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/locate/rggThe stages and duration of formation of gold mineralizationat copper-skarn deposits (Altai–Sayan folded area )I.V. Gaskov *, A.S. Borisenko, V.V. Babich, E.A. NaumovV.S. Sobolev Institute of Geology and Mineralogy, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences,prosp. Akad. Koptyuga 3, Novosibirsk, 630090, RussiaReceived 20 March 2009; accepted l6 November 2009AbstractGold mineralization at copper-skarn deposits (Tardanskoe, Murzinskoe, Sinyukhinskoe, Choiskoe) in the Altai–Sayan folded area is related to different hydrothermal-metasomatic formations. It was produced at 400–150 ºC in several stages spanning 5–6 Myr, which determined the diversity of its mineral assemblages. Gold mineralization associated with magnetite bodies is spatially correlated with magnesian and calcareous skarns, whereas gold mineralization in crushing zones and along fault sutures in moderate- and low-temperature hydrothermal-metasomatic rocks (propylites, beresites, serpentinites, and argillizites) is of postskarn formation. Different stages were manifested with different intensities at gold deposits. For example, the Sinyukhinskoe deposit abounds in early high-temperature mineral assemblages; the Choiskoe deposit, in low-temperature ones; and the Tardanskoe and Murzinskoe deposits are rich in both early and late gold minerals. Formation of commercial gold mineralization at different copper-skarn deposits is due to the combination of gold mineralization produced at different stages as a result of formation of intricate igneous complexes (Tannu-Ola, Ust’-Belaya, and Yugala) composed of differentiated rocks from gabbros to granites.© 2010, V.S. Sobolev IGM, Siberian Branch of the RAS. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.Keywords: gold mineralization; skarns, copper-skarn deposits; hydrothermal-metasomatic formationsIntroductionRecent data on the isotope geology and geochronology of rocks and ores and geological data on the ore genesis gaps proved that ore deposits formed for a much longer time than was assumed earlier (Rundkvist, 1997). This is also true for commercial gold mineralization at many Cu-skarn deposits in the Altai–Sayan folded area (ASFA).Gold-containing Cu-skarn deposits are widespread in many ore districts of the ASFA: Gorny Altai (Sinyukhinskoe,Murzinskoe, Choiskoe), Kuznetsk Alatau (Natal’evskoe, Fe-dorovskoe), Gornaya Shoria (Maisko-Lebedskoe), and Tuva (Tardanskoe, Khopto). Most of them are commercial deposits (Fig. 1).Skarn formation processes at these deposits were related to the Early and Middle Paleozoic granitoid magmatism in the Tannu-Ola (eastern Tuva), Yugala (Sinyukha, northeastern Altai), and Ust’-Belaya (northwestern Altai) intrusive com-plexes (Gusev, 2007; Shokalsky et al., 2000). Formation of commercial gold mineralization was a longer and more intricate process (Gaskov, 2008). In most part of these deposits, gold mineralization is the product of multistage ore process, which is characterized by different mineral composi-tions and spatial occurrences. Almost all these deposits bear gold mineralization spatially and genetically related to skarns and aposkarns in assemblage with magnetite and sulfides (Korobeinikov and Matsyushevskii, 1976; Korobeinikov and Zotov, 2006; Korobeinikov et al., 1987; Vakhrushev, 1972)and gold mineralization isolated from skarns and represented by sulfide-containing (pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite)hydrothermal products of moderate-temperature assemblage in crushing zones (Shcherbakov, 1974). Often, the deposits also bear epithermal gold-containing assemblage with low-tem-perature sulfides, tellurides, and selenides usually developed at the final stage of mineral formation in rocks of different compositions, including sedimentary, igneous, and skarn (Gas-kov, 2008; Gaskov et al., 2005).The recently obtained ages of ore formation products and igneous rocks (Gaskov, 2008; Rudnev et al., 2004, 2006;Shokalsky et al., 2000) provide a new concept of the sequence of ore formation and its duration and relation with multiphasemagmatism.Russian Geology and Geophysics 51 (2010) 1091–1101*Corresponding author.E-mail address : gaskov@uiggm.nsc.ru (I.V. Gaskov)doi:10.1016/j.rgg.2010.0.0011068-7971/$-see front matter D 2010, IG M, Siberian Branch of the RAS.Published by E lsevier B.V .All rights reserved.V S. .Sabolev 9Let us dwell on the specific features of gold mineralization at particular deposits.Gold mineralization at Cu-skarn depositsThe Tardanskoe deposit is localized in the zone of the Kaa-Khem deep fault, in the exocontact part of the Kopto-Baisyut gabbro-diorite-plagiogranite massif (Fig. 2) (Korobe-inikov and Zotov, 2006; Korobeinikov et al., 1987). At the massif contact, Lower Cambrian volcanogenic-carbonate de-posits are transformed into magnesian and calcareous skarns described in detail earlier (Korobeinikov, 1999; Korobeinikov and Matsyushevskii, 1976; Korobeinikov et al., 1997). The skarn bodies are spatially close to aposkarn metasomatites bearing actinolite, tremolite, epidote, serpentine, chlorite, talc,quartz, carbonate, magnetite, and hematite.Gold mineralization at the deposit is of two types: (1) in skarn-magnetite rocks and (2) in metasomatites of linear crushing zones. These types have specific mineralogical and geochemical features.Gold mineralization in skarn-magnetite ores is widespread at the deposit. It is described elsewhere (Korobeinikov and Matsyushevskii, 1976; Korobeinikov and Zotov, 2006; Koro-beinikov et al., 1987; Kudryavtseva, 1969). Gold is spatially related to areas of sulfide mineralization, and its contents are in direct correlation with the amount of sulfide minerals.Gold-sulfide mineralization is extremely unevenly distributed and is localized at the sites of magnetite ores that underwent cataclasis as well as in magnetite microcracks and interstices.The total amount of sulfides (pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, and scarcer sphalerite, pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite) is 1–3%. Gold occurs as fine thin (0.3–0.01 mm) native segregations. This is mainly high-fineness gold (820–990) (Fig. 3, a ) with impuri-ties of silver (up to 13.6%) and copper (up to 5.07%).According to Korobeinikov (1999) and Korobeinikov and Matsyushevskii (1976), the temperatures of formation of magnetite ores were 430–550 ºC, whereas the gold-sulfide assemblage and the hosting metasomatites (actinolite, tre-molite, serpentine, talc) were produced at 250–320 ºC (Gaskov et al., 2005; Vakhrushev, 1972).Gold mineralization in crushing zones is localized in steeply dipping linear tectonic structures of NW, NE, and NS strikes (Fig. 2), which develop after different rocks, including volcanosedimentary, igneous, and skarn ones. These zones reach several hundred meters in length and few tens of meters in width. The petrographic composition of these zones is di-verse and depends mainly on the composition of initial rocks that underwent transformation later. The rocks are metaso-matic, close in composition to propylites, listwaenites, talc-containing and sericite-quartz metasomatites, and beresite-like rocks. Almost each type of hydrothermal-metasomatic rocks is intimately associated with ore minerals. Though the total volume of these minerals does not exceed 3–5%, they are extremely diverse in composition and are extremely unevenly distributed. Along with sulfide minerals typical of Cu-skarn deposits (chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite, chalcocite,digenite, sphalerite, galena), the mineralized zones of the deposit abound in tellurides—hessite (Ag 2Te), tellurobis-muthite (Bi 2Te 3), and tetradymite (Bi 2Te 2S),—and low-tem-perature Co and Ni sulfides and sulfoarsenides (Table 1). The latter have a variable composition and often consist of intermediate phases of continuous mineral series, e.g., allo-clasite(CoAsS)–arsenopyrite(FeAsS) or siegenite(CoNi 2S 4)–violarite(FeNi 2S 4).Gold occurs mainly as native fine thin (0.01–0.5 mm)disseminations in rock microcracks and as inclusions in pyrite,chalcopyrite, and bornite. The gold fineness varies over a broad range of values—from 440 to 820 (Fig. 3, b ). The lowest-fineness gold segregations are compositionally similar to electrum and have high contents of Ag (up to 54.78%) and Hg impurity (up to 3.65%).On the flanks of mineralized crushing zones, there is sometimes gold mineralization in low-temperature argillitized rocks of chlorite-kaolinite-carbonate-hydromica composition.This gold is of low fineness (no more than 600). The mainimpurities are Ag (20–66%) and Hg (up to 5.47%). The formation temperatures of sulfide-telluride assemblages andFig. 1. Schematic occurrence of gold-bearing Cu-skarn deposits in the Altai-Sayan folded area: 1, Murzinskoe; 2, Sinyukhinskoe; 3, Choiskoe; 4, Maisko-Lebedskoe;5, Fedorovskoe; 6, Natal’evskoe; 7, Tardanskoe; 8, Kopto.1092I.V. Gaskov et al. / Russian Geology and Geophysics 51 (2010) 1091–1101gold mineralization in metasomatites and argillitized rocks are within 200–75 ºC.The Murzinskoe deposit is localized at the contact of a small stock-like granodiorite body of the Ust’-Belaya gabbro-diorite complex (Fig. 4). In the exocontact zone, calcareous skarns composed of garnet, pyroxene, wollastonite, and mag-netite develop after the calcareous sandstones of the Murzinka Formation (D1-2). In the local zones, there are aposkarnFig. 2. Schematic geologic structure of the Tardanskoe deposit (compiled after the data of K.M. Kil’chichakov and L.V. Kopylova and our new data). 