国际贸易壁垒英文版
（三）保护方式的
隐蔽性，发达国家 设置高于世界平均 水平，并以高科技 手段进行检验，Company Logo
the cause of technical barriers
主观原因：贸易保护 主义思想依然存在
Company Logo
Technical barriers to trade Technical barriers to trade (TBTs), a category（种类） of nontariff（非关税） barriers to trade, are the widely divergent（大相径庭） measures that countries use to regulate markets, protect their consumers, or preserve their natural resources (among other objectives), but they also can be used (or perceived by foreign countries) to discriminate（区别） against imports in order to protect domestic industries.
Company Logo
贸易壁垒
贸易壁垒（Barrier to trade） 又称贸易障碍。对国 外国间商品劳务交换所设置的人为限制，主要是指导 一国对外国商品劳务进口所实行的各种限制措施。这 种壁垒一般可分为关税壁垒和非关税壁垒两种。 所谓关税壁垒，是指进出口商品经过一国关境时，由 政府所设置海关向进出口 商征收关税所形成的一种 贸易障碍。 非关税壁垒，是指除关税 以外的一切限制进口措施 所形成的贸易障碍。
Company Logo
技术性贸易壁垒 “技术性贸易壁垒”又称“技术性贸易措施”或 “技术壁垒”，是以国家或地区的技术法规、协 议、标准和认证体系（合格评定程序）等形式出 现，涉及的内容广泛，含盖科学技术、卫生、检 疫、安全、环保、产品质量和认证等诸多技术性 指标体系，运用于国际贸易当中，呈现出灵活多 变、名目繁多的规定。由于这类壁垒大量的以技 术面目出现，因此常常会披上合法外衣，成为当 前国际贸易中最为隐蔽、最难对付的非关税壁垒。
our country’s solution to it
Company Logo
3
5 6
7 8 9
Intemational Trade Barriers
Most trade barriers work on the same principle: the imposition（征收） of some sort of cost on trade that raises the price of the traded products. If two or more nations repeatedly use trade barriers against each other, then a trade war results.
Company Logo
Technical barriers' feature
技术贸易壁垒 的特点
（一）广泛 性，从产品 到生产过程， 技术壁垒无 处不在。
（二）形式上 的合法性，贸 易壁垒大多以 国内国际公开 立法的形式存 在。
LOGO
Intemational Trade Barriers
product by John&Jiaqi Zhou
目 录
1 2
Intemational Trade Barriers and classifications
Technical barriers Technical barriers' feature the cause of technical barriers case of technical barriers case analysis the influence on our enterprise
客观原因：WTO贸易规则原则上 不反对成员国规定必要的卫生和 技术要求
Company Logo
case analysis
【案情】 浙江一家专门从事女装出口的制衣公司将一批成衣按订单要求发往德国时， 却被拒之门外。纳闷不已的经营者被告知：不是服装尺寸不对路，而是小小 的钮扣出了大问题——不符合环保要求 浙江绍兴雪尔服饰有限公司董事长蒋国良告诉记者，纺织品出口在欧盟 国家的检验中有几项重要的指标就是染料中的偶氮和19种分散染料（染原 料的几种有害化学成分）是否超标。入世后，作为纺织大县的绍兴出现了空 前的出口好势头，但不少绍兴纺织品在欧洲国家屡屡受挫，多数问题出在染 料上。 痛定思痛，永通集团积极寻求破解绿色壁垒之法。当初，国内化工行业 还没有环保染料，永通就用国外的，尽管在大力开源节流之后，成本还是高 了30%，出口几乎无利可图，但是永通人下定决心，要在世界市场上打响 这张“绿色”牌。集团不仅将染料全部改为环保型产品，还斥资200多万 元在企业内部建立了检测中心。 破解了绿色壁垒后的永通集团如同掌握了阿里巴巴“芝麻开门”的秘诀一 样，顺利打开了欧洲市场，并牢牢占据了世界市场中的份额。这家10多年 前还名不见经传的民营企业，去年在全国印染行业中创下了产量、销售、出 口三项全国冠军，外贸出口超过1亿美元，产品行销75个国家，其中，欧 美国家占了40％。今年前三个月，产品出口又比上年同期增长了60％，让 业内人士连连称奇。如今，随着国内环保染料价格的总体走低，永通集团的 效益显著提高。总经理李传海深有感触地说：“绿色壁垒不可怕，关键是要 图‘破壁’。
国际贸易实务英文版课后练习参考答案
练习参考答案Chapter 1流动性过剩excess liquidity自给自足self-sufficient经济资源economic resources直接投资direct investment国际收支balance of payments易货交易barter出口退税export tax rebate倾销dumping出口型经济增长export-driven economic growth东道国host country贸易差额balance of trade贸易顺差／贸易逆差favorable ／unfavorable balance of trade欧盟European Union国际收支顺差／国际收支逆差favorable ／unfavorable balance of payments有形贸易visible trade无形贸易invisible trade货物贸易trade in goods服务贸易trade in servicesⅢThe chart above shows the U.S.imports from China,U.S.exports to China and the trade balance.The U.S.has a negative trade balance with China,and it has been growing.During the period from 1997 to 2003,imports from China have grown 244％while exports to China have grown 221％，indicating that the trade deficit is increasing.There had already been a sizeable trade balance deficit with China in 1996,totalling ＄39.5 billion at the end of the year.Ⅳ1.Export goods are tangible goods sent out of countries.2.Trade in services are international earnings other than those derived from the exporting and importing of tangible goods．3.Import goods are tangible goods brought in.4.International trade is all business transactions that involve two or more countries.5.FDI is one that gives the investor a controlling interest in a foreign company.6.Investment is used primarily as financial means for a company to earn more money on its money with relative safety.Ⅴ1.International trade,is the fair and deliberate exchange of goods and ／or services across national boundaries.It concerns trade operations of both import and export and includes the purchase and sale of both visible and invisible goods.2.In today’s complex economic world,neither individuals nor nations areself-sufficient.Nations participate in the international trade for many reasons.As to the economic reasons,no nation has all of the economic resouces （land,labor and capital）that it needs to develop its economy and culture,and no country enjoys a particular item sufficient enough to meet its needs.As for the preference reasons,international trade takes place because of innovation of style.Besides,every nation can specialize in a certain field and enjoy a comparative advantage in some particular area in terms of trade so that they need to do business with each other to make use of resources more efficiently and effectively.3.In measuring the effectiveness of global trade,nations carefully follow two key indicators,namely,balance of trade and balance of payments.4.FDI,the abbreviation form Foreign Direct Investment,means buying of permanent property and business in foreign nations.It occurs when acquisition of equity interest in aforeign company is made.The great significance of FDI for China might be that：FDI solve the problem of capital shortage for China so that China may spend the money on importing advanced equipment and technologies for its infrastructure,national supporting industry,key projects,etc.Chapter 2关税壁垒tariff barriers非关税壁垒non-tariff barriers从量税specific duties配额quota保护性关税protective tariff市场失灵market failure幼稚产业infant industry许可证制度licensing system财政关税revenue tariff政府采购government procurement贸易保护主义trade protectionism从价税Ad valorem Duties最低限价floor price本地采购规则“buy local”rules增加内需raise domestic demandDomestic content 国内含量Red-tape barriers 进口环节壁垒Export susidies 出口补贴Binding quota 绑定配额Absolute quotas 绝对配额VER 自愿出口限制Tariff-rate quotas 关税配额Zero quota 零配额“Buy local”rules 本地采购原则Ⅱ1.Protectionism means the deliberate use or encouragement of restrictions on imports to enable relatively inefficient domestic producers to compete successfully with foreign producers.保护主义是指蓄意使用或鼓励进口限制，以此使本国相对效率低的产品能成功地和外国产品竞争。
