggs, 2010; Waasdorp, Bradshaw, & Leaf, 2012). Although evidence supports reduction in student-reported bullying behaviors for some programs ( Olweus, 1995, 1997), the support for formal strategies that reduce observed patterns of bullying behavior is limited ( Merrell, Gueldner, Ross, & Isava, 2008; Vernberg & Biggs, 2010). In fact there is growing concern that programs centered around teaching students about bullying, and then encouraging them to reduce those behaviors, may inadvertently result in increased incidences of bullying ( Dishion, McCord, & Poulin, 1999).Ross and Horner (2009) report one approach to bully prevention that follows guidelines encouraged by Bradshaw and Waasdorp (2011) to (a) build a positive, school-wide social climate, (b) teach students constructive responses to minimize the social rewards of bullying behavior, and (c) provide consistent staff responses to instances of bullying. Ross and Horner (2009) examined bullying behaviors across three elementary schools within a multiple baseline research design in which two children from each school who were identified as engaging in bullying behaviors were observed on the playground over 60 school days. Data were collected on the incidence of verbal or physical aggression toward peers, and the responses from recipients and bystanders following an instance of verbal or physical aggression. The intervention, Bully Prevention in Positive Behavior Supports ( BP-PBS: Ross, Horner, & Stiller, 2008), involved teaching all students first to identify “respectful” behavior. The term “bullying,” however, was never part of the student instruction.Building from the conceptual logic that a high proportion of bullying behaviors endure because they result in social attention from recipients or bystanders, the intervention then focused on teaching all students in the school three routines: (a) a “stop” signal that they could use either as a recipient or bystander when they encountered verbal or physical aggression, (b) a “stopping routine” that should be followed if someone asks you to stop, and (c) a protocol for obtaining adult support if someone does not stop when asked ( Ross et al., 2008). Results from the study demonstrated a 72% reduction in verbal and/or physical aggression on the playground. In addition, the descriptive data indicated an increased use of the “stop” routine and decreased conditional probability that verbal or physical aggression would be followed by peer social rewards.The present study builds from these efforts to develop a social–ecological approach to bully prevention based on behavioral theory ( Bradshaw & Waasdorp, 2011; Waasdorp et al., 2012). The specific goal of the present analysis was to assess the effectiveness of the Ross et al. (2008) approach when it was adapted to fit the social context of middle schools. The Bullying and Harassment Prevention in Positive Behavior Support: Expect Respect program ( Expect Respect; Stiller, Nese, Tomlonovich, Horner & Ross, 2013) incorporates the same basic instructional goals used by Ross et al. (2008) but with three major adaptations: First, a student focus group component was built into Expect Respect to obtain student input about (a) the student perception about the significance of aggression, harassment, and intimidation in the school; (b) a socially acceptable way to del iver a “stop” message that could be used by all students; (c) a socially acceptable “stopping routine” that could be taught to all students; (d) a “bystander” routine to be used by witnesses of disrespectful behaviors; and (e) the parameters of adult responses when instances of bullying are reported by students. The purpose of the student focus group is to adapt the messages of the program to the local school context, as research has shown that information gathered from focus groups help to identify existing cultural norms and practices needed for improving service delivery ( Baker-Henningham, 2011; Bronheim, 2013).The second major adaptation was to build three 1-hour lesson plans that emphasized opportunities for students to shape how the content of the four routines (stop, stopping, bystander, and seeking support) fit with the language, customs, and culture of their school. Lesson one, led by school personnel in student groups similar to class sizes, presents students with a basic review of the importance of respectful behavior, how to deliver the “stop” signal if the disrespectful behavior is encountered, how to use the “stopping routine” if someone asks you to stop, how to use the “bystander routine” if you witness someone using the stop signal and the pe rpetrator does not stop, and the process and protocol for seeking supports from adults if disrespectful behaviors endure. Lessons two and three are designed to be more student-guided and frame problem-solving situations where the basic “stop,” “stopping,” “bystander,” and “seeking support” routines are being applied with and without success.The third adaptation focused on adult behavior. Training and coaching for faculty and staff was built into the implementation of Expect Respect. Initial field-testing identified that a major concern of middle school students was the consistency of adult responses to instances of bullying behavior. The goal of this portion of the program was to both maximize consistency and ensure that students were informed about what they could expect when reporting an instance of disrespectful behavior. The primary research question guiding the study was whether Expect Respect, when implemented with fidelity, was functionally related to an overall reduction in the level of verbal or physical aggression observed in uncontrolled settings like the cafeteria. Secondary, descriptive questionsfocused on the extent to which the conditional probability of bystander and recipient responses to verbal or physical aggression became less rewarding after introduction of the program, and if student perceptions of the overall safety of the school, and the quality of social interactions within the school changed after introduction of the program.MethodSetting and ParticipantsThree middle schools in two Pacific Northwest school districts participated in this study during the 2011–2012 school year. Participating schools were attended by 508, 511, and 691 students, and eligibility for free or reduced-price lunch ranged from 43% to 65% of students. Additionally, the student population at all three schools was primarily White, with students of color ranging from 26% to 32%. To be eligible for participation, selected schools were made up of Grades 6 through 8, had not received training on or utilization of BP-PBS or Expect Respect before this study, and had implemented School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS: Horner, Sugai, & Anderson, 2010) for at least three years with adequate fidelity (e.g., ≥80% Total Score on the School-Wide Evaluation Tool: Todd et al., 2003). Adequate implementation of SWPBIS includes the following: establishing and teaching behavior expectations, establishing and teaching a school-wide strategy for rewarding appropriate behavior, and establishing a continuum of responses to problem behaviors ( Horner, Sugai, Todd, & Lewis-Palmer, 2005).All sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade students in the three participating middle schools received training on Expect Respect, following passive parental consent. Parents were notified that direct observations would be taking place during lunchtime and that no individual student would be targeted for observation. Parents were also informed that they could choose to remove their student from participation in the Expect Respect intervention or from lunchtime direct observations at any time; however, no parent declined consent for their student’s participation. To protect student confidentiality, no identifying student information was recorded on the daily direct observation sheets other than student sex. Additionally, students provided written assent before completing any surveys. The parental consent, student assent, and all materials and procedures were approved by our Institutional Review Board (IRB) as well as the participating school districts.MeasurementData were collected between November and May of the 2011–2012 school year. The primary data collected focused on direct observation of bullying behaviors, as well as the behaviors of both recipients and bystanders immediately following an instance of bullying. In addition, survey data were collected to assess students’ perception of “school climate,” and self-assessment checklists completed by school staff were collected to assess the fidelity