1–4, Lower Paleozoic deposits: 1, andesitic porphyrites and tuffs with siltstone and sandstone interbeds in the lower part of the Tumat-Taiga Formation (Cm 1tm 1); 2, quartz porphyrites with interbeds of andesitic porphyrites and limestones in the upper part of the Tumat-Taiga Formation (Cm 1tm 2); 3, limestones and calcareous shales of the Tapsa Formation (Cm 1tp); 4, Lower and Middle Silurian conglomerates and sandstones (S 1-2); 5, Quaternary deposits (Q IV ); 6, 7, Lower Paleozoic igneous rocks of the Tannu-Ola complex (γδO 1-2): 6, gabbro-diorite-plagiogranite formation; 7, small granite-porphyry and quartz diorite bodies; 8, calcareous and magnesian skarns; 9, hydrothermal-metasomatic rocks in mineralized crushing zones; 10, gold orebodies; 11, tectonic zones; 12, geologic boundaries.I.V. Gaskov et al. / Russian Geology and Geophysics 51 (2010) 1091–11011093Fig. 3. Variations in gold fineness in gold ores from skarn-magnetite bodies (a) and in ores from mineralized crushing zones (b) at the Tardanskoe deposit.Table 1. Mineral parageneses in gold-bearing ores produced at different stages and composition of host rocks at Au-Cu-skarn depositsDeposit Early aposkarn Au-sulfide mineralization in magnetite-skarn rocks Late Au-telluride-sulfide mineralization in superposed crushingzonesOre parageneses Host rocks Ore parageneses Host rocksTardanskoe Magneite (Fe3O4)Pyrite (FeS2)Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)Bornite (Cu5FeS4)Sphalerite (ZnS)Pyrrhotite (FeS)Arsenopyrite (FeAsS)Gold (Au)Magnesian skarns (pyroxene +fassayite + phlogopite +pargasite + forsterite + spinel).Calcareous skarns (pyroxene +garnet + epidote +wollastonite + skapolite).Aposkarn serpentine andserpentine-chlorite rocksCobaltite (CoFe)AsSGlaucodot (Co,Fe)AsSSiegenite (CoNi2S4)Violarite (FeNi2S4)Hessite (Ag2Te)Gold (Au)Propylites, listvaenites, talc-serpentine-containing andsericite-quartz metasomatites,and argillitized rocksMurzinskoe Magnetite (Fe3O4)Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)Pyrite (FeS2)Bornite (Cu5FeS4)Sphalerite (ZnS)Galena (PbS)FahloreArsenopyrite (FeAsS)Clinobisvanite (BiVO4)Gold (Au)Calcareous skarns (garnet +pyroxene + wollastonite).Aposkarn metasomatic rocks(quartz + epidote + chlorite +actinolite)Cinnabar (HgS)Metacinnabarite (HgS)Bismuthine (Bi2S3)Aikinite (CuPbBiS3)Emplectite (CuBiS2)Berryite [Pb2(Cu,Ag)3Bi5S11]Naumannite (Ag2Se)Polybasite (Ag16Sb2S11)Barite (BaSO4)Gold (Au)Quartz and quartz-carbonateveins, near-vein metasomatitesof quartz-chlorite-carbonatecomposition, and argillitizedrocksSinyukhinskoe Magnetite (Fe3O4)Pyrite (FeS2)Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)Bornite (Cu5FeS4)Chalcocite (Cu2S)Sphalerite (ZnS)Pyrrhotite (FeS)Cubanite (CuFe2S3)Gold (Au)Wollastonite, garnet-wollastonite, garnet-pyroxeneand pyroxene skarns, andaposkarn metasomatic rocks(chlorite + actinolite + calcite)Tetradymite (Bi2TeS)Siegenite (CoNi2S4)Cobaltite ((CoNiFe)AsS)Melonite (NiTe2)Wittichenite (Cu3BiS3)Hessite (Ag2Te)Petzite (AuAg3Te2)Altaite (PbTe)Clausthalite (PbSe)Gold (Au)Local zones of actinolite-chlorite-calcite-quartzcompositionChoiskoe Magnetite (Fe3O4)Pyrite (FeS2)Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)Gold (Au)Garnet, garnet-pyroxene,garnet-wollastonite, andpyroxene-epidote skarnsTetradymite (BiTe2S)Ingodite (Bi2TeS)Joseite (Bi4TeS2)Hedleyite (Bi2Te)Tellurobismuthite (Bi2Te3)Bismuthite (Bi2S3),Native bismuth (Bi)Gold (Au)Quartz and quartz-carbonateveins and quartz-carbonate-chlorite metasomatites1094I.V. Gaskov et al. / Russian Geology and Geophysics 51 (2010) 1091–1101metasomatic rocks consisting of quartz, epidote, calcite,chlorite, actinolite, and, more seldom, tourmaline, apatite, and rodonite.Gold mineralization at the Murzinskoe deposit was earlier ascribed to gold-skarn type. But recent data have shown that only a minor part of the deposit ores — scarce postskarn sulfide mineralization spatially associated with skarn-magnet-ite bodies—can be referred to this type. Most of the commer-cial ores occur in mineralized crushing zones. They form gold-sulfide mineralization in quartz and quartz-carbonate veins and near-vein metasomatites in a 300–400 m thick zone stretching in the N-NW direction for more than 3 km (Fig. 4).The crust of weathering widespread at the deposit contains hypergene copper minerals: malachite, chrysocolla, azurite,chalcocite, coveline, and high-fineness gold.Gold-sulfide mineralization spatially associated with skarn-magnetite bodies is superposed on skarn rocks. It was produced either at the regressive stage of the skarn formation or at the postskarn hydrothermal-metasomatic stage and was accompanied by the formation of moderate- and low-tempera-ture metasomatic minerals—chlorite, actinolite, epidote, and quartz. Sulfide mineralization is unevenly distributed and occurs as veinlet-disseminated chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite,and sphalerite. It amounts to few percent. Gold occurs as fine thin (0.5–0.01 mm) native segregations. It is mainly of high fineness (840–994) (Fig. 5, a ).In crushing zones (Fig. 4), gold mineralization was found in quartz-carbonate-sulfide veinlets and veins in hydrothermal-metasomatic rocks of quartz-chlorite-carbonate composition with kaolinite, hydromica, and adularia (argillizite formation)developing after different rocks—skarns, hornfelses, shales,siltstones, and limestones,—often beyond skarning and horn-felsing zones. The quartz veins are 0.1 to 2.0 m (on average,0.4 m) thick, of N-S strike and eastern dip. In contrast to the gold-skarn-magnetite type, this mineralization is of more complex composition. In addition to minerals typical of skarn deposits (chalcopyrite, pyrite, bornite, sphalerite, and galena),it includes fahlore, arsenopyrite (FeAsS), cinnabar (HgS),metacinnabarite (HgS), bismuthine (Bi 2S 3), aikinite (CuPb BiS 3), emplectite (CuBiS 2), berryite [Pb 2(Cu,Ag)3Bi 5S 11],naumannite (Ag 2Se), polybasite (Ag 16Sb 2S 11), scheelite (Ca 3WO 4), hematite (Fe 2O 3), clinobisvanite (BiVO 4), bariteFig. 4. Schematic geologic structure of the Murzinskoe deposit. 1, mica-sili-ceous shales (O 1); 2, sandstones, siltstones, and aleuropelites (S 1); 3, terri-genous-carbonate deposits (D 1-2): a , conglomerates, b , limestones, c , sand-stones; 4, granodiorites of the Ust’-Belaya complex (D 3); 5, altered rocks and metasomatites: a , hornfelses, b , skarns, c , quartz-tourmaline metasomatites;6, mineralized crushing zones; 7, faults: a , established, b , predicted; 8, other types of mineralization: a , Murzinka-3 (Au), b, skarn Fe.Fig. 5. Variations in the fineness of gold associated with skarn-magnetite bodies (a ) and gold from ores of mineralized crushing zones (b ) at the Murzin-skoe deposit.I.V. Gaskov et al. / Russian Geology and Geophysics 51 (2010) 1091–11011095(BaSO 4), and gold (Table 1). The content of gold in the ores varies over a broad range of values, from 0.1 to 232 ppm.This gold occurs as fine (<0.1 mm) thin segregations in assemblage with sulfides. Its fineness also greatly varies (640–840), but, compared with the first type of ores, low-fine-ness gold prevails here (Fig. 5, b ).The presence of cinnabar, sulfides and sulfosalts of Bi, Se,and Sb, and barite, predominance of low-fineness gold and electrum, and low-temperature wallrock alteration (formation of kaolinite, hydromica, and adularia) differ these ores from earlier formed ores in skarn-magnetite bodies. The gap between the skarn and ore formation processes is evidenced from the presence of basite dikes cutting the skarns, which bear superposed gold mineralization of this type. At the same time, the presence of gold–cinnabar intergrowths and fine dissemination of gold in cinnabar, presence of Hg-minerals (cinnabar, Hg-sphalerite, saucovite) in the ores, and high contents of As, Sb, and Ti (typical elements of many Au-Hg deposits) permit this mineralization to be referred to as epithermal Au-Hg type (Borisenko et al., 2006). Thermometric studies showed that the homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in quartz veins in the northern and central parts ofthe mineralized zone are 215–200 ºC and decrease to 160–130 ºC in the southern part.Fig. 6. Schematic geologic structure of the Sinyukhinskoe deposit (compiled by Gusev (2007) and supplemented by our data). 1, loose Quaternary deposits; 2–6, rocksof the Choya (O 1cs), Elanda (C−2-3el), Ust’-Sema (C −2us), and Upper Ynyrga (C −2vy) Formations: 2, conglomerates, 3, siltstones, 4, sandstones, 5, limestones,6, andesite-basaltic porphyrites; 7–9, rocks of the Yugala (Sinyukha) complex: 7, granites and granodiorites of the early phase (γδD 2-3), 8, granites of the late phase (γD 2-3), 9, dolerite and gabbro-dolerite dikes; 10, plagiogranites of the Sarakoksha complex (ν C −2); 11, skarns; 12, sites with gold mineralization (1, Pervyi Rudnyi (First Ore), 2, Zapadnyi (Western), 3, Faifanov, 4, West Faifanov, 5, Ynyrga, 6, Nizhnii (Lower), 7, Tushkenek, 9, Gorbunov); 13, faults.1096I.V. Gaskov et al. / Russian Geology and Geophysics 51 (2010) 1091–1101The Sinyukhinskoe deposit is localized in northeastern Altai, at the contact of the large (600 km 2) complex Sarakok-sha pluton and Cambrian volcanosedimentary strata of the Ust’-Sema Formation (Shcherbakov, 1967; Vakhrushev, 1972)(Fig. 6). According to Shokalsky et al. (2000) and Gusev (2007), this massif includes the Lower Cambrian Sarakoksha diorite-tonalite-plagiogranite complex and Lower Devonian Yugala gabbro-diorite-granite complex (Sinyukha complex (Gusev, 2003)). It is in the latter complex that the commercial mineralization of the Sinyukha ore field is localized. In the contact zone of the Sinyukha massif, skarns of different compositions are developed in horizons of carbonate rocks and tuffs. Wollastonite and garnet-wollastonite varieties are the most widespread, and garnet-pyroxene and pyroxene ones are scarcer. Near the contact with basic effusive bodies, small magnetite orebodies have been revealed among garnet-py-roxene skarns.Gold mineralization occurs mainly among wollastonite,garnet-wollastonite, and pyroxene-wollastonite skarns and is intimately associated with an assemblage of sulfide minerals.The latter are dominated by bornite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite,and pyrite, which compose ore zones in these rocks and are present in the form of nest-disseminations and stockworks. In local zones of actinolite-chlorite-calcite-quartz composition we found minor amounts of sphalerite, pyrrhotite, cubanite, and tetradymite. There are also occasional findings of rare miner-als, such as siegenite (CoNi 2S 4), cobaltite ((CoNiFe)AsS),melonite (NiTe 2), wittichenite (Cu 3BiS 3), gessite (Ag 2Te),petzite (AuAg 3Te 2), altaite (PbTe), and clausthalite (PbSe)(Table 1). The total content of sulfides does not exceed 5–10%. The sulfides are extremely unevenly distributed—from occasional dissemination to densely disseminated, almost massive ores. The composition of sulfide mineralization slightly changes with depth: Gold-chalcocite-bornite assem-blage is changed by gold-chalcopyrite one. The accumulation of gold-sulfide mineralization was accompanied by the hy-drothermal-metasomatic alteration of the host skarns with the formation of actinolite, chlorite, and calcite near ore veins and nests. Magnetite ores are poorer in gold, and sulfide-free rocks(marbles and diorite-porphyry and granite-porphyry dikes)virtually lack it.Fig. 7. Variations in gold fineness in ores from the Sinyukhinskoe deposit.Fig. 8. Schematic geologic structure of the Choiskoe deposit (compiled by Gusev and Gusev (1998) and supplemented by our data). 