关于贸易壁垒英语作文初一
Trade barriers are measures imposed by governments to protect domestic industries from foreign competition.They come in various forms,including tariffs,quotas,and nontariff barriers.Heres a detailed composition on trade barriers suitable for a junior high school level:Title:Understanding Trade BarriersIntroduction:In the global economy,trade barriers are a common phenomenon.They are implemented by governments to shield their local industries from the intense competition posed by international markets.These barriers can be both beneficial and detrimental,depending on the perspective from which they are viewed.Tariffs:Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods,making them more expensive for consumers.This,in turn,encourages consumers to buy domestically produced goods. Tariffs can protect local industries from being overwhelmed by cheaper foreign alternatives,thus preserving jobs and supporting the domestic economy.Quotas:Quotas are limitations on the quantity of a particular product that can be imported into a country within a specific time frame.By restricting the amount of foreign goods,quotas protect domestic producers from being flooded by an excess of imports,which could lead to the collapse of local businesses.Nontariff Barriers:Nontariff barriers encompass a wide range of measures that do not involve direct taxes or quotas.These can include regulations,standards,and licensing requirements that make it more difficult for foreign goods to enter the market.While these barriers can protect consumers from potentially harmful products,they can also be used to unfairly discriminate against foreign goods.Positive Aspects of Trade Barriers:1.Job Protection:By supporting local industries,trade barriers can help preserve jobs and maintain employment levels within the country.2.Industry Development:They can provide a nurturing environment for domestic industries to grow and innovate without the pressure of immediate foreign competition.3.National Security:In some cases,trade barriers can be used to protect strategic industries that are vital to national security.Negative Aspects of Trade Barriers:1.Increased Prices:Tariffs and quotas can lead to higher prices for consumers,as the cost of imported goods increases.2.Limited Choices:Consumers may have fewer options to choose from,as the variety of goods available in the market is reduced.3.Strained International Relations:Trade barriers can lead to trade wars and strained relations between countries,as they may retaliate with their own barriers. Conclusion:While trade barriers can offer shortterm protection to domestic industries,they are not a sustainable solution for longterm economic growth.Encouraging fair competition and fostering innovation within industries can lead to more robust and competitive economies. It is essential for governments to strike a balance between protecting their economies and promoting international trade for mutual benefit.Recommendations:1.Gradual Reduction:Governments should consider gradually reducing trade barriers to allow for a smoother transition to a more open market.2.International Cooperation:Working with international partners to establish fair trade agreements can help minimize the negative impacts of trade barriers.3.Domestic Industry Support:Instead of relying solely on trade barriers,governments should invest in education,research,and development to strengthen domestic industries. Understanding trade barriers is crucial for students as it helps them grasp the complexities of international trade and the role of government policies in shaping economic outcomes.。
关于贸易壁垒英语作文初中
关于贸易壁垒英语作文初中Trade Barriers。
In recent years, trade barriers have become a hot topic in the international community. Trade barriers refer to the government-imposed restrictions on the movement of goodsand services between countries. They can take various forms, such as tariffs, quotas, subsidies, and technical barriers. While some argue that trade barriers are necessary toprotect domestic industries, others believe that theyhinder economic growth and global cooperation.One of the most common trade barriers is tariffs, which are taxes imposed on imported goods. Tariffs increase the price of imported products, making them less competitive in the domestic market. This protectionist measure aims to shield domestic industries from foreign competition and encourage consumers to buy locally-produced goods. However, tariffs can also lead to a decrease in consumer purchasing power and limit the availability of affordable products.Moreover, they can spark trade wars between countries, as one country's imposition of tariffs may trigger retaliatory measures from its trading partners.Another trade barrier is quotas, which limit the quantity of goods that can be imported or exported. Quotas are often used to protect domestic industries that are unable to compete with foreign producers on a level playing field. By restricting the supply of foreign goods, quotas artificially inflate prices, benefiting domestic producers but harming consumers. Additionally, quotas can lead to smuggling and black market activities, as individuals seek to bypass the restrictions and profit from the price differentials.Subsidies are also a common trade barrier. Governments provide financial support to domestic industries, enabling them to sell their products at lower prices than their foreign competitors. This practice aims to boost domestic production and employment. However, subsidies can distort market forces and lead to inefficient resource allocation. They can also spark disputes between countries, as foreignproducers argue that the subsidies give domestic industries an unfair advantage.Technical barriers, such