with which Expect Respect was implemented.Bullying behaviorsThe primary dependent measure was the frequency of physical or verbal aggression during 20-min direct observations in the cafeteria during lunchtime. An administrator at each school identified a section of the cafeteria in which bullying behaviors were most likely to be reported. This was often an area with low adult supervision and high student foot traffic. During baseline and intervention, trained University data collectors positioned themselves near the identified area so that they could see and hear all interactions that took place between students. All observations were conducted in this identified area at the same time of day throughout the study. No student was singled-out forobservation in this study; therefore the behaviors of any student that involved aggression in the observed area were recorded. For the entire 20-min observation period, observers recorded whether a bullying event took place and whether the event involved physical aggression, verbal aggression, or both. Physical aggression was operationally defined as “hi tting, biting, kicking, chocking, stealing, throwing objects, or restricting freedom of movement” ( Ross & Horner, 2009, p. 751). Verbal aggression was operationally defined as “the direction of negative communication either verbal or gestural, toward one or more focus students including teasing, taunting, threatening, negative body language, or negative gestures” ( Ross & Horner, 2009, p. 751). Two to four direct observation sessions per week took place at each participating school, with no more than five days between observation sessions. This five-day span without data collection only took place when schools were out-of-session for Spring Break.Recipient and bystander responses to bullying behaviorsThe second and third dependent measures were recipient and bystander responses to bullying behaviors. During each observation session, observers recorded how recipients and bystanders of bullying behaviors responded to the perpetrator. A recipient was operationally defined as a student receiving the bullying behaviors. A bystander was operationally defined as a student located within three minutes of the bullying event that is witnessing the bullying behaviors but does not take part. Once an instance of bullying occurred, observers would document whether the recipient and any bystander responded by telling the perpetrator to “Stop,” as taught in the Expect Respect curriculum, or by either ignoring the perpetrator, or providing social attention (e.g., laughing, yelling back) to the perpetrator within five seconds of each instance of a bullying behavior. Observers also recorded when recipients and bystanders provided no response. Each recipient and bystander response was mutually exclusive, and all responses to an incident were recorded. For example, in a case wher e a bystander said “stop” but then started to yell at the perpetrator, both “stop” and “attention” were recorded.Observer training and interobserver agreementFive graduate students from a Pacific Northwest university served as trained observers for this study. All observers were blind to the goals of the present study and when the intervention was started at each school. Before beginning data collection, observers were trained to an 85% interobserver agreement criterion on each target behavior. Observers participated in three training sessions with the first author that involved reviewing the measures, procedures, and data collection tool. During the first session, observers became familiar with the operational definitions of each behavior that were coded, and began practicing coding sample videotapes as a group. The second and third training sessions involved reviewing the operational definitions, having specific questions answered, and coding more sample videotapes. Total agreement was at or greater than 85% for all target behaviors before the observers began coding baseline data for the present study. Sessions coded within the study were assessed for interobserver agreement on 40% of observations during baseline and intervention phases for each of the three schools. During these sessions, a second observer independently coded during the same lunchtime observation. Total agreement was calculated by dividing the number of events that both observers agreed a bullying behavior occurred by the total number of events observed, and multiplying that number by 100%. Table 1 displays total interobserver agreement across all three schools, which exceeded 85% in both baseline and Expect Respect phases.Average (Range) Interobserver AgreementFidelity of implementationFidelity of Expect Respect implementation was assessed using a 5-item fidelity checklist that measured staff adherence to the program components. School staff members completed fidelity checklists twice: between weeks 1 and 3 and weeks 6 and 8 after launching the intervention. Items on the fidelity checklist include the extent to which teacher and school staff (a) interrupt bullying behaviors they observed in or around the school, (b) reflectively listen when students report incidents of bullying, (c) praise students for reporting such incidents, (d) encourage students to use an assertive word or phrase to interrupt bullying incidents or walk away, and (e) check back in with students following a report to determine if the issue had been resolved. Scores on the checklist were recorded on a Likert scale from 1 to 4, with higher scores indicating better adherence to Expect Respect procedures.School climate surveyStudents’ perceptions of their school climate were assessed during the first week of implementation of the Expect Respect intervention and again at the end of the study. The researchers developed a 9-i tem survey that assessed students’ perceptions of their school safety, respectfulness among students and teachers toward one another, school members’ interest in creating a safer school environment, students’ use of strategies to interrupt disrespectful behavior, and the school’s dedication to bullying prevention. The items on the survey were developed from the targets of the Expect Respect manual, and therefore focus on the extent to which students perceive each other as being treated with respect, and if they have a clear idea about what to do when they encounter disrespectful behavior. Five of the nine items were rated on a 4-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree), with higher scores indicating a more favorable impression of the school climate (see Figure 3), and the other four items could either be answered Yes or No (see Figure 4). On average, the survey took students approximately five minutes to complete. All students at the three participating schools were asked to complete the survey online, and before beginning the survey, they were prompted on the computer screen to elect to complete it or not complete. Each school chose when and how they wanted the students to complete the survey, with most classes circulating through the computer lab during an intervention or flex block period.Figure 3. The proportion of students who indicated Strongly Agree or Agree to items on the school climate survey. [graybox] Preintervention; [blackbox] Postintervention.Figure 4. The percentage of students who indicated Yes to yes/no items on the school climate survey. [graybox] Preintervention; [blackbox] Postintervention.ProceduresExperimental designA nonconcurrent multiple baseline design ( Kazdin, 2011) across three middle schools was used to examine the effectiveness of Expect Respect to reduce bullying behaviors and improve bystanderand recipient responses to bullying behaviors. The design involved two phases: baseline and Expect Respect implementation. The total duration of the study was 6 months. School 1 participated in the study between November and May, School 2 participated between February and May, and School 3 participated between January and May. For each school, a baseline period was followed by a staff training on the curriculum, a meeting with a focus group of students to define the routines to be taught, and a whole-school presentation of Lesson 1, with Lessons 2 and 3 taught one to seven weeks later after scheduling availability defined for each school.BaselineIn baseline, students were observed during unstructured lunchtime in the school cafeteria. No teaching procedures to modify any bullying behaviors were in effect. A minimum of five data points were collected for each school during the baseline phase, and incidents of bullying behaviors and conditional probabilities of recipient and bystander responses were