文学导论知识点

poetry（一）Elements of PoetryRhyme (Rime)Rhyme is the repetition of the stressed vowel sound and all succeeding sounds 1. Single or Masculine rhyme单（阳）韵----rhyming sounds involve only one syllable.E.g.cold, bold;thing, king;day, way1.Double or Feminine rhyme双叠（阴）韵----rhyming sounds involve two or more syllables.E.g.begin, again；flatter, matter;3. Triple rhyme三叠韵----a kind of feminine rhyme in which identical stressed vowel sounds are followed by two identical unstressed syllables.E.g. machinery, scenery;tenderly, slenderly;spitefully, delightfully;remember, September4. Internal rhyme（行内韵）----at least one of the rhyming words are within the line. E.g. “Each narrow cell in which we dwell”; “the grains beyond age, the dark veins of her mother”5. End rhyme(or Terminal rhyme)（行尾韵）----the both rhyming words occur at the ends of lines. (The commonest and most consciously sought-after sound repetition in English poetry.) E.g.Under my window, a clean rasping soundWhen the spade sinks into gravelly ground.Let us roll all our strength, and allOur Sweetness, up into one ball.6. Beginning Rhyme行首词韵----rhyme that occurs in the first syllable or syllables of successive lines. E.g.Why should I have returned?My knowledge would not fit into theirs.I found untouched the desert of the unknown.7. Interlaced or Crossed Rhyme交错韵----Words in the middle of each line rhyme. It occurs in long couplets, especially the hexameter. E.g.Laurel is green for a season, and love is sweet for a day,But love grows bitter with treason, and laurel outlives not May.8.Perfect or Exact rhyme（全韵）----differing consonant sounds are followed by identical stressed vowel sounds, and the following sounds are identical.E.g.foe, toe; meet, fleet; buffer, rougher; fix, sticks;9 .Half rhyme or off rhyme, near rhyme, oblique rhyme, slant rhyme)（斜韵）----the feminine rhymes that do not rhyme completely. E.g.frightful, slightly;yellow, pillow；mirth, forth；trolley, bully10.ye rhyme（视觉韵）----formed by words that look alike a rhymed unit but donot have the same sounds. E.g. cough, bough；home, some; hear, bear11. Approximate rhymesAlliteration头韵----repetition of initial sounds. E.g.a ll the a wful a uguries..B ring me my b ow of b urning gold;more often defined as the repetition of consonants. E.g.a f ter li f e’s f it f ul f ever（二）Rhyme scheme（押韵格式）----the pattern of alternating end rhymes in a stanza or poem. In analysis of a rhyme scheme, each rhyme is represented by a small letter. E.g.Love is a sickness full of woes, (a)All remedies refusing; (b)A plant that with most cutting grows (a)Most barren with best using. (b)Why so? (c)（三）Stanza----a group of lines of verse forming one of the units or divisions of a poem. （It is usually recurrent, characterized by a regular pattern, with respect to or under determination of, the number of lines, and arrangement of meter of rhyme.）Common stanza forms include the couplet, the triplet, and the quatrainCouplet----two successive rhyming lines:For thy sweet love rememb’red such wealth bringsThat then I scorn to change my state with kings.（The couplet is one of the main verse units in Western literature, and is a form of great antiquit y. Chaucer was one of the first English poets to use it and it’s generally thought that Chaucer developed the form.）Triplet----a stanza of three lines; an individual poem of three lines. E. g.When as in silks my Julia goesThen, then (methinks) how sweetly flowsThat liquefaction of her clothes.Next, when I cast mine eyes and seeThat brave vibration each way free;O how that glittering taketh me!Quatrain ----a stanza or an individual poem of four lines rhymed or unrhymed. It occurs as the commonest of all stanzaic forms in Eastern and Western poetries, and lends itself to wide variation in meter and rhyme. E.g.I envy not in any moodsThe captive void of noble rage,The linnet born within the cageThat never knew the summer woods;I envy not the beast that takesHis license in the field of time,unfettered by the sense of crime,To whom a conscience never wakes.Other Stanzaic forms：Quintain----a stanza or an individual poem of 5 lines.Sexain, or sixain, sextain, hexastich/`heksəstik/ ----a stanza of 6 linesHeptastich/`heptəstik/ ----a stanza or an individual poem of 7 lines.Sonnet----a 14-line poem./（四）Metrical RhythmAccents and pausesIn poetry, the end of a line of verse is itself a mark of punctuation.If the last word of a line is followed by no punctuation and is part of a continuing grammatical unit like a prepositional phrase, we call the line run-on, or enjambed. （跨行连续）E.g. so much dependsupona red wheelbarrowglazed with rainwaterbeside the whitechickens.(William Carlos Williams)Metrical RhythmMeter (韵律，格律)----derived from the Greek word “metron” meaning “measure”. Refers to the regular pa ttern of stressed (marked as O or /) and unstressed syllables (marked as o or ~; u; x etc.). E. g.morning O o (or: / ~)verbalize O o o (or: / ~ ~)tomorrow o O o (or: ~ / ~)again o O (or: ~ /)Metrical RhythmNames for Meters:1. Iamb /`aiæmb/(Iambic /ai`æmbik/ adj.): an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. 