as product standards and regulations, can also act as trade barriers. While these measures are intended to protect consumers and ensure product safety, they can be used as a means of protectionism. Developing countries often struggle to meet the stringent technical requirements imposed by developed nations, limiting their access to international markets. This creates an uneven playing field and hinders economic development.In conclusion, trade barriers have both positive and negative impacts on economies. While they may protect domestic industries and promote national self-sufficiency, they also limit consumer choice, increase prices, and hinder global cooperation. It is important for countries to strike a balance between protecting their industries and promoting free and fair trade. International cooperation and dialogue are necessary to address trade barriers and create a more inclusive and prosperous global economy.。
关税壁垒的英语作文
关税壁垒的英语作文Title: Understanding Tariff Barriers。
In today's globalized economy, tariff barriers have become a significant aspect of international trade relations. Tariffs, essentially taxes on imported goods, are employed by governments for various reasons, ranging from protecting domestic industries to generating revenue. However, they also have profound implications on trade dynamics, economic growth, and consumer welfare. In this essay, we will delve into the intricacies of tariff barriers, examining their impact on economies and trade relationships.Firstly, it's crucial to understand the rationale behind imposing tariffs. Governments often implementtariffs to shield domestic industries from foreign competition. By making imported goods more expensive,tariffs aim to encourage consumers to purchase domestically produced goods, thus supporting local industries andpreserving jobs. Additionally, tariffs can serve as asource of government revenue, especially in developing countries with limited fiscal resources.However, while tariffs may provide short-term benefitsto domestic industries, they can also lead to several adverse effects. One of the most significant consequencesis the distortion of comparative advantage. Comparative advantage, a fundamental concept in international trade, suggests that countries should specialize in producinggoods in which they have a lower opportunity cost. Tariffs disrupt this principle by artificially inflating the costof imported goods, thereby discouraging specialization and efficient allocation of resources.Moreover, tariffs often trigger retaliation fromtrading partners. When one country imposes tariffs on imports, its trading partners may respond in kind by imposing their tariffs on the originating country's exports. This retaliatory cycle can escalate into a trade war, characterized by tit-for-tat tariff increases, ultimately harming all involved economies. The recent trade tensionsbetween major economies serve as a stark reminder of the detrimental consequences of such actions.Furthermore, tariffs can exacerbate income inequality within a country. While they may protect jobs in certain industries, they also lead to higher prices for imported goods, disproportionately affecting low-income consumers who spend a larger portion of their income on basic necessities. This regressive impact undermines efforts to promote social equity and may deepen socio-economic disparities.In addition to their economic implications, tariffs also influence geopolitical dynamics. Trade relations often serve as a tool for diplomatic leverage, and the imposition of tariffs can strain international relations. Disputes over trade policies can escalate into broader geopolitical conflicts, as seen in recent tensions between major powers.Despite these challenges, there are alternative approaches to addressing trade imbalances and protecting domestic industries. Rather than resorting to tariffs,governments can pursue measures such as investment in education and technology to enhance competitiveness, fostering innovation and productivity growth. Additionally, multilateral trade agreements and institutions play a crucial role in promoting free and fair trade, providing a framework for resolving disputes and harmonizing trade policies.In conclusion, while tariff barriers remain a significant feature of international trade, their impact extends far beyond economic realms. While they may offer short-term benefits to certain industries, they also pose long-term risks to global prosperity, stability, and cooperation. By recognizing the complexities of tariff policies and exploring alternative approaches, policymakers can strive to create a more open, equitable, and sustainable global trading system.。
贸易壁垒英文作文
贸易壁垒英文作文下载温馨提示:该文档是我店铺精心编制而成，希望大家下载以后，能够帮助大家解决实际的问题。
文档下载后可定制随意修改，请根据实际需要进行相应的调整和使用，谢谢!并且，本店铺为大家提供各种各样类型的实用资料，如教育随笔、日记赏析、句子摘抄、古诗大全、经典美文、话题作文、工作总结、词语解析、文案摘录、其他资料等等，如想了解不同资料格式和写法，敬请关注!Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by theeditor. I hope that after you download them,they can help yousolve practical problems. The document can be customized andmodified after downloading,please adjust and use it according toactual needs, thank you!In addition, our shop provides you with various types ofpractical materials,such as educational essays, diaryappreciation,sentence excerpts,ancient poems,classic articles,topic composition,work summary,word parsing,copyexcerpts,other materials and so on,want to know different data formats andwriting methods,please pay attention!International trade is very important for countries. But there are always trade barriers. Tariffs are one kind of trade barrier. They make imported goods more expensive.Another trade barrier is quotas. They limit the amount of certain goods that can be imported. This can protect domestic industries.Technical regulations can also be a trade barrier. Different countries have different standards. It can be difficult for exporters to meet all of them.Non-tariff barriers are sometimes hard to deal with. They include things like customs procedures and red tape. These can slow down trade.。