recorded. Each data point represents a single 20-min observation session.Expect RespectImplementation of Expect Respect involved three components. In the first component, the first or second author and a school coordinator provided training to the entire school staff on the Expect Respect curriculum. Training consisted of a 1-hr workshop on the intervention components, including the classroom lessons, methods of supervising and interrupting inappropriate behaviors in unstructured environments, appropriate adult responses to students’ reports of bullying and harassment, and staff responsibilities for supporting students through the reporting and responding process. Staff members were given the opportunity to practice delivering the classroom lessons during staff training. Once the entire school staff had been trained on the Expect Respect curriculum, implementation moved on to the second component.The second component involved the organization of a student focus group, which comprised approximately 8 to 12 students who either volunteered or were nominated by their teachers. The student focus group, along with the staff members overseeing implementation of Expect Respect, held a 1-hr meeting where the students selected the school-wide STOP signal, discussed and practiced the “stop,” “stopping,” “bystander,” and “seeking support” strategies, and discussed a pl an for gathering student buy-in to the program. The student focus group is a fundamental component of the Expect Respect intervention, as students have noted that for a program to be successful at the middle school level, middle school students need to be actively involved in planning and administering the lessons, and organizing events related to improving their school climate.In the third component, which occurred in the week following staff training, teachers, school staff, and student focus group members used the three Expect Respect lesson plans to provide training for all students in Grades 6 through 8 during 1-hr intervention block class periods. The administrators at each school were able to decide how far apart they wanted to space the three lessons out, based on their building schedules and holidays. However, all schools administered lesson one within one week of Expect Respect implementation. During lesson one, students were led through a basic review of the importance of respectful behavior and the school-wide expectations around being respectful. After this review was complete, students were then instructed on the four strategies for interrupting disrespectful behavior: how to deliver the “stop” signal if the disrespectful behavior is encountered, how to use the “stopping routine” if someone asks you to stop, how to use the “bystander routine” if you witness someone using the stop signal and the perpetrator does not stop, and the process and protocol for seeking supports from adults ifdisrespectful behaviors endure. Lesson two provided an opportunity for students to practice the four routines in a simulated activity on a school bus, and to problem solve around situations where the routines were and were not successful. Lesson three had two components. The first component focused on identifying ways of interrupting and removing social attention given to disrespectful behaviors identified in online videos. During the second component, students were guided through completing a “seeking support” workshe et for their day planners, in which they identified individuals within the school and outside the school they could go to for support. They also wrote out three strategies to use when they are either the recipient or the witness of disrespectful behaviors.After all three 1-hr lessons were implemented, school staff utilized the “Repeat and Repair” activity as a 15-min refresher for students and staff on the trained routines. This lesson was either delivered a few times throughout the school year or at the end of implementation.ResultsFor each of the three participating schools, the effects of the Expect Respect intervention are reported on (a) fidelity of implementation, (b) the incidents of physical and verbal aggression, (c) recipient and bystander response probabilities, and (d) school climate. Note that there were no points of missing data in this study.Fidelity of ImplementationFidelity of Expect Respect implementation was assessed by evaluating a convenience sample of staff self-reported adherence to program components. A total of 82 staff members across all three schools completed two fidelity checklists during implementation of Expect Respect. All staff members who attended their school’s monthly staff meeting when fidelity data were being collected were given the fidelity checklist to complete (no descriptive data were collected on the teachers). The overall median was calculated for each item by determining the percentage of staff who endorsed a 3 ( Mostly) or 4 ( Always), and then determining the median value as well as the range of values across the averages. Results indicated that staff members reported high adherence to the proper procedures when responding to witnessed or reported incidents of bullying, and that their adherence increased over time, reporting an overall median of 83% at Time 1 (range = 44% to 96%) and 91% at Time 2 (range = 82% to 100%). Specifically, a median of 82% of staff members across schools indicated that they “interrupted bullying behaviors they observed” (range = 67% to 94%), 91% stated that they “reflectively listened when students report incidents of bullying” (range = 81% to 100%), 91% reported that they “praised students for reporting such incidents” (range = 75% to 96%), 88% indicated that they “encouraged students to use an assertive word or phrase to interrupt bull ying incidents or walk away” (range = 69% to 91%), and a median of 85% of staff members stated that they “checked back in with students following a reported incident” (range = 44% to 88%). Incidents of Physical and Verbal AggressionThe incidents of physical and verbal aggression across all three schools are presented in Figure 1. Students in each middle school engaged in physical, and/or verbal aggression during Baseline. For School 1, baseline observations scored with aggression averaged 4 incidents per 20-min session (range = 2 to 7), with high variability and a decreasing trend. For School 2, baseline aggression averaged 2.44 events per 20-min observation (range 1–4) but with a moderate level of variability, and stable trend. School 3 students were observed to engage in aggression an average of 2.37 times per observation (range 0–5) with higher variability and a slight increasing trend.Figure 1. Incidents of physical and verbal aggression during baseline and PBPBS-ER implementation for all three participating schools during 20-min observations. Phase change lines indicate the date of Lesson 1, and asterisks indicate the date of Lessons 2 and 3 per school. The double hash marks indicate when each school was out-of-session for Spring Break.Each school demonstrated reduction in rates of physical and verbal aggression after introduction of the Expect Respect intervention. Schools 1, 2, and 3 averaged .89, .88, and .64 incidents of aggression respectively per 20-min observation across the Expect Respect phase. Note, however, an unexplained increase in the level of aggression in School 1 between Sessions 15–19 in conjunction with the second Expect Respect lesson. Levels of aggression later in the intervention phase for each school (especially after Spring Break) were at or near zero. Taken together the data from the Expect Respect phases represent a 78%, 64%, and 73% reduction in level of aggression, respectively, for Schools 1, 2, and 3, with reduction in variability also noted for each school. Recipient and Bystander Response ProbabilitiesInformation on recipient and bystander responses to bullying behaviors was recorded at the time of each aggressive incident. Figure 2 presents the conditional probabilities of these responses prior to and following implementation of the Expect Respect curriculum.Figure 2. The conditional probabilities of recipient and bystander responses to bullying behaviors during 20-min observations during lunchtime in the cafeteria. [graybox] Preintervention; [blackbox] Postintervention.During baseline at School 1, when an incident of bullying occurred, recipients said “Stop” 5% of the time, rewarded (reinforced) bullying behaviors 45% of the time, and ignored bullying behaviors 35% of the time. After implementation of Expect Respect, recipients increased their delivery of the “Stop” phrase to 19% of the time, increased rewarding of bullying behaviors at 