Integrated Water and CGE Model of the Impacts of Water Policy on the Beijing's Economy and Out
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Integrated urban and rural water affairs management reform in China
Integrated urban and rural water affairs management reformin China:Affecting factorsDajun Shen a,*,Bin Liu baDepartment of Water Resources,China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research,Chegongzhuang Xilu,Beijing 100044,ChinabSchool of Environment &Natural Resources,Renmin University of China,Beijing 100872,ChinaAvailable online 15February 2008AbstractThe institutional evolution is often induced by some factors.This paper intends to analyze the affecting factors in integrated urban and rural water affairs management reform in China.The integrated urban and rural water affairs management reform is to restructure the governmental organizational setting in water management by forms of water affair bureau or re-designing functions of current water resources bureau to incorporate part or all functions of resources management,service regulation and environment management in water sector.The analyses selected some natural and socio-economic factors.The results point out that the integrated urban and rural water affairs management reform is a factor-induced institutional evolution.The factors promoting this reform include occasional drought events,higher central water investment percentage;but the data from the urban sector do not provide the support to the reform.Ó2008Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Keywords:Integrated urban and rural water affairs management;Affecting factor;Institutional evolution1.IntroductionChina’s first integrated urban and rural water affairs management reform began in 1993in Shenzhen,Guang-dong Province at southern China,by the formulation of Shenzhen Water Affair Bureau (WAB).In realizing the improvement in water resources management,after 1999,Ministry of Water Resources (MWR),the water adminis-trative department (WAD)of State Council in China,pos-itively promotes integrated urban and rural water affairs management all over the country.Till now,except Tibetan Autonomous Region,other provinces (including the auton-omous regions and municipality directly under central gov-ernment)in China have set up WABs in different forms with various functions.Till the end of October,2004,there had been 1251administrative regions setting up WABs or implementing integrated urban and rural water affairs management by water resources bureaus (WRBs),account-ing for 53%of total administrative regions above countylevel.There were 950WABs,40%of the total administra-tive regions above the county level;301WRBs with func-tions of urban and rural water affairs management.1The integrated urban and rural water affairs manage-ment reform is,through the change of current water man-agement institution,to restructure the governmental organizational setting in water management,which sepa-rates the resources management,service regulation and environment management functions in different agencies previously,by forms of WAB or re-designing functions of current WRB,to incorporate part or all functions of resources management,service regulation and environment management into WAB or WRB.China has a centralized and unified administrative and political system.But the local governments have the pow-ers and rights to organize it structures.Therefore,although many regions have implemented this reform,still many have not.Even in the regions implementing integrated urban and rural water affairs management,various1474-7065/$-see front matter Ó2008Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.pce.2008.02.010*Corresponding author.E-mail address:dajunshen@ (D.Shen).1/CWSNews_View.asp?CWSNewsID=17333./locate/pceAvailable online at Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 33(2008)364–375functions of agencies could be found.According to the data based on the1097regions,which set up WABs or implemented integrated urban and rural water affairs man-agement by WRBs,100%agencies included functions of water resources management,96%of urbanflood control, 68%of water supply management,37%of drainage func-tion,80%of urban water saving management,28%of urban wastewater treatment management.2These differ-ences should be caused by the factors affecting the imple-mentation of this reform.2.The institutional environment of water sector in China 2.1.The legal frameworkIn China,the National People’s Congress(NPC)of Peo-ple’s Republic of China(PRC)is the highest organ of national power and,with its Standing Committee,exercises the legislative power of the nation.3Laws are categorized as general or ordinary laws,and must not be contrary to the Constitution in China.Water and related resources laws are normally subject to ordinary laws.The water related laws in China include Water Law(The Water Law of PRC,2002),Flood Control Law,Water and Soil Conservation Law,Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law,Environmental Protection Law,etc.Thefirst Water Law was issued in1988and amended and adopted in2002.The purpose of this Law is for the rational development,utilization,saving and protection of water resources,for the prevention and control of water disasters and for the realization of sustainable utilization of water resources.The law prescribes the water resources manage-ment institution,planning,development and utilization, protection,allocation and saving,dispute resolution and enforcement and legal liabilities.The law defines that ‘‘The state exercises a system of basin water resource man-agement in conjunction with jurisdictional water resource management.The WAD at each above-county level shall be in charge of the unified administration and supervision of water resources at corresponding level.Other relevant departments at each above-county level shall be responsible for the undertakings concerning water resource develop-ment,utilization,saving,and protection in accordance with the responsibilities assigned to them at corresponding level”.The1997Flood Control Law aims to preventing and controllingflood,taking precautions against and alleviat-ing disasters byflood and waterlogging,maintaining the safety of people’s lives and property.The law prescribes that,‘‘the WAD of the State Council shall,under the lead-ership of the State Council,be responsible for routine duties of organization,coordination,supervision and guid-ance forflood control nationwide.The construction administration department and other relevant departments of the State Council shall,be responsible for relevant work offlood control within their scope of powers and duties. The State Council establishes the stateflood control head-quarters responsible for leading and organizing theflood control andfloodfighting work nationwide,with its agency in the WAD of the State Council.”The Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law was adopted in1984and amended in1996.The Law is enacted for the purposes of preventing and controlling water pollu-tion,protecting and improving the environment,safe-guarding human health,ensuring effective utilization of water resources;applies to prevention