贸易壁垒
Six Types of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade
1.Specific Limitations on Trade 2.Customs and Administrative Entry Procedures 3.Standards: ernment Participation in Trade: 5.Charges on imports: 6. Others: Voluntary export restraints Orderly marketing agreements
TO CHINA
• Trade Protectionism • Discriminate
The influence to China
• Antidumping tariffs • Technical Barriers to Trade
China’s attitude
1. Improve enterprise consciousness of antidumping 2. Give full play to the role of industry associations, chambers of Commerce 3.To establish effective early warning mechanism 4. Adjustment of export strategy 5. Increase investment of science and technology, improve product quality 6. Establish and improve the integrity of the accounting books
Examples of Non-Tariff Barriers to Trade
贸易壁垒英文短篇演讲稿
贸易壁垒英文短篇演讲稿HONG KONG —China’s notorious online controls have long been criticized as censorship by human rights groups, businesses, Chinese Internet users and others.Now they have earned a new label from the American government: trade barrier.United States trade officials have for the first time added China’s system of Internet filters and blocks — broadly known as the Great Firewall —to an annual list of trade impediments. The entry says that over the last decade, the limits have “posed a significant burden to foreign suppliers, hurting both Internet sites themselves, and users who often depend on them for business.”The report from the Office of the United States Trade Representative said that over the last year, the “outright blocking of websites a ppears to have worsened,” noting that eight of the top 25 most popular global sites are blocked in China.“Much of the blocking appears arbitrary; for example, a major home improvement site in the United States, which would appearwholly innocuous, is typical of sites likely swept up by the Great Firewall,” the report said.China blocks some of the biggest corporate names on the Internet, including services offered by Google, Facebook and Twitter. That can hobble the ability of foreign companies to do business in China, whether through blocked websites or workplaces that cannot reach Gmail, Google’s email service. China also blocks a growing number of foreign news outlets, including the website of The New York Times.Officials at China’s commerce and foreign affairs ministries, as well as at its top Internet regulatory agency, did not respond to requests for comment.In recent years, China and the United States have clashed over trade in the technology industry. Last year, the Obama administration responded to lobbying from American companies against a number of Chinese laws that the companies said were devised to push them out of China. Beijing toned down language in an anti terrorism law, and it scrapped a regulation restricting what foreign hardware could be sold to Chinese banks.Still, any effort by the United States to persuade China to reduce its Internet censorship would most likely be a nonstarter. The Chinese government considers the close control of online discourse a matter of national security, largely out of concerns about the Internet’s power to aid the organization of protests and the spread of dissent. As a result, Beijing has shown little flexibility on issues of censorship in the past, and it tends to block any Internet media it feels it does not have complete control over.Scott Kennedy, who holds the Freeman Chair in China Studies at the Center for Strategic and International Studies, said the move by the United States trade office illustrated the gulf between the attitude represented by Chin a’s heavy regulation of the Internet and the one put forward by the United States through trade agreements like the Trans-Pacific Partnership.“China is far less willing to separate commercial and national security concerns,” he wrote in an email. “This di fference in approach is unlikely to disappear anytime soon, no matter how much the U.S. highlights the issue.”China cites the threat of online espionage, pointing todisclosures by Edward J. Snow den, the former National Security Agency contractor, that showed American intelligence efforts to use American hardware abroad to gather information.Online filters in China create an Internet largely walled off from the rest of the world, violating the fundamental idea of the web as an open channel of communication among people across the globe. Detractors say that the practice is anti competitive, prohibits freedom of expression and ultimately damages Chinese economic growth by limiting access to information. Supporters of China’s policies say that the rules have allowed the country to foster a thriving set of domestic Internet companies.The United States trade office added China’s Internet censorship policies to its annual National Trade Estimate Report, released on March 31. The insertion was reported on April 1 by Inside U.S. Trade, a trade publication.American trade officials have scrutinized the Great Firewall in the past. In 2011, the United States trade office said that China’s filters were a commercial barrier that hurt American small businesses. The statement was among the formal questionssubmitted through the World Trade Organization to China about what laws and regulations dictated the availability of commercial websites in the country.Some of the largest American Internet companies and foreign trade groups have long lobbied the United States to treat censorship as a trade matter. For instance, in 2008, Google’s deputy general counsel testified before a Senate subcommittee that the United States government should make the matter a central issue in trade talks.。
国际结算中英文互译总结