58% of the time, and decreased ignoring of bullying behaviors to 29% of the time. Note that sessions where no bullying behaviors were observed did not contribute to the conditional probabilities.Bystanders at School 1 said “Stop” during baseline 5% of the time, rewarded bullying behaviors 35% of the time, and ignored bullying behaviors 35% of the time. During the intervention phase, bystanders decreased their delivery of the “Stop” phrase to 3% of the time. Delivery of a rewarding response after bullying behaviors increased to 55% of the time, and ignoring maintained at 35%. During baseline at School 2, recipients said “Stop” 32% of the time, rewarded bullying behaviors 55% of the time, and ignored bullying behaviors 36% of the time. After implementation of Expect Respect, recipients decreased their delivery of the “Stop” phrase to 14% of th e time, increased their level of reward for bullying behaviors to 71% of the time, and decreased ignoring of bullying behaviors to 29% of the time.Bystanders at School 2 said “Stop” during baseline 0% of the time, as they were not observed demonstrating this behavior during any observation session. Bystanders rewarded bullying behaviors 45% of the time, and ignored bullying behaviors 45% of the time. During the intervention phase, bystanders increased their delivery of the “Stop” phrase to 7% of the time. Delivery of a rewarding response following bullying behaviors increased to 50% of the time, and ignoring decreased to 43% of the time.。
毕设外文文献+翻译1
外文翻译外文原文CHANGING ROLES OF THE CLIENTS、ARCHITECTSAND CONTRACTORS THROUGH BIMAbstract:Purpose –This paper aims to present a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature and case studies. It seeks to address the necessity for applying BIM and re-organising the processes and roles in hospital building projects. This type of project is complex due to complicated functional and technical requirements, decision making involving a large number of stakeholders, and long-term development processes.Design/methodology/approach–Through desk research and referring to the ongoing European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed.Findings –One of the main findings is the identification of the main factors for a successful collaboration using BIM, which can be recognised as “POWER”: product information sharing (P),organisational roles synergy (O), work processes coordination (W), environment for teamwork (E), and reference data consolidation (R).Originality/value –This paper contributes to the actual discussion in science and practice on the changing roles and processes that are required to develop and operate sustainable buildings with the support of integrated ICT frameworks and tools. It presents the state-of-the-art of European research projects and some of the first real cases of BIM application in hospital building projects.Keywords:Europe, Hospitals, The Netherlands, Construction works, Response flexibility, Project planningPaper type :General review1. IntroductionHospital building projects, are of key importance, and involve significant investment, and usually take a long-term development period. Hospital building projects are also very complex due to the complicated requirements regarding hygiene, safety, special equipments, and handling of a large amount of data. The building process is very dynamic and comprises iterative phases and intermediate changes. Many actors with shifting agendas, roles and responsibilities are actively involved, such as: the healthcare institutions, national and local governments, project developers, financial institutions, architects, contractors, advisors, facility managers, and equipment manufacturers and suppliers. Such building projects are very much influenced, by the healthcare policy, which changes rapidly in response to the medical, societal and technological developments, and varies greatly between countries (World Health Organization, 2000). In The Netherlands, for example, the way a building project in the healthcare sector is organised is undergoing a major reform due to a fundamental change in the Dutch health policy that was introduced in 2008.The rapidly changing context posts a need for a building with flexibility over its lifecycle. In order to incorporate life-cycle considerations in the building design, construction technique, and facility management strategy, a multidisciplinary collaboration is required. Despite the attempt for establishing integrated collaboration, healthcare building projects still faces serious problems in practice, such as: budget overrun, delay, and sub-optimal quality in terms of flexibility, end-user’s dissatisfaction, and energy inefficiency. It is evident that the lack of communication and coordination between the actors involved in the different phases of a building project is among the most important reasons behind these problems. The communication between different stakeholders becomes critical, as each stakeholder possesses different setof skills. As a result, the processes for extraction, interpretation, and communication of complex design information from drawings and documents are often time-consuming and difficult. Advanced visualisation technologies, like 4D planning have tremendous potential to increase the communication efficiency and interpretation ability of the project team members. However, their use as an effective communication tool is still limited and not fully explored. There are also other barriers in the information transfer and integration, for instance: many existing ICT systems do not support the openness of the data and structure that is prerequisite for an effective collaboration between different building actors or disciplines.Building information modelling (BIM) offers an integrated solution to the previously mentioned problems. Therefore, BIM is increasingly used as an ICT support in complex building projects. An effective multidisciplinary collaboration supported by an optimal use of BIM require changing roles of the clients, architects, and contractors; new contractual relationships; and re-organised collaborative processes. Unfortunately, there are still gaps in the practical knowledge on how to manage the building actors to collaborate effectively in their changing roles, and to develop and utilise BIM as an optimal ICT support of the collaboration.This paper presents a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature review and case studies. In the next sections, based on literature and recent findings from European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Subsequently, through the observation of two ongoing pilot projects in The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated. In conclusion, the critical success factors as well as the main barriers of a successful integrated collaboration using BIM are identified.2. Changing roles through integrated collaboration and life-cycle design approachesA hospital building project involves various actors, roles, and knowledge domains. In The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors in hospital building projects are inevitable due the new healthcare policy. Previously under the Healthcare Institutions Act (WTZi), healthcare institutions were required to obtain both a license and a building permit for new construction projects and major renovations. The permit was issued by the Dutch Ministry of Health. The healthcare institutions were then eligible to receive financial support from the government. Since 2008, new legislation on the management of hospital building projects and real estate has come into force. In this new legislation, a permit for hospital building project under the WTZi is no longer obligatory, nor obtainable (Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, 2008). This change allows more freedom from the state-directed policy, and respectively, allocates more responsibilities to the healthcare organisations to deal with the financing and management of their real estate. The new policy implies that the healthcare institutions are fully responsible to man age and finance their building projects and real estate. The government’s support for the costs of healthcare facilities will no longer be given separately, but will be included in the fee for healthcare services. This means that healthcare institutions must earn back their investment on real estate through their services. This new policy intends to stimulate sustainable innovations in the design, procurement and management of healthcare buildings, which will contribute to effective and efficient primary healthcare services.The new strategy for building projects and real estate