抑扬格（英）；短长格（西、拉）o O (~ /) (da-dum)E. g. again o O (or: ~ /)Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?Thou art more lovely and more temperateo O o O o O o O o OShall I compare thee to a summer’s day?o O o O o O o O o OThou art more lovely and more temperate.2. Trochee /`trəuki:/(trochaic /trəu`keiik/ adj.): a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable. 扬抑格（英）；长短格（西、拉）O o (/ ~ )(dum-da)E. g. morning O o (or: / ~)Tiger! Tiger! burning brightIn the forests of the night.O o O o O o OTiger! Tiger! burning brightO o O o O o OIn the forests of the night.OR:/ ~ / ~ / ~ /Tiger! Tiger! burning bright/ ~ / ~ / ~ /In the forests of the night.3. Anapest or Anapaest/`ænəpi:st/ (Anapestic or Anapaestic /ænə`pi:stik/ adj.): two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllable抑抑扬格（英）；短短长格（西、拉）. o o O (~ ~ /) (da-da-dum)E. g. beneficial… the old inn and the lights, and the fireAnd the fiddler’s old tune and the shuffling of feeto o O o o O o o O… the old inn and the lights, and the fireo o O o o O o o O o o O And the fiddler’s old tune and the shuf fling of feet4. Dactyl /`dæktil/(Dactylic /dæk`tilik/ adj.): a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables.扬抑抑格；长短短格O o o (/ ~ ~)E. g. verbalize O o o (/ ~ ~)O o o O o o O o o O oJust for a handful of silver he left us,O o o O o o O o o OJust for a riband to stick in his coat –5. syllables.扬抑抑格；长短短格O o o (/ ~ ~)E. g. verbalize O o o (/ ~ ~)O o o O o o O o o O oJust for a handful of silver he left us,O o o O o o O o o OJust for a riband to stick in his coat –6. Spondee /`spɔndi:/(Spondaic /spɔn`deiik/ adj.): a stressed syllable followed by another stressed syllable. 扬扬格O O (/ /) most often used as a substitute for an iamb or trocheeE. g.Smart lad, to slip betimes awayO O o O o O o O（五）Foot诗的音步----A unit of poetic meter of stressed and unstressed syllables is called a foot. Names for feet:♦Monometer/mɔ`nɔmitə(r)/ : one foot 单音步诗行♦Dimeter/`dimitə(r)/ : two feet 二音步诗行；二步格诗行♦Trimeter/`trimitə(r)/ : three feet 三音步诗行♦Tetrameter/te`træmitə(r)/ : four feetPentameter/pen`tæmitə(r)/ : five feet♦Hexameter/hek`sæmitə(r)/ : six feet♦Heptameter/hep`tæmitə(r)/ : seven feet♦Octameter/ɔk`tæmitə(r)/ : eight feet♦Nonameter/nɔ`næmitə(r) : nine feet( lines containing more than seven feet do not often occur in English verse) Illustrations of metrical rhythms: iambic pentametero O o O o O o O o OShall I compare thee to a summer’s day?o O o O o O o O o OThou art more lovely and more temperate.o O o O o O o O o O Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,o O o O o O o O o OAnd summer’s lease hath all too short a date:Two terms marking the metrical pattern and rhyme scheme of a poem: ♦Scansion（音律分析：将诗行分成音步，标出重音位置，算出音节）----to mark the stressed and unstressed syllables and rhyme scheme is to scan.♦Caesura/si:`zjuərə/(诗行中根据意思而作的）主要停顿---- a pause in a line of verse dictated by sense or natural speech rhythm rather than by metrics is called caesura, which is often marked with “‖”Illustration of caesurae:Mean while, ‖declining from the noon of dayThe sun obliquely ‖shoots his burning ray;The hungry judges ‖soon the sentence signAnd wretches hang ‖that jurymen may dine …Kinds of Poetry1. Ballad2. Lyric3.Narrative Poem4.Epic5.Sonnet6.Ode7.Elegy 8.Pastoral9.Blank Verse 10.Free VerseNarrative Poem （叙事诗）:A. If a poem mainly tells a relatively complete story, it is called a narrative poem. B. widespread in many literatures and continue to be written and read.Epic （史诗）:a)one of the ancient types of poetry.b)plays a very important role in early development of literature andcivilizationc)long narrative poem of great scale and grandiose style about heroes who areusually warriors or even demigodsd)deals with noble characters and heroic deedse)incorporates myth, legend and folk talef)reflects national history, thus more cultural than literarySonnet（十四行诗）:a)one of the most conventional and influential forms of poetry inEurope----popular in Renaissance Italy, and thereafter in Spain, Portugal and other European countries.b)German and English Romantics revived the form, which remains popular.c) a lyric invariably of 14 lines, usually in iambic /ai` æmbik/ pentameter /pen'tæmitə/ , restricted to a definite rhyme scheme.Sonnet: there are three prominent types of sonnet, all named after their founders or perfecters1)Shakespearean Sonnet莎士比亚体十四行诗♦ also called Elizabethan sonnet or English sonnet.♦ structured of three quatrains and a terminal couplet♦ in iambic pentameter♦ with the rhyme pattern abab cdcd efef gg.2) Petrarchan Sonnet彼特拉克体十四行诗♦ also called Italian sonnet----originated in Italy in the 13th century.♦ consummated by Francesco Petrarch, a crowned laureate♦ contains an octave/`ɔktiv/（意大利十四行诗的前八行）with the rhyme pattern abbaabba and a sestet/ses`tet/（十四行诗的最后六行）of various rhyme patterns such as cdecde or cdcdcd3) Spenserian Sonnet斯宾塞体十四行诗♦ is considered by some a variation of Shakespearean sonnet.