1–5, rocks of the Ishpa (O 1is) andTandosha (C−2-3td) Formations: 1, conglomerates, 2, siltstones, 3, sandstones, 4, limestones, 5, felsic tuffs; 6–7, granitoids of the Yugala complex: 6, granites and granodiorites of the early phase (γδD 2-3), 7, leucocratic granites of the late phase (γD 2-3); 8, granite-porphyry, diorite, and lamprophyre dikes (γδD 2-3); 9, skarns;10, gold mineralization occurrences (1, occurrence of the Central skarn deposit, 2, Pikhtovyi, 3, Smorodinovyi); 11, faults.I.V. Gaskov et al. / Russian Geology and Geophysics 51 (2010) 1091–11011097Gold often occurs in ores as native segregations in the form of hooks, fine wires, lumps, and sheets intimately intergrown with bornite, chalcocite, and chalcopyrite. Sometimes, native gold segregations are observed as fine inclusions in cracks and interstices of skarn minerals, most often, wollastonite. These gold particles are mainly no larger than hundredths of millimeter. The gold of primary ores of the Sinyukhinskoe deposit is of high fineness varying over a narrow range of values (911–964) (Fig. 7). The fineness of gold decreases to 860–870 only in its parageneses with tellurides, selenides, and rare sulfide minerals (Roslyakova et al., 1999). The main impurities in gold are silver (up to 19%) and copper (up to 1.7%). The content of Hg does not exceed 0.1%. By the formation conditions, these ores are postskarn hydrothermal,with their deposition temperatures not exceeding 350 ºC (Roslyakova et al., 1999; Shcherbakov, 1972).The Choiskoe deposit is localized 20 km northeast of the Sinyukha ore field, in the zone of contact between the Upper Cambrian terrigenous-carbonate deposits of the Ishpa Forma-tion and the Choya granitoid massif referred to the Lower Devonian Yugala gabbro-diorite-granite complex (Fig. 8). The Choya granitoid massif is small at the surface (1 × 5 km) and extends from west to east, tracing the Choya fault (Gusev,2007). The deposit abounds in dikes of dolerite porphyrites,diorites, and granite-porphyry and in rocks of the lamprophyre series—kersantites, minette, and spessartites. The zone of contact between the granitoids of the Choya massif and the horizons of limestones and terrigenous-carbonate rocks is composed of skarns, which form linear zones extending in the NE direction, like the other rocks. Most bodies are of persistent thickness, ~100 m. By composition, the skarn bodies are divided into zones of garnet, garnet-pyroxene, pyroxene,garnet-wollastonite, and pyroxene-epidote skarns. In the skarn zones and near lamprophyre bodies, poor scheelite-molybde-nite mineralization in quartz veins was established (Gusev,1998).Gold mineralization at the deposit occurs in linear tectonic zones and is not spatially associated with skarns. It develops as quartz veins and quartz-carbonate and quartz-carbonate-chlorite veinlets and nests with gold-sulfide mineralization in crushing and brecciation zones in both the skarns and the granitoids of the Choya massif (Fig. 8).The mineral composition of these objects is nearly the same—gold-sulfide and gold-telluride parageneses. A numberof rare tellurides have been revealed among the Choya deposit ores: tetradymite (BiTe 2S), ingodite (Bi 2TeS), joseite (Bi 4TeS 2), hedleyite (Bi 2Te), tellurobismuthite (Bi 2Te 3), bis-muthine (Bi 2S 3), and native bismuth (Table 1). Magnetite,pyrite, and chalcopyrite, typical minerals of Cu-skarn deposits,are extremely scarce here. The total content of sulfides does not exceed few percent. They occur mainly as fine thin dissemination and do not form large accumulations and nests.Gold in the Choya deposit ores occurs as fine inclusions in sulfide and telluride minerals in quartz veinlets and as intergrowths with ore minerals. The gold particles are hun-dredths and tenths of millimeter in size. By chemical compo-sition, the gold is divided into two groups: medium-fineness (843–880) and high-fineness (940–959); the latter is probably of exogenous nature (Fig. 9). The gold contains Ag (3–12.5 wt.%) and Hg (0–0.48 wt.%) impurities and Cu traces.The thermometric studies showed that homogenization of primary gas-liquid inclusions into liquid proceeds at 126–150 ºC in quartz and at 105–128 ºC in calcite from ore-bear-ing veins.The sequence and duration of formation of gold mineralization and its correlation with magmatism As seen from the above data, gold mineralization at all considered Cu-skarn deposits has a complex multistage for-mation history. But the same stages at different deposits ran with different intensities. For example, at the Sinyukhinskoe deposit, mainly early high-temperature mineral assemblages are widespread, whereas at the Choiskoe deposit, low-tempera-ture ones. The Tardanskoe and Murzinskoe deposits bear both early and late minerals. To elucidate the peculiarities of gold-ore formation, establish the correlation between different types of gold mineralization and magmatic activity, and evaluate the duration of ore formation, we performed Ar-Ar and U-Pb dating of different mineralization and igneous rocks from the Tardanskoe and Murzinskoe deposits.Our investigations have shown that the formation of gold mineralization at the Tardanskoe deposit lasted for a longer time than it was supposed earlier. Skarn mineralization formed at the contact of diorites with carbonate rocks as a result of the intrusion of the Kopto-Baisyut massif. Ar-Ar biotite dating of the massif yielded an age of 485.7 ± 4.4 Ma corresponding to the Early Ordovician (Table 2). The skarns at the massif contact as well as magnetite ores and gold-sulfide mineraliza-tion (pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, bornite, gold) spatially and genetically associated with skarn-magnetite bodies are of similar age. Gold was deposited together with sulfides, as evidenced from the direct correlation between the contents of gold and sulfides (especially chalcopyrite) and from gold inclusions in the sulfides. The formation of skarn and aposkarn mineralization was followed (with some temporal gap) by the intrusion of dike and stock-like small granitoid bodies, which is indicated by their cutting of the sulfide-bearing skarn and magnetite bodies. Ar-Ar dating of these granite bodies yielded an age of 484.2 ±4.3 Ma (Table 2).Fig. 9. Variations in gold fineness in ores from the Choiskoe deposit.1098I.V. Gaskov et al. / Russian Geology and Geophysics 51 (2010) 1091–1101。
毕业论文--成本控制(cost--control)外文原文及译文【范本模板】
本科生毕业设计(论文）外文原文及译文所在系管理系学生姓名专业财务管理班级学号指导教师2014 年 6 月外文原文及译文Cost ControlRoger J. AbiNaderReference for Business，Encyclopedia of Business, 2nd ed。
Cost control，also known as cost management or cost containment，is a broad set of cost accounting methods and management techniques with the common goal of improving business cost-efficiency by reducing costs, or at least restricting their rate of growth. Businesses use cost control methods to monitor, evaluate, and ultimately enhance the efficiency of specific areas，such as departments，divisions, or product lines, within their operations.Cooper and Kaplan in 1987 in an article entitled "how cost accounting systematically distorts product costs” article for the first time put forward the theory of "cost drivers" (cost driver, cost of driving factor）of that cost, in essence，is a function of a variety of independent or interaction of factors （independent variable) work together to drive the results. So what exactly is what factors drive the cost or the cost of motive which? Traditionally, the volume of business (such as yield）as the only cost driver （independent variable)，at least that its cost allocation plays a decisive role in restricting aside，regardless of other factors (motivation）. In accordance with the full cost of this cost driver, the enterprise is divided into variable costs and fixed costs of the two categories。
外文文献综述电能质量监测（外文原文+中文翻译）