management endorses an integrated collaboration approach. In order to assure the sustainability during construction, use, and maintenance, the end-users, facility managers, contractors and specialist contractors need to be involved in the planning and design processes. The implications of the new strategy are reflected in the changing roles of the building actors and in the new procurement method.In the traditional procurement method, the design, and its details, are developed by the architect, and design engineers. Then, the client (the healthcare institution) sends an application to the Ministry of Healthto obtain an approval on the building permit and the financial support from the government. Following this, a contractor is selected through a tender process that emphasises the search for the lowest-price bidder. During the construction period, changes often take place due to constructability problems of the design and new requirements from the client. Because of the high level of technical complexity, and moreover, decision-making complexities, the whole process from initiation until delivery of a hospital building project can take up to ten years time. After the delivery, the healthcare institution is fully in charge of the operation of the facilities. Redesigns and changes also take place in the use phase to cope with new functions and developments in the medical world.The integrated procurement pictures a new contractual relationship between the parties involved in a building project. Instead of a relationship between the client and architect for design, and the client and contractor for construction, in an integrated procurement the client only holds a contractual relationship with the main party that is responsible for both design and construction. The traditional borders between tasks and occupational groups become blurred since architects, consulting firms, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers all stand on the supply side in the building process while the client on the demand side. Such configuration puts the architect, engineer and contractor in a very different position that influences not only their roles, but also their responsibilities, tasks and communication with the client, the users, the team and other stakeholders.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method requires a shift of mindset of the parties on both the demand and supply sides. It is essential for the client and contractor to have a fair and open collaboration in which both can optimally use their competencies. The effectiveness of integrated collaboration is also determined by the client’s capacity and strategy to organize innovative tendering procedures.A new challenge emerges in case of positioning an architect in a partnership with the contractor instead of with the client. In case of the architect enters a partnership with the contractor, an important issues is how to ensure the realisation of the architectural values as well as innovative engineering through an efficient construction process. In another case, the architect can stand at the client’s side in a strategic advisory role instead of being the designer. In this case, the architect’s responsibility is translating client’s requirements and wishes into the architectural values to be included in the design specification, and evaluating the contractor’s proposal against this. In any of this new role, the architect holds the responsibilities as stakeholder interest facilitator, custodian of customer value and custodian of design models.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method also brings consequences in the payment schemes. In the traditional building process, the honorarium for the architect is usually based on a percentage of the project costs; this may simply mean that the more expensive the building is, the higher the honorarium will be. The engineer receives the honorarium based on the complexity of the design and the intensity of the assignment. A highly complex building, which takes a number of redesigns, is usually favourable for the engineers in terms of honorarium. A traditional contractor usually receives the commission based on the tender to construct the building at the lowest price by meeting the minimum specifications given by the client. Extra work due to modifications is charged separately to the client. After the delivery, the contractor is no longer responsible for the long-term use of the building. In the traditional procurement method, all risks are placed with the client.In integrated procurement method, the payment is based on the achieved building performance; thus, the payment is non-adversarial. Since the architect, engineer and contractor have a wider responsibility on the quality of the design and the building, the payment is linked to a measurement system of the functional and technical performance of the building over a certain period of time. The honorarium becomes an incentive to achieve the optimal quality. If the building actors succeed to deliver a higher added-value thatexceed the minimum client’s requirements, they will receive a bonus in accordance to the client’s extra gain. The level of transparency is also improved. Open book accounting is an excellent instrument provided that the stakeholders agree on the information to be shared and to its level of detail (InPro, 2009).Next to the adoption of integrated procurement method, the new real estate strategy for hospital building projects addresses an innovative product development and life-cycle design approaches. A sustainable business case for the investment and exploitation of hospital buildings relies on dynamic life-cycle management that includes considerations and analysis of the market development over time next to the building life-cycle costs (investment/initial cost, operational cost, and logistic cost). Compared to the conventional life-cycle costing method, the dynamic life-cycle management encompasses a shift from focusing only on minimizing the costs to focusing on maximizing the total benefit that can be gained. One of the determining factors for a successful implementation of dynamic life-cycle management is the sustainable design of the building and building components, which means that the design carries sufficient flexibility to accommodate possible changes in the long term (Prins, 1992).Designing based on the principles of life-cycle management affects the role of the architect, as he needs to be well informed about the usage scenarios and related financial arrangements, the changing social and physical environments, and new technologies. Design needs to integrate people activities and business strategies over time. In this context, the architect is required to align the design strategies with the organisational, local and global policies on finance, business operations, health and safety, environment, etc.The combination of process and product innovation, and the changing roles of the building actors can be accommodated by integrated project delivery or IPD (AIA California Council, 2007). IPD is an approach that integrates people, systems, business structures and practices into a process that collaboratively harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to reduce waste and optimize efficiency through all phases of design, fabrication and construction. IPD principles can be applied to a variety of contractual arrangements. IPD teams will usually include members well beyond the basic triad of client, architect, and contractor. At a minimum, though, an Integrated Project should include a tight collaboration between the client, the architect, and the main contractor ultimately responsible for construction of the project, from the early design until the project handover. The key to a successful IPD is assembling a team that is committed to collaborative processes and is capable of working together effectively. IPD is built on collaboration. As a result, it can only be successful if the participants share and apply common values and goals.3. Changing roles through BIM applicationBuilding information model (BIM) comprises ICT frameworks and tools that can support the integrated collaboration based on life-cycle design approach. BIM is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such it serves as a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its lifecycle from inception onward (National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS, 2007). BIM facilitates time and place independent collaborative working. A basic premise of BIM is collaboration by different stakeholders at different phases of the life cycle of a facility