♦ comprises three quatrains and a couplet♦ in iambic pentameter with the rhyme scheme abab bcbc cdcd ee.♦ some poets write sonnets on a single subject or under one controlling ideaand thus create a sonnet sequence or sonnet cycle(六)Elements of Poetry----Tone1)the poise, mood, voice, attitude and outlook of the poet2)the speaker or the poet’s attitude toward his subject, his audience or evenhimself.3)personality reflected4)discussed usually in ordinary vocabulary. i.e. cold, eager, uncertain, boastful,protesting, indifferent, positive, optimisticJudged by synthetic analysis of all the elements involved in the poem (imagery, metaphor, understatement, etc), especially its diction and sentence patternsElements of Poetry----Image1) a word picture to evoke sense impressions in the reader’s mind2)representation of sense experience through language3)the soul of poetry as language is the body of poetry4)One image is frequently the result of the cooperation of the severalsenses and sometimes can be rather abstract. i.e. freshair----cooperation; death/coffin----abstract5)imagery6)All the images formed into a meaningful whole in a poem Functions of imagery:1.to create the atmosphere2.to provide an internal pattern3.focus the theme of the poemElements of Poetry----Themecontrolling idea or its central insightA novel: thought-provokingA poem: emotion-arousing.Elements of Poetry----Poetic Devices（1）Simile: a comparison of two things, indicated by some connective, usually like, as, than or a verb such as resembles.Your fingers are like mine.Your fingers are like sausages.e.g.O my Love’s like a red, red rose,That’s newly sprung in JuneO my Love’s like the melodieThat’s sweetly played in tune.（2）Metaphor: a statement that one thing is something else, which, in a literalsense, it is not.Your fingers are sausages.e.g. Oh, my love is a red, red rose.Oh, my love has red petals and sharp thorns.Oh, I placed my love into a long-stem vaseAnd I bandaged my bleeding thumb.（3）Conceit: originally means “concept” or “idea” and later came to mean “a fa nciful idea”. It is a metaphor or simile that is made elaborate (far-fetched), often extravagant.e.g. two lover’s souls are compared to the legs of the compasses.（4）Personification: a figure of speech in which a thing, an animal, or an abstract term (I.e. truth, nature) is made human.e.g. The Wind by James StephensThe wind stood up and gave a shout.He whistled on his fingers andKicked the withered leaves aboutAnd thumped the branches with his hand.And said he’d ki ll and kill and kill,And so he will and so he will.（5）the pun: often subjected to abuse as a “low” form of wit, the pun is essentially a kind of metaphor that can be used lightly and facetiously or for more serious purposes.e.g. Customer: Do you serve crab here?Waiter: Yes Sir, we serve everyone!（6）apostrophe: a way of addressing someone or something invisible or not ordinarily spoken to. Such as an inanimate object (spade!), some dead or absent person (Milton!), an abstract thing( Return, delights!) , or a spirit (soul). A poet uses apostrophe to announce a lofty and serious tone, giving life to the inanimate and giving life to the intangible (a way of speaking to it person to person).e.g. Death, ain’t you got no shame?（7）metonymy(换喻，转喻): the name of a thing is substituted for that of another closely associated with it.e.g. the White House decided.（8）synecdoche(提喻): a kind of metonymy, is the use of a part of a thing to stand for the whole of it or vice versa.e.g. the famous port used to be a harbor which was crowded with masts.All the plants in the cold country are turning green in this smiling year.（9）transferred epithet(转喻): another kind of metonymy, a device of emphasis in which the poet attributes some characteristic of a thing to another thing closely associated with it.e.g. drinking night.（10）oxymoron: a device in which incongruous or contradictory terms are combined.e.g. deafening silence.dully brightlove-hate relationshipliving death,creative destruction,tearful joysour-sweet day（11）paradox: occurs in a statement that at first strikes us as self-contradictory but that on reflection makes some sense.e.g. the faster he tried to finish, the longer it seemed to take him.In fact, it appears that the teachers of English teach English so poorly largely because they teach grammar so well.（12）hyperbole or overstatement: a statement of emphasis containing exaggeratione.g. For she was beautiful----her beauty madeThe bright world dim, and everything besideSeemed like the fleeting image of a shade.（13）understatement: the opposite of overstatement, implying more than is saide.g. she was not without ambition.（14）ambiguity: the state or situation in which more thatn one interpretation is possible.（15）onomatopoeia: the formation or use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to.e.g. a donkey heehaws a cat mews bees buzz。