面值：face value赊账：open account破产法：bankruptcy law印花税：stamp duty总资产：total assets贸易壁垒：trade barrier进口关税：import tariff资金转移：fund transfer有形贸易：tangible trade无形贸易：intangible trade国际惯例：international customs and practices 清算系统：clearing system银行竞争：banking competition国际支付：international payment缺乏经验：lack of expertise全球策略：global strategy专业服务：professional service财务报表：financial statement远期汇票：term bill跟单汇票：documentary draft流通工具：negotiable instrument授权签字：authorized signature金融机构：financial institution运输单据：shipping document托收指示：collection instruction拒绝证书：protest商业用途：commercial utility契约安排：contractual arrangement付款义务：obligation of payment独立责任：independent responsibility合同义务：contractual obligation信用评估：credit evaluation经济衰退：economic recession法律文件：legal document指定银行：nominated bank信誉调查：credit investigation提货担保：shipping guarantee转移风险：transfer risk信用额度：credit line汇款人账户：remitter's account可兑换货币：convertible currency大小写金额：amount in words and figuresSWIFT密押：SWIFT authentication key第二还款来源：the second source of repayment多式联运提单：multimodal transport document全球金融市场：global financial market需要时的代理：agent in case of need全球经济一体化：economic globalization带有不符点的单据：discrepant document有条件的付款承诺：conditional undertaking of payment无条件的支付承诺：unconditional promise of payment全球金融同业通讯协会：SWIFT无条件的书面支付命令：unconditional order of payment in writing海外分支机构和代理行：overseas branches and correspondent banks1.国际结算涉及有形贸易和无形贸易，外国投资，从其他国家借贷资金等等。
国贸务实(贸易壁垒对经济的影响)(英文)
科目：international trade and practice 代码：CS102X老师：Eng Back Heng学生：Cao Bo HanInternational tradeInternational trade is the exchange of goods and services between countries. This type of trade gives rise to a world economy, in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by global events. Since the 1990s, multilateral trade agreements and organizations such as the World Trade Organization have accelerated growth in free trade, enabling goods and services to cross borders more freely than in the past.Global trade allows wealthy countries to use their resources - whether labor, technology or capital - more efficiently. Because countries are endowed with different assets and natural resources (land, labor, capital and technology), some countries may produce the same good more efficiently and therefore sell it more cheaply than other countries. If a country cannot efficiently produce an item, it can obtain the item by trading with another country that can. This is known as specialization in international trade.Let's take a simple example. Country A and Country B both produce cotton sweaters and wine. Country A produces 10 sweaters and six bottles of wine a year while Country B produces six sweaters and 10 bottles of wine a year. Both can produce a total of 16 units. Country A, however, takes three hours to produce the 10 sweaters and two hours to produce the six bottles of wine (total of five hours). Country B, on the other hand, takes one hour to produce 10 sweaters and three hours to produce six bottles of wine (total of four hours). but these two countries realize that they could produce more by focusing on those products with which they have a comparative advantage. Country A then begins to produce only wine and Country B produces only cotton sweaters. Each country can now create a specialized output of 20 units per year and trade equal proportions of both products. As such, each country now has access to 20 units of both products. We can see then that for both countries, the opportunity cost of producing both products is greater than the cost of specializing. More specifically, for each country, the opportunity cost of producing 16 units of both sweaters and wine is 20 units of both products (after trading). Specialization reduces their opportunity cost and therefore maximizes their efficiency in acquiring the goods they need. With the greater supply, the price of each product would decrease, thus giving an advantage to the end consumer as well.Note that, in the example above, Country B could produce both wine and cotton more efficiently than Country A (less time). This is called an absolute advantage, and Country B may have it because of a higher level of technology. However, according to international trade theory, even if a country has an absolute advantage over another, it can still benefit from specialization. Effects of the Economic Crisis on Free TradeThe global economic crisis of 2008 began with the collapse of the U.S. mortgage market and quickly spread around the world, affecting the economies of other nations and impacting all aspects of the international economy, including global trade. The most obvious effect of the international economic crisis has been a reduction in overall trade activity among nations. The Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas reported in 2009 that international trade declined nearly 12 percent that year. For leading economic powers such as the United States, exports declined by 13.6 percent, while developing nations experienced a smaller decline of about seven percent, the Dallas Fed reported Trade finance, according to the Dallas Federal Reserve bank, includes loans and insurance policies tied to international transactions, including credit given by exporters and guarantees given by export credit agencies. The global financial crisis, however, reduced the market for trade finance, making it more difficult to obtain credit for global transactions. The International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) reported in 2008 that the lack of affordable trade finance especially affects developing nations, which rely on such financing to fully participate in the global economy. Without access to affordable financing, international trade is less able to absorb the effects of a global recession, according to ICTSD.A reduction in overall trade activity means nations export fewer goods. The Congressional Research Service (CRS), in a