to insert, extract, update or modify information in the BIM to support and reflect the roles of that stakeholder. BIM in its ultimate form, as a shared digital representation founded on open standards for interoperability, can become a virtual information model to be handed from the design team to the contractor and subcontractors and then to the client.BIM is not the same as the earlier known computer aided design (CAD). BIM goes further than an application to generate digital (2D or 3D) drawings. BIM is an integrated model in which all process and product information is combined, stored, elaborated, and interactively distributed to all relevant building actors. As a central model for all involved actors throughout the project lifecycle, BIM develops andevolves as the project progresses. Using BIM, the proposed design and engineering solutions can be measured against the client’s requirements and expected building performance. The functionalities of BIM to support the design process extend to multidimensional (nD), including: three-dimensional visualisation and detailing, clash detection, material schedule, planning, cost estimate, production and logistic information, and as-built documents. During the construction process, BIM can support the communication between the building site, the factory and the design office– which is crucial for an effective and efficient prefabrication and assembly processes as well as to prevent or solve problems related to unforeseen errors or modifications. When the building is in use, BIM can be used in combination with the intelligent building systems to provide and maintain up-to-date information of the building performance, including the life-cycle cost.To unleash the full potential of more efficient information exchange in the AEC/FM industry in collaborative working using BIM, both high quality open international standards and high quality implementations of these standards must be in place. The IFC open standard is generally agreed to be of high quality and is widely implemented in software. Unfortunately, the certification process allows poor quality implementations to be certified and essentially renders the certified software useless for any practical usage with IFC. IFC compliant BIM is actually used less than manual drafting for architects and contractors, and show about the same usage for engineers. A recent survey shows that CAD (as a closed-system) is still the major form of technique used in design work (over 60 per cent) while BIM is used in around 20 percent of projects for architects and in around 10 per cent of projects for engineers and contractors.The application of BIM to support an optimal cross-disciplinary and cross-phase collaboration opens a new dimension in the roles and relationships between the building actors. Several most relevant issues are: the new role of a model manager; the agreement on the access right and Intellectual Property Right (IPR); the liability and payment arrangement according to the type of contract and in relation to the integrated procurement; and the use of open international standards.Collaborative working using BIM demands a new expert role of a model manager who possesses ICT as well as construction process know-how (InPro, 2009). The model manager deals with the system as well as with the actors. He provides and maintains technological solutions required for BIM functionalities, manages the information flow, and improves the ICT skills of the stakeholders. The model manager does not take decisions on design and engineering solutions, nor the organisational processes, but his roles in the chain of decision making are focused on:the development of BIM, the definition of the structure and detail level of the model, and the deployment of relevant BIM tools, such as for models checking, merging, and clash detections;the contribution to collaboration methods, especially decision making and communication protocols, task planning, and risk management;and the management of information, in terms of data flow and storage, identification of communication errors, and decision or process (re-)tracking.Regarding the legal and organisational issues, one of the actual questions is: “In what way does the intellectual property right (IPR) in collaborative working using BIM differ from the IPR in a traditional teamwork?”. In terms of combined work, the IPR of each element is at tached to its creator. Although it seems to be a fully integrated design, BIM actually resulted from a combination of works/elements; for instance: the outline of the building design, is created by the architect, the design for the electrical system, is created by the electrical contractor, etc. Thus, in case of BIM as a combined work, the IPR is similar to traditional teamwork. Working with BIM with authorship registration functionalities may actually make it easier to keep track of the IPR.How does collaborative working, using BIM, effect the contractual relationship? On the one hand,collaborative working using BIM does not necessarily change the liability position in the contract nor does it obligate an alliance contract. The General Principles of BIM A ddendum confirms: ‘This does not effectuate or require a restructuring of contractual relationships or shifting of risks between or among the Project Participants other than as specifically required per the Protocol Addendum and its Attachments’ (ConsensusDOCS, 2008). On the other hand, changes in terms of payment schemes can be anticipated. Collaborative processes using BIM will lead to the shifting of activities from to the early design phase. Much, if not all, activities in the detailed engineering and specification phase will be done in the earlier phases. It means that significant payment for the engineering phase, which may count up to 40 per cent of the design cost, can no longer be expected. As engineering work is done concurrently with the design, a new proportion of the payment in the early design phase is necessary.4. Review of ongoing hospital building projects using BIMIn The Netherlands, the changing roles in hospital building projects are part of the strategy, which aims at achieving a sustainable real estate in response to the changing healthcare policy. Referring to literature and previous research, the main factors that influence the success of the changing roles can be concluded as: the implementation of an integrated procurement method and a life-cycle design approach for a sustainable collaborative process; the agreement on the BIM structure and the intellectual rights; and the integration of the role of a model manager. The preceding sections have discussed the conceptual thinking on how to deal with these factors effectively. This current section observes two actual projects and compares the actual practice with the conceptual view respectively.The main issues, which are observed in the case studies, are:the selected procurement method and the roles of the involved parties within this method;the implementation of the life-cycle design approach;the type, structure, and functionalities of BIM used in the project;the openness in data sharing and transfer of the model, and the intended use of BIM in the future; and the roles and tasks of the model manager.The pilot experience of hospital building projects using BIM in the Netherlands can be observed at University Medical Centre St Radboud (further referred as UMC) and Maxima Medical Centre (further referred as MMC). At UMC, the new building project for the Faculty of Dentistry in the city of Nijmegen has been dedicated as a BIM pilot project. At MMC, BIM is used in designing new buildings for Medical Simulation and Mother-and-Child Centre in the city of Veldhoven.The first case is a project at the University Medical Centre (UMC) St Radboud. UMC is more than just a hospital. UMC combines medical services, education and research. More than 8500 staff and 3000 students work at UMC. As a part of the innovative real estate strategy, UMC has considered to use BIM for its building projects. The new development of the Faculty of Dentistry and the surrounding buildings on the Kapittelweg in Nijmegen has been chosen as a pilot project to gather practical knowledge and experience on collaborative processes with BIM support.The main ambition to be achieved through the use of BIM in the building projects at UMC can be summarised as follows:using 3D visualisation to enhance the coordination and communication among the building actors, and the user participation in design;integrating the architectural design with structural analysis, energy analysis, cost estimation, and planning;interactively