1 Power Quality MonitoringPatrick ColemanMany power quality problems are caused by inadequate wiring or improper grounding. These problems can be detected by simple examination of the wiring and grounding systems. Another large population of power quality problems can be solved by spotchecks of voltage, current, or harmonics using hand held meters. Some problems, however, are intermittent and require longer-term monitoring for solution.Long-term power quality monitoring is largely a problem of data management. If an RMS value of voltage and current is recorded each electrical cycle, for a three-phase system, about 6 gigabytes of data will be produced each day. Some equipment is disrupted by changes in the voltage waveshape that may not affect the rms value of the waveform. Recording the voltage and current waveforms will result in about 132 gigabytes of data per day. While modern data storage technologies may make it feasible to record every electrical cycle, the task of detecting power quality problems within this mass of data is daunting indeed.Most commercially available power quality monitoring equipment attempts to reduce the recorded data to manageable levels. Each manufacturer has a generally proprietary data reduction algorithm. It is critical that the user understand the algorithm used in order to properly interpret the results.1.1Selecting a Monitoring PointPower quality monitoring is usually done to either solve an existing power quality problem, or to determine the electrical environment prior to installing new sensitive equipment. For new equipment, it is easy to argue that the monitoring equipment should be installed at the point nearest the point of connection of the new equipment. For power quality problems affecting existing equipment, there is frequently pressure to determine it. the problem is being caused by some external source, i. e., the utility. This leads to the installation of monitoring equipment at the service point to try to detect the source of the problem. This is usually not the optimum location for monitoring equipment. Most studies suggest that 80% of power quality problems originate within the facility. A monitor installed on the equipment being affected will detect problemsoriginating within the facility, as well as problems originating on the utility. Each type of event has distinguishing characteristics to assist the engineer in correctly identifying the source of the disturbance.1.1.1 What to MonitorAt minimum, the input voltage to the affected equipment should be monitored. If the equipment is single phase, the monitored voltage should include at least the line-to~neutral voltage and the neutral to-ground voltages. If possible, the Iine_to_ground voltage should also be monitored. For three-phase equipment, the voltages may either be monitored line to neutral, or line to line. Line-to-neutral voltages are easier to understand, but most three-phase equipment operates on line-to-line voltages. Usually, it is preferable to monitor the voltage line to line for three-phase equipment.If the monitoring equipment has voltage thresholds which can be adjusted, the thresholds should be set to match the sensitive equipment voltage requirements. If the requirements are not known, a good starting point is usually the nominal equipment voltage plus or minus 10%.In most sensitive equipment, the connection to the source is a rectifier, and the critical voltages are DC. In some cases, it may be necessary to monitor the critical DC voltages. Some commercial power quality monitors are capable of monitoring AC and DC simultaneously, while others are AC only.It is frequently useful to monitor current as well as voltage. For example, if the problem is being caused by voltage sags, the reaction of the current during the sag can help determine the source of the sag. If the current doubles when the voltage sags 10%, then the cause of the sag is on the load side of the current monitor point. If the current increases or decreases 10 - 20% during a 10% voltage sag, then the cause of the sag is on the source side of the current monitoring point.Sensitive equipment can also be affected by other environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, static, harmonics, magnetic fields, radio frequency interference (RFl), and operator error or sabotage. Some commercial monitors can record some of these factors, but it may be necessary to install more than one monitor to cover every possible source of disturbance.It can also be useful to record power quantity data while searchingfor power quality problems. For example, the author found a shortcut to the source of a disturbance affecting a wide area by using the power quantity data. The recordings revealed an increase in demand of 2500 KW immediately after the disturbance. Asking a few questions quickly led to a nearby plant with a 2500 KW switched load that was found to be malfunctioning.1.2Selecting a MonitorCommercially available monitors fall into two basic categories: line disturbance analyzers and voltage recorders. The line between the categories is becoming blurred as new models are developed. Voltage recorders are primarily designed to record voltage and current strip chart data, but some models are able to capture waveforms under certain circumstances. Line disturbance analyzers are designed to capture voltage events that may affect sensitive equipment. Generally, line disturbance analyzers are not good voltage recorders, but newer models are better than previous designs at recording voltage strip charts.In order to select the best monitor for the job, it is necessary to have an idea of the type of disturbance to be recorded, and an idea of the operating characteristics of the available disturbance analyzers. For example, a common power quality problem is nuisance tripping of variable speed drives. Variable speed drives may trip due to the waveform disturbance created by power factor correction capacitor switching, or due to high or low steady state voltage, or, in some cases, due to excessive voltage imbalance. If the drive trips due to high voltage or waveform disturbances, the drive diagnostics will usually indicate an over voltage code as the cause of the trip. If the voltage is not balanced, the drive will draw significantly unbalanced currents. The current imbalance may reach a level that causes the drive to trip for input over current. Selecting a monitor for variable speed drive tripping can be a challenge. Most line disturbance analyzers can easily capture the waveshape disturbance of capacitor switching, but they are not good voltage recorders, and may not do a good job of reporting high steady state voltage. Many line disturbance analyzers cannot capture voltage unbalance at all, nor will they respond to current events unless there is a corresponding voltage event. Most voltage and current recorders can easily capture the high steady state voltage that leads to a drive trip, but they may notcapture the capacitor switching waveshape disturbance. Many voltage recorders can capture voltage imbalance, current imbalance, and some of them will trigger a capture of voltage and current during a current event, such as the drive tripping off.To select the best monitor for the job, it is necessary to understand the characteristics of the available monitors. The following sections will discuss the various types of data that may be needed for a power quality investigation, and the characteristics of some commercially available monitors.I. 3 VoltageThe most commonly recorded parameter in power quality investigations is the RMS voltage delivered to the equipment. Manufacturers of recording equipment use a variety of techniques to reduce the volume of the data recorded. The most common method of data reduction is to record Min/Max/Average data over some interval. Figure I. I shows a strip chart of rms voltages recorded on a eyeIe-by-cycle basis. Figure I. 2 shows a Min/Max/Average chart for the same time period. A common recording period is I week. Typical recorders will use a recording interval of 2 - 5 minutes. Each recording interval will produce three numbers: the rms voltage of the highest I cycle, the lowest I cycle, and the average of every cycle during the interval. This is a simple, easily understood recording method, and it is easily implemented by the manufacturer. There are several drawbacks to this method. If there are several events during a recording interval, only the event with the largest deviation is recorded. Unless the recorder records the event in some other manner, there is no time~stamp associated with the events, and no duration available. The most critical deficiency is the lack of a voltage profile during the event. The voltage profile provides significant clues to the source of the event. For example, if the event is a voltage sag, the minimum voltage may be the same for an event caused by a distant fault on the utility system, and for a nearby large motor start. For the distant fault, however, the voltage will sag nearly instantaneously, stay at a fairly constant level for 3-10 cycles, and almost instantly recover to full voltage, or possibly a slightly higher voltage it. the faulted section of the utility system is separated. For a nearby motor start, the voltage will drop nearly instantaneousIy,and almost immediately begin a gradual recovery over 30 - 180 cycles toa voltage somewhat lower than before. Figure 1.3 shows a cycle-by-cycle recording of a simulated adjacent feeder fault, followed by a simulation of a voltage sag caused by a large motor start. Figure I.4 shows a Min/Max/Average recording of the same two events. The events look quite similar when captured by the Min/Max/Average recorder, while the cycle-by-cycle recorder reveals the difference in the voltage recovery profile.FIGURE 1.1 RMS voltage strip chart, taken cycle by cycle.FIGURE I. 2 Min/Max/Average strip chart, showing the minimum single cycle voltage, the maximum single cycle voltage, and the average of every cycle in a recording interval. Compare to the Fig. I. I strip chart data.Some line disturbance analyzers allow the user to set thresholds for voltage events. If the voltage exceeds these thresholds, a short duration strip chart is captured showing the voltage profile during the event. This short duration strip chart is in addition to the long duration recordings, meaning that the engineer must look at several different charts to find the needed information.Some voltage recorders have user-programmable thresholds, and record deviations at a higher resolution than voltages that fall within the thresholds. These deviations are incorporated into the stripchart, so the user need only open the stripchart to determine, at a glance, if there are any significant events. If there are events to be examined, the engineer can immediately “zoom in” on the portion of the stripchart with the event.Some voltage recorders do not have user-settable thresholds, but rather choose to capture events based either on fixed default thresholds or on some type of significant change. For some users, fixed thresholds are an advantage, while others are uncomfortable with the lack of control over the meter function. In units with fixed thresholds, if the environment is normally somewhat disturbed, such as on a welder circuit at a motor control center, the meter memory may fill up with insignificant events and the monitor may not be able to record a significant event when it occurs. For this reason, monitors with fixed thresholds should not be used in electrically noisy environments.FIGURE I. 3 Cycle-by-cycle rms strip chart showing two voltage sags. The sag on the left is due to an adjacent feeder fault on the supply substation, and the sag on the right is due to a large motor start. Note the difference in the voltage profile during recoveryMln/Ave/Max Chartt SagFIGURE I. 4 Min/Max/Average strip chart of the same voltage sags as Fig. I. 3. Note that both sags look almost identical. Without the recovery detail found in Fig. I. 3, it is difficult to determine a cause for the voltage sagscapacitor energizationI. 