report on the global economic crisis and its effects, wrote that exports help nations obtain the foreign funds needed to buy imports and pay foreign debt. A decline in export revenues reduces the value of a country's currency, which raises interest rates for households, companies and government entities, according to CRS.Rising protectionismProtectionism occurs when governments begin setting limits on imported goods or setting price restrictions on specific products. Governments will attempt to save domestic jobs during an economic downturn or crisis. Most economic downturns result in massive layoffs for domestic jobs. Limiting the amount of imports from a free trade policy may help companies avoid these layoffs and increase the domestic production of consumer goods.An increase in free trade reduces protectionist policies, such as tariffs and quotas, designed to make foreign goods more expensive and thus, less attractive to domestic consumers. Decreases in trade have the opposite effect, however, and result in increased protectionism. The Congressional Research Service reported that the international financial crisis triggered new protectionist measures. Citing World Trade Organization figures, CRS stated that India, China, the European Union, Russia and others enacted new restrictions on trade in the wake of the financial problems that gripped the world in 2008.Currency fluctuations related to an economic crisis can have negative effectsduring the free trade process. Countries often important export goods based on the currency exchange rates from one country to another. If a country’s currency rises or falls during the economic crisis, this can significantly change the advantage of importing and exporting goods. An increase in the currency exchange rate may lead to more expensive goods and fewer imports in the free trade market.The crisis has shown the dangers of the free trade paradigm: in times of crisis, all countries want to export their way out of the crisis through export strategies, which is a situation that existed in the pre-war period in the 1930s. However, export strategies that lead to trade surpluses in one country result in trade deficits elsewhere. The Bretton Woods system after World War II had designed a mechanism to intervene against countries with trade and current account surpluses or deficits, through the IMF. However, this and other attempts failed to tackle trade imbalances and the US did not want to submit itself to external control.Now, the WTO’s negotiation round, the so-called Doha Development agenda, is stalled because the advanced countries want more access for their exports to overcome the crisis, while many developing countries still have not seen many of their interests included in the current draft texts. In FTAs, advanced countries are pushing hard to defend their comparative advantage (such as access for services, more protection of intellectual property rights) and maintain access to raw materials (a major comparative weakness of the EU). At the same time, more constituencies in the rich countries raise their voices to not allow more imports e.g. in US and EU’s FTA with South Ko rea. /list_6891878_effects-economic-crisis-trade.html/effects-economic-crisis-trade-1667.html/paper/impact-free-trade-financial-crisis-%E2%80%A6-and-vice-versa/articles/03/112503.asp#axzz1XCTLZaBG/articles/03/112503.asp#ixzz1XCWP6VH1/issue/38/free-trade-and-globalization/article/40/criticisms-of-current-forms-of-free-trad e。
国内法规,国际标准和技术贸易壁垒【外文翻译】
外文翻译原文Domestic regulation, international standards, and technical barriers to tradeMaterial Source:Griffith Law School, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia Author:JAN MCDONALD2. The TBTA and international standards2.1 The TBTA’s harmonization objectivesIt has long been accepted that domestic policies and laws can nullify or impair the purported benefits of trade policies, and that the WTO must therefore reach beyond border measures (Bhagwati, 1996: 23–24). The GATT’s national treatment and MFN obligations do this to some extent, but the growth in non-tariff barriers to trade during the 1960s–1970s prompted GATT parties to negotiate the Standards Code, the predecessor to the TBTA, in the Tokyo Round. The addition of the SPSA during the Uruguay Round stemmed from the failures of the Standards Code to curtail the growth in technical regulations in food and agricultural products (Marceau and Trachtman, 2002: 813–815). The TBTA and its companion on food and plant safety now add considerably to the disciplines on domestic regulatory autonomy that are contained in the GATT.The Preamble to the TBTA sheds light on the Agreement’s underlying harmonization claims. Its key trade concerns are to promote transparency by eliminating a country’s ability to choose rules that have greater protective effect and to facilitate trade expansion with associated economies of scale (TBTA, Preamble; WTO CTBT, 1995, annex 4, Principle 10). These objectives do not necessarily require regulatory harmonization in the form of a single international standard or rule. If the basis of the claim for harmonization is simply to achieve economies of scale or to address transparency concerns, Cassis de Dijon makes clear that mutual recognition would be equally appropriate (Leebron, 1996; Bhagwati,1996: 9; Bhagwati and Srinivasan, 1996: 15). But mutual recognition does not respond to concerns that the regulatory regime of another country imposes transboundary costs, hinders the implementation of domestic laws, o r is somehow ‘unfair’ (Leebron, 1996: 94). Such concerns frequently underpin domestic regulation in fields of consumersafety and environmental health.Accordingly, the TBTA strives for a balance between trade facilitation and domestic regulatory objectives. Its starting premise is the right of Members to introduce product requirements that serve