evaluating the design solutions against the programme of requirements and specifications;reducing redesign/remake costs through clash detection during the design process; andoptimising the management of the facility through the registration of medical installations andequipments, fixed and flexible furniture, product and output specifications, and operational data.The second case is a project at the Maxima Medical Centre (MMC). MMC is a large hospital resulted from a merger between the Diaconessenhuis in Eindhoven and St Joseph Hospital in Veldhoven. Annually the 3,400 staff of MMC provides medical services to more than 450,000 visitors and patients. A large-scaled extension project of the hospital in Veldhoven is a part of its real estate strategy. A medical simulation centre and a women-and-children medical centre are among the most important new facilities within this extension project. The design has been developed using 3D modelling with several functionalities of BIM.The findings from both cases and the analysis are as follows. Both UMC and MMC opted for a traditional procurement method in which the client directly contracted an architect, a structural engineer, and a mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) consultant in the design team. Once the design and detailed specifications are finished, a tender procedure will follow to select a contractor. Despite the choice for this traditional method, many attempts have been made for a closer and more effective multidisciplinary collaboration. UMC dedicated a relatively long preparation phase with the architect, structural engineer and MEP consultant before the design commenced. This preparation phase was aimed at creating a common vision on the optimal way for collaboration using BIM as an ICT support. Some results of this preparation phase are: a document that defines the common ambition for the project and the collaborative working process and a semi-formal agreement that states the commitment of the building actors for collaboration. Other than UMC, MMC selected an architecture firm with an in-house engineering department. Thus, the collaboration between the architect and structural engineer can take place within the same firm using the same software application.Regarding the life-cycle design approach, the main attention is given on life-cycle costs, maintenance needs, and facility management. Using BIM, both hospitals intend to get a much better insight in these aspects over the life-cycle period. The life-cycle sustainability criteria are included in the assignments for the design teams. Multidisciplinary designers and engineers are asked to collaborate more closely and to interact with the end-users to address life-cycle requirements. However, ensuring the building actors to engage in an integrated collaboration to generate sustainable design solutions that meet the life-cycle performance expectations is still difficult. These actors are contracted through a traditional procurement method. Their tasks are specific, their involvement is rather short-term in a certain project phase, their responsibilities and liabilities are limited, and there is no tangible incentive for integrated collaboration.From the current progress of both projects, it can be observed that the type and structure of BIM relies heavily on the choice for BIM software applications. Revit Architecture and Revit Structure by Autodesk are selected based on the argument that it has been widely used internationally and it is compatible with AutoCAD, a widely known product of the same software manufacturer. The compatibility with AutoCAD is a key consideration at MMC since the drawings of the existing buildings were created with this application. These 2D drawings were then used as the basis to generate a 3D model with the BIM software application. The architectural model generated with Revit Architecture and the structural model generated by Revit Structure can be linked directly. In case of a change in the architectural model, a message will be sent to the structural engineer. He can then adjust the structural model, or propose a change in return to the architect, so that the structural model is always consistent with the architectural one.Despite the attempt of the design team to agree on using the same software application, the MEP consultant is still not capable to use Revit; and therefore, a conversion of the model from and to Revit is still required. Another weakness of this “closed approach”, which is dependent to the use of the same software applications, may appear in the near future when the project further progresses into the construction phase. If the contractor uses another software application, considerable extra work will be needed to make the model creted during the design phase to be compatible for use in the construction phase.。
经济学毕业论文英文文献及翻译1
The green barrier to free tradeC. P. ChandrasekharJayati GhoshAs the March 31 deadline for completing the "modalities" stage of the proposed new round of negotiations on global agricultural trade nears, hopes of an agreement are increasingly waning. In this edition of Macroscan, C. P. Chandrasekhar and Jayati Ghosh examine the factors and the players constraining the realisation of such an agreement.AT THE END of the latest round of meetings of the agricultural negotiations committee of the WTO, the optimism that negotiators would meet the March 31 deadline for working out numerical targets, formulas and other "modalities" through which countries can frame their liberalisation commitments in a new full-fledged round of trade negotiations has almost disappeared. That target was important for two reasons.First, it is now becoming clear, that even more than was true during the Uruguay Round, forging an agreement in the agricultural area is bound to prove extremely difficult.Progress in the agricultural negotiations was key to persuading the unconvinced that a new `Doha Round' of trade negotiations is useful and feasible.Second, the Doha declaration made agricultural negotiations one part of a `single undertaking' to be completed by January 1, 2005. That is, in a take `all-or-nothing' scheme, countries had to arrive at, and be bound by, agreements in all areas in which negotiations were to be initiated in the new round. This means that if agreement is not worked out with regard to agriculture, there would be no change in the multilateral trade regime governing industry, services or related areas and no progress in new areas, such as competition policy, foreign investment and public procurement, all of which are crucial to the economic agenda of the developed countries.The factors making agriculture the sticking point on this occasion are numerous. As in the last Round, there is little agreement among the developed countries themselves on the appropriate shape of the global agricultural trade regime.There are substantial differences in the agenda of the US, the EU and the developed countries within the Cairns group of agricultural exporters. When the rich and the powerful disagree, a global consensus is not easy to come by.But that is not all. Even if an agreement is stitched up between the rich nations, through manoeuvres such as the Blair House accord, getting the rest of the world to go along would be more difficult this time.This is because the outcomes in the agricultural trade area since the implementation of the Uruguay Round (UR) Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) began have fallen far short of expectations. In the course of Round, advocates of the UR regime had promised global production adjustments that would increase the value of world agricultural trade and an increase in developing country share of such trade.As Chart 1 shows, global production volumes continued to rise after 1994 when the implementation of the Uruguay Round began, with signs of tapering off only in 2000 and 2001. As is widely known, this increase in production occurred in the developed countries as well.Not surprisingly, therefore, the volume of world trade continued to rise as well after 1994 (Chart 2). The real shift occurred in agricultural prices which, after some buoyancy between 1993and 1995, have declined thereafter, and particularly sharply after 1997. It is this decline in unit values that resulted in a situation where the value of world trade stagnated and then declined after 1995, when the implementation of the Uruguay Round began.As Table 1 shows, there was a sharp fall in the rate of growth of global agricultural trade between the second half of the 1980s and the 1990s, with the decline in growth in the 1990s being due to the particularly