3. I Voltage Waveform Disturbances.Some equipment can be disturbed by changes in the voltage waveform. These waveform changes may not significantly affect the rms voltage, yet may still cause equipment to malfunction. An rms-onIy recorder may not detect the cause of the malfunction. Most line disturbance analyzers have some mechanism to detect and record changes in voltage waveforms. Some machines compare portions of successive waveforms, and capture the waveform if there is a significant deviation in any portion of the waveform. Others capture waveforms if there is a significant change in the rms value of successive waveforms. Another method is to capture waveforms if there is a significant change in the voltage total harmonic distortion (THD) between successive cycles.The most common voltage waveform change that may cause equipment malfunction is the disturbance created by power factor correctioncapacitor switching. When capacitors are energized, a disturbance iscreated that lasts about I cycle, but does not result in a significant change in the rms voltage. Figure 1.5 shows a typical power factorFIGURE 1.6 RMS stripcharts of voltage and current during a large current increase due to a motor start downstream of the monitor point.1.4Current Waveshape DisturbancesVery few monitors are capable of capturing changes in current waveshape. It is usually not necessary to capture changes in current waveshape, but in some special cases this can be useful data. For example, inrush current waveforms can provide more useful information than inrush current rms data. Figure I. 7 shows a significant change in the current waveform when the current changes from zero to nearly 100 amps peak. The shape of the waveform, and the phase shift with respect to the voltage waveform, confirm that this current increase was due to an induction motor start.Figure 1.7 shows the first few cycles of the event shown in Fig.1.6.I.5HarmonicsHarmonic distortion is a growing area of concern. Many commercially available monitors are capable of capturing harmonic snapshots. Some monitors have the ability to capture harmonic strip chart data. In this area, it is critical that the monitor produce accurate data. Some commercially available monitors have deficiencies in measuring harmonics. Monitors generally capture a sample of the voltage and current waveforms, and perform a Fast Fourier Transform to produce a harmonic spectrum. According to the Nyquist Sampling Theorem, the input waveform must be sampled at least twice the highest frequency that is present in the waveform. Some manufacturers interpret this to mean the highest frequency of interest, and adjust their sample rates accordingly. If the input signal contains a frequency that is above the maximum frequency that can be correctly sampled, the high frequency signal may be u aliased, ” that is, it may be incorrectly identified as a lower frequency harmonic. This may lead the engineer to search for a solution to a harmonic problem that does not exist. The aliasing problem can be alleviated by sampling at higher sample rates, and by filtering out frequencies above the highest frequency of interest. The sample rate is usually found in the manufacturer’ s literature, but the presence of an antialiasing filter is not usually mentioned in the literature.I. 6 SummaryMost power quality problems can be solved with simple hand~tools and attention to detail. Some problems, however, are not so easily identified, and it may be necessary to monitor to correctly identify the problem. Successful monitoring involves several steps. First, determine if it is really necessary to monitor. Second, decide on a location for the monitor. Generally，the monitor should be installed close to the affected equipment. Third, decide what quantities need to be monitored, such as voltage, current, harmonics, and power data. Try to determine the types of events that can disturb the equipment, and select a meter that is capable of detecting those types of events. Fourth, decide on a monitoring period. Usually, a good first choice is at least one business cycle, or at least I day, and more commonly, I week. It may be necessary to monitor until the problem recurs. Some monitors can record indefinitely by discardingolder data to make space for new data. These monitors can be installed and left until the problem recurs. When the problem recurs, the monitoring should be stopped before the event data is discarded.After the monitoring period ends, the most difficult task begins — interpreting the data. Modern power quality monitors produce reams of data during a disturbance. Data interpretation is largely a matter of experience, and Ohm’ s law. There are many examples of disturbance data in books such as The BMI Handbook of Power Signatures, Second Edition, and the Dranetz Field Handbook for Power Quality Analysis.1量监测里•曼许多电能质量问题所造成的布线不足或不当的接地。
外文原文及译文
外文原文及译文一、外文原文Subject：Financial Analysis with the DuPont Ratio: A UsefulCompassDerivation：Steven C. Isberg, Ph.D.Financial Analysis and the Changing Role of Credit ProfessionalsIn today's dynamic business environment, it is important for credit professionals to be prepared to apply their skills both within and outside the specific credit management function. Credit executives may be called upon to provide insights regarding issues such as strategic financial planning, measuring the success of a business strategy or determining the viability of an acquisition candidate. Even so, the normal duties involved in credit assessment and management call for the credit manager to be equipped to conduct financial analysis in a rapid and meaningful way.Financial statement analysis is employed for a variety of reasons. Outside investors are seeking information as to the long run viability of a business and its prospects for providing an adequate return in consideration of the risks being taken. Creditors desire to know whether a potential borrower or customer can service loans being made. Internal analysts and management utilize financial statement analysis as a means to monitor the outcome of policy decisions, predict future performance targets, develop investment strategies, and assess capital needs. As the role of the credit manager is expanded cross-functionally, he or she may be required to answer the call to conduct financial statement analysis under any of these circumstances. The DuPont ratio is a useful tool in providing both an overview and a focus for such analysis.A comprehensive financial statement analysis will provide insights as to a firm's performance and/or standing in the areas of liquidity, leverage, operating efficiency and profitability. A complete analysis will involve both time series and cross-sectional perspectives. Time series analysis will examine trends using the firm's own performance as a benchmark. Cross sectional analysis will augment the process by using external performance benchmarks for comparison purposes. Every meaningful analysis will begin with a qualitative inquiry as to the strategy and policies of the subject company, creating a context for the investigation. Next, goals and objectives of the analysis will be established, providing a basis for interpreting the results. The DuPont ratio can be used as a compass in this process by directing the analyst toward significant areas of strength and weakness evident in the financial statements.The DuPont ratio is calculated as follows:ROE = (Net Income/Sales) X (Sales/Average Assets) X (Average Assets/Avenge Equity)The ratio provides measures in three of the four key areas of analysis, eachrepresenting a compass bearing, pointing the way to the next stage of the investigation.The DuPont Ratio DecompositionThe DuPont ratio is a good place to begin a financial statement analysis because it measures the return on equity (ROE). A for-profit business exists to create wealth for its owner(s). ROE is, therefore, arguably the most important of the key ratios, since it indicates the rate at which owner wealth is increasing. While the DuPont analysis is not an adequate replacement for detailed financial analysis, it provides an excellent snapshot and starting point, as will be seen below.The three components of the DuPont ratio, as represented in equation, cover the areas of profitability, operating efficiency and leverage. In the following paragraphs, we examine the meaning of each of these components by calculating and comparing the DuPont ratio using the financial statements and industry standards for Atlantic Aquatic Equipment, Inc. (Exhibits 1, 2, and 3), a retailer of water sporting goods.Profitability: Net Profit Margin (NPM: Net Income/Sales)Profitability ratios measure the rate at which either sales or capital is converted into profits at different levels of the operation. The most common are gross, operating and net profitability, which describe performance at different activity levels. Of the three, net profitability is the most comprehensive since it uses the bottom line net income in its measure.A proper analysis of this ratio would include at least three to five years of trend and cross-sectional comparison data. The cross sectional comparison can be drawn from a variety of sources. Most common are the Dun & Bradstreet Index of Key Financial Ratios and the Robert Morris Associates (RMA) Annual Statement Studies. Each of these volumes provide key ratios estimated for business establishments grouped according to industry (i.e., SIC codes). More will be discussed in regard to comparisons as our example is continued below. As is, over the two years, Whitbread has become less profitable.Leverage: The Leverage Multiplier (Average Assets/Average Equity)Leverage ratios measure the extent to which a company relies on debt financing in its capital structure. Debt is both beneficial and costly to a firm. The cost of debt is lower thanthe cost of equity, an effect which is enhanced by the tax deductibility of interest payments in contrast to taxable dividend payments and stock repurchases. If debt proceeds are invested in projects which return more than the cost of debt, owners keep the residual, and hence, the return on equity is "leveraged up." The debt sword, however, cuts both ways. Adding debt creates a fixed payment required of the firm whether or not it is earning an operating profit, and therefore, payments may cut into the equity base. Further, the risk of the equity position is increased by the presence of debt holders having a superior claim to the assets of the firm.二、译文题目：杜邦分析体系出处：史蒂文c Isberg运输研究所硕士论文杜邦分析体系财务分析与专业信用人员的角色转变在当今动态商业环境中，信贷的专业人士申请内部外部的特定信贷管理职能的技能非常重要。