a range of legitimate non-trade objectives, including health, and environmental and consumer protection. In this respect, the TBTA is consistent with both trade and consumer concerns about harmonization. The Transatlantic Consumer Dialogue (TACD) ‘Principles for International Harmonization’, for example, advocate the preservation of cultural preferences in the field of health and safety, identifying such regulations as inappropriate subjects of harmonization (TACD, 2000, Principle 1). Unlike the TACD Principles, however, the TBTA still places strong harmonizing disciplines on the regulatory autonomy of Members in these policy spheres. These disciplines are considered further below.2.2 The scope of the TBTAThe TBTA does not attempt to specify the final content of rules or requirements.Rather, it is concerned only with the reduction of difference between Members(Leebron, 1996: 42). It therefore sets general rules for how Members may develop product requirements and conformity assessment procedures for testing compliance with substantive rules. These general rules include a duty to consider adoption of international standards for products and conformity assessment procedures; a duty to participate in international standard-setting; criteria with which standards and conformity must comply when international standards are not used, such as MFN, national treatment, necessity, and least trade restrictiveness ; and mutual recognition.The significance of the TBTA’s endorsement of international standards and related disciplines is obviously affected by the Agreement’s reach. The TBTA is concerned with technical regulations and standards; only measures that fall within the defin ition of technical regulation or standard are subject to the TBTA’s disciplines. If a measure does not fall within either of these definitions, its WTOconsistency is examined under either the SPSA (if the measure sets food safety, or plant or animal health requirements) or the GATT (for other restrictions on trade in goods). One might expect that Members wishing to constrain the use of trade measures as instruments of non-trade policy, or the abuse of product regulations for trade protection purposes would advocate broad definitions that lead to broad TBTA coverage. Broader subject matter coverage would supplement the arguably weaker GATT disciplines.3 The discussion below suggests, however, that the AB’s currentinterpretation leaves many domestic regulations that indirectly affect trade in goods outside the scope of TBTA obligations.2.3 TBTA disciplines for adopting international standardsFor measures that constitute TBTA technical regulations, the Agreement imposes a range of substantive and procedural disciplines on Members. TBTA Article 2.1 synthesizes the national treatment and most-favoured nation principles contained in GATT Articles I and III into a single non-discrimination obligation in respect of like products. Members are also required to avoid creating unnecessary obstacles to trade and to adopt the least trade restrictive means of achieving legitimate objectives (TBTA Article 2.2). These obligations have been analysed in detail elsewhere (Marceau and Trachtman, 2002: 874–875; Neumann and Tuerk, 2003). The following discussion therefore focuses on the provisions dealing with the adoption of international standards as domestic technical regulations. The TBTA does not mandate harmonization of product standards, but provides strong incentives for the adoption of international standards. Article 2.4 requires Members to use international standards as a basis for technical regulations, where standards exist, but it permits higher standards in some circumstances. Members may adopt their own measure where no international norm has been established or where the international measure would be ineffective or inappropriate to fulfil a particular policy objective, ‘for instance because of fundamental climatic or geographical factors or fundamental technological problems’ (TBTA, Articles 2.2 and Domestic regulation, international standards, and technical barriers to trade 2572.4). Technical regulations that accord with international standards are rebuttably presumed to be consistent with the TBTA’s obligation to avoid unnecessary obstacles to trade (TBTA, Article 2.5).This provision was contested in Sardines because the EC Regulation’s restrictive naming standards departed from the standards set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). Codex adopted a standard for canned sardines and sardinetype products in 1978 and revised it in 1995 (‘Codex Stan 94’). Codex Stan 94 set quality and minimum content standards for products containing fish and regulated product naming and labelling. Under Codex Stan 94, the name ‘sardines ’ was reserved exclusively for the species Sardina pilchardus, but other species on the list could use the name ‘sardines’ in conjunction with a country, regional or common name qualifier (Codex Stan 94, Article 6.1.1). Peru argued that the EC Regulation prohibited the marketing of Peruvian Sardinops Sagax as ‘Pacific Sardines ’, andthat this was inconsistent with Codex Stan 94 as the relevant international standard. Accordingly, it argued that the EC Regulation was inconsistent with TBTA Article 2.4. This claim raised several important issues for the operation of the TBTA standardization obligation.TBTA application to pre-existing product requirementsThe Sardines dispute clarified that WTO members are obliged to review technical regulations that predate the WTO Agreement upon the introduction of new international standards. Article 2.4 says that ‘where technical regulations are required.they shall be based on international standards’. This language is capable of implying a temporal trigger (‘at the time regulations are required ’) or a circumstantial trigger (‘ in situations where