poor performance during the 1998 to 2001 period.Price declines and stagnation in agricultural trade values in the wake of the UR Agreement on Agriculture were accompanied and partly influenced by the persisting regionalisation of world agricultural trade.The foci of such regionalisation were Western Europe and Asia, with 32 and 11 per cent of global agricultural trade being intra-Western European and intra-Asian trade respectively (Chart 3). What is noteworthy, however, is that agricultural exports accounted for a much higher share of both merchandise and primary products trade in North America and Western Europe (besides Latin America and Africa) than it did for Asia.Thus, despite being the developed regions of the world, agricultural production and exports were important influences on the economic performance of North America and Western Europe.It is, therefore, not surprising that Europe is keen on maintaining its agricultural sector through protection, while the US is keen on expanding its role in world agricultural markets by subsidising its own farmers and forcing other countries to open up their markets. The problem is that the US has been more successful in prising open developing country markets than the large EU market.Thus, out of $104 billion worth of exports from North America in 2001, $34 billion went to Asia and $15 billion to Latin America, whereas exports to Europe amounted to $14 billion.The Cairns group of exporting countries (Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Paraguay, the Philippines, South Africa, Thailand and Uruguay), for some of whom at least agricultural exports are extremely important, want world market to be freed of protection as well as the surpluses that result from huge domestic support in the US and the EC.We must note that $35 billion of the $63 billion of exports from Latin America went to the US and the EU. More open markets and less domestic support in those destinations is, therefore, crucial for the region.The fact that Europe has been successful in its effort at retaining its agricultural space with the help of a Common Agricultural Policy that both supports and subsidises its agricultural producers is clear from Chart 4, which shows that intra-EC trade which accounted for 74 per cent of EU exports in 1990, continued to account for 73 per cent of total EU exports in 1995 and 2001.But North America, with far fewer countries in its fold, has also been quite insular. Close to a third of North American exports are inter-regional. Little has changed since the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture.It is widely accepted that three sets of actors account for this failure of the AoA:First, in order to push through an agreement when there were signs that the Uruguay Round was faltering, the liberalisation of agricultural trade in the developed countries was not pushed far enough;Second, is the ability to use "loopholes", especially those in the form of inadequately well-defined Green and Blue Box measures, in the AoA, to continue to support and protect farmers on the grounds that such support was non-trade distorting; andFinally, there are violations of even the lax UR rules in the course of implementation, which have been aided by the failure of the agreement to ensure transparency in implementation.Not surprisingly, some countries, especially the Cairns group of exporting countries, have proposed an ambitious agenda of liberalisation in the agricultural area.Tariffs are to be reduced sharply, using the "Swiss formula", which would ensure that the proportionate reduction in the tariffs imposed by a country would be larger, the higher is the prevailing bound or applied tariff in that country.中文翻译：题目：自由贸易中的绿色壁垒作者：C. P. Chandrasekhar 、Jayati Ghosh在A完自由化的承诺在其最新一轮会议的农业谈判委员会，世界贸易组织，乐观地认为，谈判的框架将在3月31日最后期限为制定数字指标，公式和其他“方式，哪些国家可以”通过新的全面谈判回合贸易几乎已经消失。
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在大型地下开挖中围岩块体稳定性分析摘要：由于关键块体是地下工程开挖后首先失稳的块体，因此被引起高度重视。
关键块体理论最初是由石根华提出的，该理论未深入探讨复杂多面体块体及块体出露位置的确定。
Unwedge程序是由E..Hoek等依据关键块体理论而开发的用于分析块体稳定性的软件，该软件考虑的块体形态简单、仅考虑自重作用而不能确定块体的出露位置，使其应用受到较大的限制。
结合大型地下工程，依据块体理论编制程序，该程序考虑动荷载的影响及复杂形态的块体，并能准确地判断块体的出露位置。
最后将二者的计算结果进行比较。
关键词：岩石力学；关键块体；稳定性分析；Unwedge程序；地下开挖1引言岩体是一种复杂的地球介质，包含有各种结构面。
这些结构面将岩体切割成各种形态的空间结构体——块体。
在地下开挖中，岩体主要的破坏方式就是由不稳定块体的运动造成的。
实地调研表明，块体不稳定性是开挖工程失稳的最主要的形式[1]。
H.Park和T R.West(2001)[2]提出了一种模拟程序对岩体楔形破坏进行概率分析。
然而，不能将该程序用于现场不稳定块体的研究，因为随机信息基本上只显示了总趋势，而没有表明现场的条件[3]。
R.E.Goodman和G H.Shi(1985)[4]指出开挖设计应基于单个关键块体的状况，他们的方法可以确定洞室周围的临界块体。
在关键块体理论基础上，E.Hoek等[5]开发了Unwedge程序。
该程序被设计成一种快速的、互动的、简单的开发工具，可用于分析地下块体的几何特征和其稳定性。
然而，在设计地下洞室的支撑系统时，不仅应了解其几何特征，而且应知道在洞室中自由层面的准确位置。
本文运用块体理论对西南某大型水电站的地下厂房进行了研究，厂房尺寸为436.0 m×33.8 m×57.4 m(长×宽×高)。
首先运用Unwedge程序找出这次开挖中围岩的可能的关键块体，并论述了其局限性，接着以SASW程序(在边坡工程中用来研究块体稳定性的计算机程序)和块体理论为基础，开发了一个程序，在全面考虑到重力和动力荷载的作用下，在地下开挖工程中寻找关键块体，并确定其精确位置；最后，比较两种方法的计算结果，并分析其差异性。
在研究关键块体的核心算法时，建立了多种多面岩块的几何模型，包括其平面结构、四面结构和其组成形式。
这些多面块体可能会出现在洞室的顶拱部、边墙部或顶拱与边墙的交界处。
1结构面的现场调查研究拟建水电站的主厂房、主变室和尾调室三大地下洞室与进水压力管道及尾水洞紧密布置在两岸坝肩附近，构成复杂的地下洞室群。
坝址区为高山峡谷地形，崖壁陡峭。
坝址区主要由二叠系后期玄武岩岩流层构成，可以辨别出14层，此次地下开挖主要是在第3~6层进行的，在洞室的周围除了出现3类结构面，例如层间错动带(C)、层内错动带(Lc)和陡倾向基体裂隙(J)，没有发现断层。
第l类结构面C的分布范围最广，是整个地区的控制性结构面；第2类结构面Lc的范围比第1类要小些，它主要集中在岩流层内部的构造错动带；第3类结构面J 的范围是最小的。
以实地调查为基础，块体主要是由Lc或Lc和J构成的，因此Lc层为该地区最重要的结构面，如图l所示，显示出Lc层的优势方向。
由图l 可知，有两个Lc层，倾向都是SE，倾角不同，一个为150~300，另一个为400~550，Lc层的伸展长度为30~150 m。
若J层的扩展长度足够大，J层对块体稳定性是非常重要的，通过详细的现场研究，J层的伸展长度为3~25 m。
图1 Lc的优势方向2Unwedge程序的应用作为实例研究，Unwedge程序被用于此大型地下开挖工程的块体，块体稳定分析结果如表l所示。
图2所示为地下洞室的块体类型。
尽管Unwedge程序能方便、有力地确定洞室中的块体，但由于忽略了爆破的地震的影响，并且块体的几何结构简单，位置不确定，因此应谨慎地使用。
实例表明，在大型开挖中的围岩，像五面块体和六面块体这样具有复杂几何构成的块体是非常普遍的，另外，可能的不稳定块体由于其不确定的位置仍可能导致在设计所需的支撑系统时误入盲区。
因此，对于该程序确定的块体应在实地调研过程中进一步选择和分析。
表1 块体稳定分析结果图2 地下洞室的块体类型3 依块体理论编制的程序作为实例研究，为了消除Unwedge 程序的一些局限性，开发了另一套可以建立可能的不稳定块体几何特征和决定其位置的程序，该程序以1998年由许 强[6]开发的SASW(边坡块体稳定性分析程序)为基础。
在此，提出如下假设，其中一些假设同Unwedge 程序中的假设相似：每一个间断层可以被描述成完全平面的；所有的由间断层交错构成的岩块是刚性的，忽略岩块本身的破坏；岩块的破坏性是由于在各种载荷下沿着结构面的剪切位移造成的。
4.1 块体的几何特征图3所示为本文所选坐标系。
H 为边墙高；L 为洞室的长度；a ，b 分别指代椭圆顶的半径。
因此，洞室的顶拱可表示如下：122=⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛+⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛b y a z (1) 两侧边墙方程: b y ±= (2)由解析几何可知，在直角坐标系中空间平面可表示为D Cz By Ax =++在立体空间中，结构面的方向可由其倾角及倾向来表示。
若己知倾角α i 、倾向β i 和一结构面的正向量ň i (i=1，2，…，n)，可知结构面i 的方程如下：ii i i i i i i i i i i C B A D z C y B x A αβαβαcos cos sin sin sin ====++ (3)当在实地调查中，通过测量α i ，β i ，ň i 和确定结构面的坐标系，可得如下方程：i i i i i i i z C y B x A D ++= (4)式中：D i 为常量，且在数学中有非常重要的意义。
在平面几何中，D i 被用于确定平面的位置，因此，可用它代表结构面的位置。
实际上，D i (i=1，2，…，n)在洞室中代表了块体的精确位置。
实际上，由式(4)求出的点(面和面相交的点)代表了块体的边界条件。
确定块体的界限条件是为了研究是否可以由结构面和开挖面形成块体。
因此，可以认为块体的边界条件就是包括其形状、体积和位置在内的几何特征。
块体的形状可分为四面体、五面体、六面体等，四面块体是最基本的形状，可以用于建立混合块体。
多面体的暴露面可能是平面的、曲面的或两者兼有的形式。
平面块体在边墙中可见，曲面块体在顶部可见。
包括了顶部和边墙部的一些岩石在内的混合形状多见于洞室的拱顶与边墙交界部分，如图4所示的四面块体。
无论怎样，混合块体都可被分为两个四面块体，例如四面块体IHJG 和HAEF ，图4中也是一样。
因此，总的体积(图5)可以用IHJG 的体积加上HAER 的体积。
图6所示为边墙上的多面块体，其中只有棱锥的1个顶点在围岩块上，其他的2和3个顶点在洞室的顶部或边墙位置。
假设4个交点为P 0(x 0，y 0，z 0)，P 1(x 1，y 1，z 1)，P 2(x 2，y 2，z 2)和P 3(x 3，y 3，z 3)，图4(a)中四面块体体积[7,8]计算如下：111161333222111000z y x z y x z y x z y x V =(5)图4(b)中四面块体体积计算如下：1312110V V V V V ---= (6)式中：V 0由P 0，P i ，P j 和P k 组成；V 11由4个交点P 4，P i ，P j 和P k 组成，其中P 4为平面y=y i 和z = z j 在结构面J 上的一个交点，V 11可由式(5)计算出；V 12由P 4，P j 和P k 以及暴露面P R 构成，若A k ≠0，A j ≠0，则V 12可表示为312232⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛+=b a V 03''sin ∂⎪⎪⎭⎫- ⎝⎛j j kk A B A B (7) 式中：α 0为X 轴和北方向的夹角。
若A k =0或者A j =0，则V 12=0。
V 13由P 4，P i ，P j 和暴露面Q R 构成，若A i ≠0且A j ≠0，V 13计算如下:03''313sin 232∂⎪⎪⎭⎫- ⎝⎛⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛+=j j i i A B A B b a V (8) 若A i =0或者A j =0： V 13=0 则⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛++=∂∂+∂=∂+∂=∂+∂=i ji j k k kj j j i i i y y z z arc C B BC B B C B B cot sin cos sin cos sin cos 11'1'11'以详细研究四面块体为基础，在设计程序中，其他的多面块体能够非常方便地集合起来。
本文只介绍了五面块体岩块的结构。
从洞室边墙所见的五面块体如图6所示，图6(a)所示五面块体的1个顶点在围岩上，图6(b)和图6(c)分别展示了在围岩上的2和3个顶点。
图3 本文所选坐标系图4 块体组成的基本要素图5 四面块体组成图6 边墙上的多面块体4.2 块体的滑动形式如上所述，块体的滑动形式包括崩塌、沿一个面滑动、沿两个面滑动。
显然，开挖面不能成为滑动面。
在滑动过程中，块体沿一直处于重荷之下的一个或两个面滑动。
这些面才是真的滑动面。
决定块体的滑动模式的方法是在石根华的定理中提出的[4]。
4.2.1 崩 塌块体从顶部垂直落下，Ŝ为岩块的滑动方向，如图7(a)所示，则0 ∧→⋅l v r (9)式中：ν l 为结构面的内倾角向量，ř为合力方向。
4.2.2 沿一个面滑动如图7(b) 所示，块体只在一个表面之上滑动。
在这种情况下，滑面由如下方程表示：∧∧→∧∧∧→∧⋅⋅-=⋅⋅-=ll l ii i n n r v n n r v )sgn()sgn( (10)⎪⎭⎪⎬⎫⎪⎩⎪⎨⎧-==)0(1)0(0)0(1)sgn( x x x x其他符号同前，且i ≠ι图7 块体滑动4.2.3沿两个平面的相交线滑动在这种情况下，块体会同时沿着两个层面滑动，滑动方向与合力方向相交成一个锐角。
当两个结构面i 和j 符合下列等式：∧∧∧∧∧∧∧∧∧∧∧∧⋅⋅=⋅⋅-=⋅⋅-=ll ij ij j j i j ii j i n n s v n n s v n n s v )sgn()sgn()sgn( (11)式中：Ŝi 为ř在结构面ί上的投影，Ŝj 为ř在结构面j 上的投影，i ≠j ≠ι。
此时这两个结构面可被当作滑面，因此，ŜIj 可计算如下:⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⋅⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛⨯⨯⨯=∧∧∧∧∧∧∧∧r n n n n n n s j i ji ji ij sgn4.3安全系数的计算和评估确立了块体的几何结构，破坏模式和岩块的滑动面后，应估算其安全系数。