企业绩效管理【外文翻译】
外文文献翻译译文一、外文原文Corporate Performance ManagementAbstractTwo of the most important duties of a chief executive officer are （1）to formulate strategy and (2) to manage his company's performance。
In this article we examine the second of these tasks and discuss how corporate performance should be modeled and managed. We begin by considering the environment in which a company operates, which includes, besides outside stakeholders, the industry it belongs and the market it supplies，and then proceed to explain how the functioning of a company can be understood by an examination of its business, operational and performance management models. Next we describe the structure recommended by the authors for a corporate planning, control and evaluation system, the most important part of a corporate performance management system. The core component of the planning system is the corporate performance evaluation model，the structure of which is mapped into the planning system’s database, simulation models and budgeting too ls’ structures，and also used to shape information contained in the system’s products, besides being the nucleus of the language used by the system's agents to talk about corporate performance. The ontology of planning, the guiding principles of corporate planning and the history of "MADE”，the corporate performance management system discussed in this article，are reviewed next, before we proceed to discuss in detail the structural components of the corporate planning and control system introduced before. We conclude the article by listing the main steps which should be followed when implementing a performance planning, control and evaluation system for a company.1.IntroductionTwo of the most important corporate tasks for which a chief executive officer is primarily responsible are （1）to formulate strategy and （2）to manage thecompany’s performance. In this article we examine the second of these tasks and discuss how corporate performance should be modeled and managed。
毕业设计(论文)外文原文及译文
毕业设计（论文）外文原文及译文一、外文原文MCUA microcontroller (or MCU) is a computer-on-a-chip. It is a type of microcontroller emphasizing self-sufficiency and cost-effectiveness, in contrast to a general-purpose microprocessor (the kind used in a PC).With the development of technology and control systems in a wide range of applications, as well as equipment to small and intelligent development, as one of the single-chip high-tech for its small size, powerful, low cost, and other advantages of the use of flexible, show a strong vitality. It is generally better compared to the integrated circuit of anti-interference ability, the environmental temperature and humidity have better adaptability, can be stable under the conditions in the industrial. And single-chip widely used in a variety of instruments and meters, so that intelligent instrumentation and improves their measurement speed and measurement accuracy, to strengthen control functions. In short，with the advent of the information age, traditional single- chip inherent structural weaknesses, so that it show a lot of drawbacks. The speed, scale, performance indicators, such as users increasingly difficult to meet the needs of the development of single-chip chipset, upgrades are faced with new challenges.The Description of AT89S52The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of In-System Programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel's high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with In-System Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes ofFlash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.Features• Compatible with MCS-51® Products• 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory– Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles• 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz• Three-level Program Memory Lock• 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM• 32 Programmable I/O Lines• Three 16-bit Timer/Counters• Eight Interrupt Sources• Full Duplex UART Serial Channel• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes• Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode• Watchdog Timer• Dual Data Pointer• Power-off FlagPin DescriptionVCCSupply voltage.GNDGround.Port 0Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs.Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pullups.Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pullups are required during program verification.Port 1Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups.In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively.Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.Port 2Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups.Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register.Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.Port 3Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pullups.Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S52, as shown in the following table.Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.RSTReset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. This pin drives High for 96 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.ALE/PROGAddress Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory.If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.PSENProgram Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSENis activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.EA/VPPExternal Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions.This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.XTAL1Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.XTAL2Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.Special Function RegistersNote that not all of the addresses are occupied, and unoccupied addresses may not be implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will in general return random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate effect.User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since they may be used in future products to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the new bits will always be 0.Timer 2 Registers:Control and status bits are contained in registers T2CON and T2MOD for Timer 2. The register pair (RCAP2H, RCAP2L) are the Capture/Reload registers for Timer 2 in 16-bit capture mode or 16-bit auto-reload mode.Interrupt Registers:The individual interrupt enable bits are in the IE register. Two priorities can be set for each of the six interrupt sources in the IP register.Dual Data Pointer Registers: To facilitate accessing both internal and external data memory, two banks of 16-bit Data Pointer Registers areprovided: DP0 at SFR address locations 82H-83H and DP1 at 84H-85H. Bit DPS = 0 in SFR AUXR1 selects DP0 and DPS = 1 selects DP1. The user should always initialize the DPS bit to the appropriate value before accessing the respective Data Pointer Register.Power Off Flag:The Power Off Flag (POF) is located at bit 4 (PCON.4) in the PCON SFR. POF is set to “1” during power up. It can be set and rest under software control and is not affected by reset.Memory OrganizationMCS-51 devices have a separate address space for Program and Data Memory. Up to 64K bytes each of external Program and Data Memory can be addressed.Program MemoryIf the EA pin is connected to GND, all program fetches are directed to external memory. On the AT89S52, if EA is connected to VCC, program fetches to addresses 0000H through 1FFFH are directed to internal memory and fetches to addresses 2000H through FFFFH are to external memory.Data MemoryThe AT89S52 implements 256 bytes of on-chip RAM. The upper 128 bytes occupy a parallel address space to the Special Function Registers. This means that the upper 128 bytes have the same addresses as the SFR space but are physically separate from SFR space.When an instruction accesses an internal location above address 7FH, the address mode used in the instruction specifies whether the CPU accesses the upper 128 bytes of RAM or the SFR space. Instructions which use direct addressing access of the SFR space. For example, the following direct addressing instruction accesses the SFR at location 0A0H (which is P2).MOV 0A0H, #dataInstructions that use indirect addressing access the upper 128 bytes of RAM. For example, the following indirect addressing instruction, where R0 contains 0A0H, accesses the data byte at address 0A0H, rather than P2 (whose address is 0A0H).MOV @R0, #dataNote that stack operations are examples of indirect addressing, so the upper 128 bytes of data RAM are available as stack space.Timer 0 and 1Timer 0 and Timer 1 in the AT89S52 operate the same way as Timer 0 and Timer 1 in the AT89C51 and AT89C52.Timer 2Timer 2 is a 16-bit Timer/Counter that can operate as either a timer or an event counter. The type of operation is selected by bit C/T2 in the SFR T2CON (shown in Table 2). Timer 2 has three operating modes: capture, auto-reload (up or down counting), and baud rate generator. The modes are selected by bits in T2CON.Timer 2 consists of two 8-bit registers, TH2 and TL2. In the Timer function, the TL2 register is incremented every machine cycle. Since a machine cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods, the count