regulations are required’) for the obligation to use international standards. Peru advocated a circumstantial trigger, arguing that the obligation refers to all on-going circumstances that require regulation, even where those regulations are already in place.5The equivalent harmonization provision of the SPSA was considered in the Hormones dispute. In Hormones, the AB concluded that the international standards provision of the SPSA applied to all existing and future domestic measures, there being no evidence of an intention to exempt existing measures from SPSA disciplines (Hormones AB, 128). This decision was based in part on the language of the SPSA, which refers to b oth ‘adopting or maintaining’ SPS measures, but more broadly on a contextual reading of the SPSA’s obligations. This context included reference to Article XVI:4 of the WTO Agreement, which requires Members to ‘ensure the conformity of its laws, regulations and administrative procedures with its obligations as provided in the [covered] agreements’.3. The implication of the TBTA for international standardsWhile the TBTA does not mandate adoption of international standards, the Sardines decision demonstrates that it is certainly easier for a Member to defend product requirements that are based on, or adapted to suit, international standards. As well as promoting harmonization of domestic product requirements, the delegation of standard-setting functions to other international bodies achieves ‘political economies of scale’ by allowing a pooling of Members’ regulatory and technical resources (Howse, 2002: 101). Moreover, removing controversial standard- setting functions to international fora insulates Members from the pressure of domestic coalitions, albeit sometimes at the expense of national democratic processes (Leebron, 1996: 63–64). The device of quasi-legislative delegation alsohas the potential to address gaps in the WTO’s subject matter competence in po licy areas like health and environment (Marceau and Trachtman, 2002: 838). These factors should provide a powerful incentive to Members to contribute to their development. The TBTA calls on Members to ‘play a full part, within the limits of their resources, in the development of international standards for products for which they have adopted or intend to adopt regulations’ (TBTA Article 2.6). The following discussion considers two aspects of the quality and appropriateness of international standards, namely the composition of standards bodies and the range of bodies that the TBTA recognizes.3.1 Composition and decision makingThe proviso to TBTA Article 2.6, that Members should contribute to standards setting within the limits of their resources, points to a key deficiency in the composition of current bodies, namely, their northern bias. The TBTA defines an international organization as one whose Membership is open to at least all WTO Members (TBTA, Annex 1, 4). It undermines the very basis of the TBTA’s k ey harmonization mechanisms if that definition is purely theoretical because developing countries lack the resources and expertise to participate. While this north–south imbalance is hardly unique to standards bodies, their influential status in the new WTO regime has attracted increased attention to the problem (Wilson, 2001). Wilson suggests prioritizing the development of international standards for key areas that will deliver trade enhancement for both developed and developing countries, thus enabling developing countries to concentrate their resources and representation. The FAO has acknowledged the need to build the capacity of developing countries in Codex (FAO, 2002, 29) and a recent World Bank–Doha Development fund initiative, the ‘Standards and Trade Development Facility ’, is aimed at improving developing country representation. The success of the developments should be monitored closely. The SPS committee has this function in relation to international SPS standards, but no such role is given to the Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade, so there is no formal process for assessing improvements in the functioning of TBT standards bodies.A corollary of the northern bias is the over-representation of industry representatives on national delegations, creating internal tensions over who ‘represents ’ a nation (Hauselmann, 1996; Consumers International, 1999; Maskus and Wilson, 2000; Wilson, 2001: 12; Wallach, 2002: 835–837). This industry bias also manifests itself in the departmental lead agency representation – usually headedby trade or agriculture officials, rather than health or environment and in the general preference for an ‘experts group’ model of standards development (Piciotto, 2003). These developed country, industry, and ‘expert’ biases in the composition of standards bodies compound the risks inherent in their weaker procedural transparency and voting requirements. Domestic regulation, international standards, and technical barriers to trade 267 Removing the need for consensus in favour of a majority vote certainly makes standard setting easier, and insulates the WTO from criticism. It comes at a cost, however, to democratic decision making, which could ultimately undermine the legitimacy of international standards (Marceau and Trachtman, 2002: 840; Trachtman, 2003a: 72; in relation to SPSA standards bodies, Stewart and Johansen, 1998: 45, 52). Broadening the composition of standard-setting bodies and improving their decision-making procedures would enhance the legitimacy of the resulting standards. It would make them more democratic and accountable, and enable them to accommodate perspectives that acknowledge the subjective and contingent nature of specialist knowledge.译文国内法规，国际标准和技术贸易壁垒（节选）资料来源:格里菲斯法学院，格里菲斯大学，昆士兰，澳大利亚作者：JAN MCDONALD2.与国际接轨的TBTA2.1 TBTA的统一目标长期以来一直认为，对国内政策和法律可以取消或损害的贸易政策的本意是利益，因此，世贸组织必须超越边界措施（巴格瓦蒂，1996：23-24）。