rate is 1/12 of the oscillator frequency.In the Counter function, the register is incremented in response to a1-to-0 transition at its corresponding external input pin, T2. In this function, the external input is sampled during S5P2 of every machine cycle. When the samples show a high in one cycle and a low in the next cycle, the count is incremented. The new count value appears in the register during S3P1 of the cycle following the one in which the transition was detected. Since two machine cycles (24 oscillator periods) are required to recognize a 1-to-0 transition, the maximum count rate is 1/24 of the oscillator frequency. To ensure that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes, the level should be held for at least one full machine cycle.InterruptsThe AT89S52 has a total of six interrupt vectors: two external interrupts (INT0 and INT1), three timer interrupts (Timers 0, 1, and 2), and the serial port interrupt. These interrupts are all shown in Figure 10.Each of these interrupt sources can be individually enabled or disabledby setting or clearing a bit in Special Function Register IE. IE also contains a global disable bit, EA, which disables all interrupts at once.Note that Table 5 shows that bit position IE.6 is unimplemented. In the AT89S52, bit position IE.5 is also unimplemented. User software should not write 1s to these bit positions, since they may be used in future AT89 products. Timer 2 interrupt is generated by the logical OR of bits TF2 and EXF2 in register T2CON. Neither of these flags is cleared by hardware when the service routine is vectored to. In fact, the service routine may have to determine whether it was TF2 or EXF2 that generated the interrupt, and that bit will have to be cleared in software.The Timer 0 and Timer 1 flags, TF0 and TF1, are set at S5P2 of the cycle in which the timers overflow. The values are then polled by the circuitry in the next cycle. However, the Timer 2 flag, TF2, is set at S2P2 and is polled in the same cycle in which the timer overflows.二、译文单片机单片机即微型计算机，是把中央处理器、存储器、定时/计数器、输入输出接口都集成在一块集成电路芯片上的微型计算机。
外文翻译--创业板市场
外文文献翻译译文一、外文原文原文：China's Second BoardI. Significance of and events leading to the establishment of a Second BoardOn 31 March 2009 the China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC issued Interim Measures on the Administration of Initial Public Offerings and Listings of Shares on the ChiNext [i.e., the Second Board, also called the Growth Enterprise Market] ("Interim Measures"), which came into force on 1 May 2009. This marked the creation by the Shenzhen Stock Exchange of the long-awaited market for venture businesses. As the original plan to establish such a market in 2001 had come to nothing when the dotcom bubble burst, the market's final opening came after a delay of nearly 10 years.Ever since the 1980s, when the Chinese government began to foster the development of science and technology, venture capital has been seen in China as a means of supporting the development of high-tech companies financially. The aim, as can be seen from the name of the 1996 Law of the People's Republic of China on Promoting the Conversion of Scientific and Technological Findings into Productivity ,was to support the commercialization of scientific and technological developments. Venture capital funds developed gradually in the late 1990s, and between then and 2000 it looked increasingly likely that a Second Board would be established. When the CSRC published a draft plan for this in September 2000, the stage was set. However, when the dotcom bubble (and especially the NASDAQ bubble) burst, this plan was shelved. Also, Chinese investors and venture capitalists were probably not quite ready for such a move.As a result, Chinese venture businesses sought to list on overseas markets (a so-called "red chip listing") from the late 1990s. However, as these listings increased, so did the criticism that valuable Chinese assets were being siphoned overseas.On thepolicy front, in 2004 the State Council published Some Opinions on Reform, Opening and Steady Growth of Capital Markets ("the Nine Opinions"), in which the concept of a "multi-tier capital market" was presented for the first time. A first step in this direction was made in the same year, when an SME Board was established as part of the Main Board. Although there appear to have been plans to eventually relax the SME Board's listing requirements, which were the same as those for companies listed on the Main Board, and to make it a market especially for venture businesses, it was decided to establish a separate market (the Second Board) for this purpose and to learn from the experience of the SME Board.As well as being part of the process of creating a multi-tier capital market, the establishment of the Second Board was one of the measures included in the policy document Several Opinions of the General Office of the State Council on Providing Financing Support for Economic Development ("the 30 Financial Measures"), published in December 2008 in response to the global financial crisis and intended as a way of making it easier for SMEs to raise capital.It goes without saying that the creation of the Second Board was also an important development in that it gives private equity funds the opportunity to exit their investments. The absence of such an exit had been a disincentive to such investment, with most funds looking for a red chip listing as a way of exiting their investments. However, with surplus savings at home, the Chinese authorities began to encourage companies to raise capital on the domestic market rather than overseas. This led, in September 2006, to a rule making it more difficult for Chinese venture businesses to list their shares on overseas markets. The corollary of this was that it increased the need for a means whereby Chinese private equity funds could exit their investments at an early opportunity and on their own market. The creation of the Second Board was therefore a belated response to this need.II. Rules and regulations governing the establishment of the Second BoardWe now take a closer look at some of the rules and regulations governing the establishment of the Second Board.First , the Interim Measures on the Administration of Initial Public Offerings andListings of Shares on the ChiNext, issued by the CSRC on 31 March 2009 with effect from 1 May 2009. The Interim Measures consist of six chapters and 58 articles, stipulating issue terms and procedures, disclosure requirements, regulatory procedures, and legal responsibilities.First, the General Provisions chapter. The first thing this says (Article 1) is: "These Measures are formulated for the purposes of promoting the development of innovative enterprises and other growing start-ups" This shows that one of the main listing criteria is a company's technological innovativeness and growth potential. The Chinese authorities have actually made it clear that, although the Second Board and the SME Board are both intended for SMEs of similar sizes, the Second Board is specifically intended for SMEs at the initial (rather than the growth or mature) stage of their development with a high degree of technological innovativeness and an innovative business model while the SME Board is specifically intended for companies with relatively stable earnings at the mature stage of their development. They have also made it clear that the Second Board is not simply a "small SME Board." This suggests to us that the authorities want to see technologically innovative companies listing on the Second Board and SMEs in traditional sectors listing on the SME Board.Next, Article 7 says: "A market access system that is commensurate with the risk tolerance of investors shall be established for investors on the ChiNext and investment risk shall be fully disclosed to investors." One noteworthy feature is the adoption of the concept of the "qualified investor" in an attempt to improve risk control.Furthermore, Article 8 says: "China Securities Regulatory Commission (hereinafter, CSRC) shall, in accordance with law, examine and approve the issuer’s IPO application and supervise the issuer’s IPO activities. The stock exchange shall formulate rules in accordance with law, provide an open, fair and equitable market environment and ensure the normal operation of the ChiNext." Until the Second Board was established, it was thought by some that the stock exchange had the right to approve new issues. Under the Interim Measures, however, it is the CSRC that examines and approves applications.First, offering conditions. Article 10 stipulates four numerical conditions for companies applying for IPOs.Second, offering procedures. The Interim Measures seek to make sponsoring securities companies more responsible by requiring them to conduct due diligence investigations and make prudential judgment on the issuer’s growth and render special opinions thereon.Third, information disclosure. Article 39 of the Interim Measures stipulates that the issuer shall make a statement in its prospectus pointing out the risks of investing in Second Board companies: namely, inconsistent performance, high operational risk, and the risk of delisting. Similarly,Fourth, supervision. Articles 51 and 52 stipulate that the stock exchange (namely, the Shenzhen Stock Exchange) shall establish systems for listing, trading and delisting Second Board stocks, urge sponsors to fulfill their ongoing supervisory obligations, and establish a market risk warning system and an investor education system.1. Amendments to the Interim Measures on Securities Issuance and Listing Sponsor System and the Provisional Measures of the Public Offering Review Committee of the China Securities Regulatory Commission2. Rules Governing the Listing of Shares on the ChiNext of Shenzhen Stock Exchange Next, the Shenzhen Stock Exchange published Rules Governing the Listing of Shares on the ChiNext of Shenzhen Stock Exchange on 6 June (with effect from 1 July).3. Checking investor eligibility As the companies listed on the Second Board are more risky than those listed on the Main Board and are subject to more rigorous delisting rules (see above), investor protection requires that checks be made on whether Second Board shares are suitable for all those wishing to invest in them.4. Rules governing (1) application documents for listings on the ChiNext and (2) prospectuses of ChiNext companies On 20 July the CSRC published rules governing Application Documents for Initial Public Offerings and Listings of Shares on the ChiNext and Prospectuses of ChiNext Companies, and announced that it would begin processing listing applications on 26 July.III. Future developmentsAs Its purpose is to "promote the development of innovative enterprises and other growing start-ups"，the Second Board enables such companies to raise capital by issuing shares. That is why its listing requirements are less demanding than those of the Main Board but also why it has various provisions to mitigate risk. For one thing, the Second Board has its own public offering review committee to check how technologically specialized applicant companies are, reflecting the importance attached to this. For another, issuers and their controlling shareholders, de facto controllers, and sponsoring securities companies are subject to more demanding accountability requirements. The key factor here is, not surprisingly, disclosure. Also, the qualified investor system is designed to mitigate the risks to retail investors.Once the rules and regulations governing the Second Board were published, the CSRC began to process listing applications from 26 July 2009. It has been reported that 108 companies initially applied. As of mid-October, 28 of these had been approved and on 30 October they were listed on the Second Board.As of 15 December, there are 46 companies whose listing application has been approved by CSRC (including the above-mentioned 28 companies). They come from a wide range of sectors, especially information technology, services, and biopharmacy. Thus far, few companies in which foreign private equity funds have a stake have applied. This is because these funds have tended to go for red-chip listings.Another point is movement between the various tiers of China's multi-tier capital market. As of early September, four companies that are traded on the new Third Board had successfully applied to list on the Second Board. As 22 new Third Board companies meet the listing requirements of the Second Board on the basis of their interim reports for the first half of fiscal 2009, a growing number of companies may transfer their listing from the new Third Board to the Second Board. We think this is likely to make the new Third Board a more attractive market for private equity investors.The applicants include companies that were in the process of applying for a listing on the SME Board. The CSRC has also made it clear that it does not see theSecond Board simply as a "small SME Board" and attaches great importance to the companies' innovativeness and growth potential. Ultimately, whether or not such risks can be mitigated will depend on whether the quality of the companies that list on the Second Board improves and disclosure requirements are strictly complied with. For example, according to the rules governing Prospectuses of ChiNext Companies, companies are required to disclose the above-mentioned supplementary agreements as a control right risk. The point is whether such requirements will be complied with.Since there is a potentially large number of high-tech companies in China in the long term, whether or not the Second Board becomes one of the world's few successful venture capital markets will depend on whether all these rules and regulations succeed in shaping its development and the way in which it is run.The authorities clearly want to avoid a situation where the Second Board attracts a large number of second-rate companies and becomes a vehicle for market abuse as it would then run the risk of becoming an illiquid market shunned by investors who have lost trust in it. Indeed, such has been the number of companies applying to list on the Second Board that some observers have expressed concern about their quality.There has also been some concern about investor protection. For example, supplementary agreements between private equity funds and issuers pose a risk to retail investors in that they may suddenly be faced with a change in the controlling shareholder. This is because such agreements can result in a transfer of shares from the founder or controlling shareholder to a private equity fund if the company fails to meet certain agreed targets or in a shareholding structure that is different from the apparent one, for example. The problem of low liquidity, which has long faced the new Third Board market, where small-cap high-tech stocks are also traded, also needs to be addressed.Meanwhile, the Second Board's Public Offering Review Committee was officially established on 14 August. It has 35 members. A breakdown reveals that the number of representatives of the CSRC and the Shenzhen Stock Exchange has been limited to three and two, respectively, to ensure that the committee has the necessary number of technology specialists. Of the remainder, 14 are accountants, six lawyers,three from the Ministry of Science and Technology, three from the China Academy of Sciences, two from investment trust companies, one from an asset evaluation agency, and one from the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC). It has been reported that the members include specialists in the six industry fields the CSRC considers particularly important for Second Board companies (namely, new energy, new materials, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, energy conservation and environmental protection, services and IT).Source: Takeshi Jingu.2009.“China's Second Board”. Nomura Journal of Capital Markets Winter 2009 V ol.1 No.4.pp.1-15.二、翻译文章译文：中国创业板市场一、建立创业板市场及其意义2009年3月31日中国证券监督管理委员会(以下简称“中国证监会”)发行《中国证监会管理暂行办法》，首次在创业板市场上[即,第二个板,也叫创业板市场](“暂行办法”) 公开募股，从 2009年的5月1日开始生效，这标志着深圳证券交易所市场这个人们期待已久的合资企业即将诞生。
外文参考文献(带中文翻译)
外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance（c）Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the financesector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more i ts “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more.Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to l ending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing itinto EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs: •The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive,which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, whichstrengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating w ill also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to easetransparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
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基于ZigBee技术农业无线温湿度传感器网络
与农业生产实践相结合，提出了农业无线和湿度传感器网络设计，它基于ZigBee技术。
我们使用基于CC2530 ZigBee协议作为数据的采集，传输和显示的传感器节点和协调器节点的芯片，目的是实现农业生产自动化和精确农业。
关键词：农业，生产，温度和湿度，无线网络，传感器。
1.简介
目前，生产和生活的许多方面都需要提取和加工周围环境的温度和湿度信息。
在过去的技术是收集温度和湿度传感器的温湿度信息，并通过RS-485总线或现场总线再次发送数据到监控中心，所以你需要铺设大量的电缆来收集温度和湿度信息。
传统农业主要使用孤立的机械设备，没有沟通能力，主要依靠的人来监控作物生长状况。
然而，如果使用ZigBee无线传感器网络技术，农业将逐步转变为信息和生产的为主的生产模式，使用更加自动化，网络化，智能化的耕作方式，实现远程无线控制设备。
传感器可以收集信息，如土壤水分，氮浓度，pH值，降水，温度，空气湿度，空气压力等。
采集到的上述信息和所收集信息的位置被传递到中央控制设备用于通过ZigBee网络的决策和参考，所以我们可以提前和准确地识别用于帮助维持和提高作物产量的问题。
在许多面向数据的无线网络传输，低成本和复杂性的无线网络被广泛地使用。
2. ZigBee的技术特点
ZigBee技术是一种短距离，低复杂度，低功耗，低数据速率，和低成本，双向无线通信技术，主要是采用在自动控制和远程控制的领域中，可以嵌入各种设备中，以实现他们的自动化[1]。
对于现有的各种无线通信技术，ZigBee技术将是最低功耗和成本的技术。
ZigBee的数据传输速率低，在10KB/ s到250KB/ s的范围内，并主要集中在低速率传输。
在低功耗待机模式下，两个普通的5号电池可以持续6至24个月。
ZigBee的数据传输速率低，并且它的协议很简单，所以它大大降低了成本。
而它的网络容量大，可容纳65000设备。
延迟时间很短，一般在15毫秒〜30毫秒。
ZigBee提供了数据完整性检查和认证的功能，使用AES-128加密算法。
使用空闲的预留频段2.4GHz，作为可靠传输路径。
3.整个系统的设计理念
基于ZigBee的无线技术中，温湿度传感器网络是由三部分组成：发射器，接收器和显示系统。
发射器是由多个终端节点构成;每个节点包括一个温湿度的传感器和ZigBee无线射频模块。
温室温湿度传感器收集有关的温度和湿度，然后温度和湿度的数据被发送到ZigBee无线射频模块。
温湿度数据的校正是通过嵌入在ZigBee无线射频（RF）模块芯片处理并修改了数据然后通过ZigBee无线网络发送到接收器。
接收器是由一个ZigBee射频模块和RS232串口模块组成。
接收器模块是作为一个网络协调器建立了一个星形网络.采集到的数据通过ZigBee网络接收再通过RS232发送到显示系统。
这是该系统的发送节点的温度和湿度的收集和传递过程。
图1.总体系统仿真方案
4.系统硬件设计
CC2530满足低成本和基于ZigBee的2.4GHz ISM频段的低功率要求。
它包括一个高性能的2.4GHz DSSS（直接序列扩频）射频收发器芯和8051控制器。
ZigBee的射频前端，存储器和微控制器被集成在单一芯片上。
它拥有128kB的可编程闪存和8KB RAM，包括ADC，定时器，32kHz晶振，休眠模式，定时器，上电复位电路，掉电监测电路和20个可编程I / O引脚，使节点的小型化[2]。
CC2530无线单芯片的特点在于非常低的功率，只有0.2微安的待机电流消耗。
在32 kHz晶振时钟的运行，消耗电流小于1μA。
温湿度传感器SHT11集成了多种电路集成到一个芯片上，如温度和湿度的检测，信号放大调理，A/ D 转换和数字通信接口。
湿度测量范围为0〜100％RH，温度测量范围为-40℃〜+123.8℃，湿度测量精度为±3.0％RH，温度测量精度为±0.4℃，响应时间小于4秒。
对于数字接口，SHT11提供两线数字串行接口SCK和数据接口DAT; SCK是用于微处理器以实现同步通信使用的串行时钟线。
DAT作为串行数据线，并与微处理器之间进行数据传输。
该芯片接口简单，善于传输，可靠性高，而且测量精度可通过编程进行调整。
在测量和通信后，CC2530低功耗模式被自动启动。
4.1传输节点的硬件设计
发射节点是温湿度传感器SHT11模块，CC2530处理器模块，天线模块，电源模块组成的网络的基本单元。
它负责获取的温度和湿度的数据和数据的预处理，并且它们将被发送到的ZigBee接收端。
温湿度传感器模块是负责收集检测区内的温度和湿度的数据。
处理器模块将所收集的数据信号进行模数转换，然后预处理。
经过预处理的数据由天线模块发送[3]。
功率模块主要为处理器供电。
发送硬件架构
示于图 2。
图2.发送的硬件架构
4.2接收节点的硬件设计
接收器是由电源模块，密钥模块，串行模块，LCD模块，LED灯，CC2530处理器模块和天线模块组成。
无线温湿度传感器网络不是一个独立的无线通信网络，其中需要监测的温度和湿度数据发送给主计算机，并显示它们。
LED指示灯用于显示接收节点的网络状态信息（例如网络是否被成功建立）; LCD模块用于显示传感器网络功能模式，用户可以通过按钮选择各种模式。
CC2530是一个协调器负责数据接收。
当接收数据时，RF接收信号由低噪声放大器放大它们翻倒入混频器之前。
通过混合频率，IF（中频）信号产生。
在IF处理阶段，信号送入解调器被放大并过滤之前，解调的数据被放入移位寄存器，然后进入RFBUF。
在RFBUF的温度和湿度的数据由微控制器除去后，它们将被放入串口数据缓冲寄存器UART SBUF，并且通过RS232串行模块发送给主计算机显示。
5.系统软件设计
使用的开发环境系统IAR7.51A，采用协议栈是TI的Z-STACK。
通过RS232连接接收器和计算机，显示数据时为了区分各节点数据必须知道每个传感器节点的网络地址，因此要求每个传感器节点设备加入网络后将自己的网络地址发送到接收器。
接收器接收该传感器节点的网络地址后建立地址表存储各节点地址，当用户收集每个传感器的数据时可以通过地址表收集各节点数据。
发射器和接收器的软件流程图如图3。
图3.发射器和接收器的软件流程图
6. 基于ZigBee的无线传感器网络的建设
FFD（全功能设备）必须作为网络协调器建立网络，然后其他的FFD或RFD加入该网络，但RFD （缩减功能的设备）只能链接到FFD。
根据网络中设备的各自功能，各个设备地程序预先配置。
协调器的功能是通过扫描16个通道设置合适的最佳通道并启动一个网络搜索。
协调器可以形成一个免费信道网络，或连接到一个已经存在的网络。
路由器的功能是通过扫描搜索找到一个有效通道，并连接它，然后允许连接其它设备。
终端设备的功能总是试图连接到现有网络。
这些终端设备搜索那些可以在网络中提供完整搜索服务的其它设备，允许任何网络设备初始化搜索服务，并且可绑定其它可以提供完整服务的设备，在特定组网络中提供的命令和控制功能。
中央控制中心通过网络与发射器相连接。
接收器和发射器之间的无线信息传输经由ZigBee技术实现的。
发射器负责检测和处理数据，并将其发送到接收器。
控制中心通过网络获取所收集的相关信息。
多个发射器分布在传感器网络中，通过单片机轮询扫描可以有序的根据不同的ID上传后发送相应的数据。
7.结论
本文提出了一种基于ZigBee技术的无线温湿度传感器网络系统，此网络构建方式灵活，适应性强。
通过在实验室和其周围的办公室实际应用中，该系统被证明是非常实用的。
在实际应用中，终端设备地数量通过应用环境要求来确定。
该系统可应用于农业生产，以及生产和生活等更多领域，解决成本高和有线网络布线复杂，环境恶劣的区域进行环境温湿度监测问题。
使用ZigBee组网方式进行实时传递温湿度信息过程中降低了系统成本，节省能源，为工业化生产提供了便利。
随着ZigBee芯片价格的降
低，新的温湿度监测系统将有广阔的应用前景。