and control of pollu-tion of rivers,lakes,canals,irrigation channels,reservoirs and other surface water bodies and of ground water bodies. The law defines that,‘‘The environmental protection departments of the governments at each level shall be the organs exercising unified supervision and management of prevention and control of water pollution.The WADs, the departments of public health administration,geological and mining departments,the departments of municipal administration of the governments,and water sources pro-tection agencies for major rivers shall,through performing their respective functions and in conjunction with environ-mental protection departments,exercise supervision and management of prevention and control of water pollution. Water resources protection agencies for major river basins determined as such by the State shall be responsible for monitoring the water environment quality in such river basins.”The1991Water and Soil Conservation Law,is for the purpose of the prevention and control of water and soil erosion,the protection and rational utilization of water and land resources,the mitigation of disasters offlood, drought and sandstorm,the improvement of ecological environment and the development of economic activities. The law states that:‘‘WAD of the State Council shall be in charge of the work of water and soil conservation all over the county.The WADs at or above the county level shall be in charge of the work of water and soil conserva-tion in areas under their respective jurisdiction.”It could be found that from the definitions in the laws related to water,the legal framework develops a relative separated water management institution,with several departments responsible for some or one aspects of water management functions.This decides that the reform is not a coercive institutional evolution and is an induced institutional evolution.2.2.Market-based economic reformIn1978,China embarked on a gradual but far-reaching economic reform.Since then,China’s economy has been significantly modernized and opened up to the rest of the world.The reform process has affected all sectors of the economy.In about two decades,China has transformed itself from a centrally planned economy to an emerging2Department of Water Resources,Department of Personnel andEducation,Ministry of Water Resources.Material Collection of WaterAffairs Management in China.March,2003.3Available at .D.Shen,B.Liu/Physics and Chemistry of the Earth33(2008)364–375365market economy and at the same time has achieved nearly a 10%average growth rate.During this period,China’s per capita GDP has more than quadrupled and the living stan-dard of ordinary Chinese people has improved significantly (Qian,1999).In October,2003,‘‘Decision on Some Issues to Improve Socialist Market Economy”on the3rd Session of16th Standing Committee of Communist Party,declared to make the market to play more role on resources allocation, to improve governmental functions in social management and public service delivery.At the same time,the decision promoted the monopoly sector reform,by deregulating the market entry,introducing the competition mechanisms, and separating the governmental organization and enter-prises,strengthening the regulation on natural monopoly.The economic reform is accompanying with decentral-ization.Since1980s,economic decentralization has been pushing a parallel decentralization in governmental arrangement and authority in China.The role of each level of government in the economy has changed.From a highly centralized planning system,China moved gradually but determinedly toward a more decentralized one in almost all aspects offiscal policy and economic management. More than two decades of this gradual transformation have led to new central-local relations in economy and pol-itics,leading to a more rational division of power and func-tions between them.At present,local governments have more participation in planning,more responsibility and accountability,as well as greater local influence as they now deliver more services(Paralejas,2002).Therefore,the market-based economic reform provides a space for the local governments.The local governments might arrange and design governmental structure based on their conditions.This provides an opportunity to imple-ment integrated urban and rural water affairs management reform.3.The internal characteristics of water sector in China3.1.Water resources and its development3.1.1.Water resourcesChina has enormous water resources but they are unevenly distributed in space and time.In per capita terms, they are only about75%of the average for all Asia,and 35%of the average for the world as a whole.Annual runoffis2711.5km3,equivalent to about45%of precipitation and corresponding to a depth of284mm over the land area. Groundwater recharge is828.8km3although most of this represents water transformed into riverflows under natural conditions and is thus already accounted for by river runoff(Department of Water Resources,1987).The area south of the Yangtze accounts for80.4%of the water but is available for only53.6%of the population, 35.2%of the arable land and55.5%of GDP.Water availabil-ity per capita south of the Yangtze is thus almost four times that north of the Yangtze,and per hectare of arable land it is some eight times greater.The Hai river basin is particularly low,being only245m3per capita.Even including the net contribution of groundwater it was still only343m3per capita in1997(Liu and Chen,2001)Availability per capita in the Huai and Yellow river basins is higher than in the Hai river basin but both are still at levels that come within internationally accepted definitions of water scarcity.Water resources in China are highly variable in time. Annual variability is greater in the north than the south. Variability at a sub-basin level in all regions can be great. The ratio of maximum annual runoffto minimum usually has a value of less than5in the south,but may exceed 10in the north.The seasonal variation of runoffis also great as affected by seasonal variation of precipitation. The rivers in the northern areas show a bigger seasonal runoffvariation with the maximum runoffof consecutive four months accounting for more than80%of the annual total in some areas,and this ratio is about60%for rivers in the southern areas.3.1.2.Water resources developmentIn2001,the total water supply of China was556.7km3, of which445.1km3was from surface water,109.5km3was from groundwater(Ministry of Water Resources,2003).In 2001,the development ratio(the ratio between water sup-ply and water availability)of the country was0.20but with great differentiation among regions.In the Hai-Luan,Huai and Yellow riverbasins,the ratios reached0.93,0.63and 0.53,respectively;while in the Yangtze,Pearl and South-east river basins,the ratios were only0.18,0.18and0.12, respectively.In the Southwest river basins,thefigure was lowered to0.02.In terms of groundwater resources devel-opment,the ratio in the Hai-Luan river basin reached 1.01,an indication of aggravated overexploitation of groundwater resources;in Huai river basin,thefigure was almost0.50;while in the southern China,very few groundwater resources had been exploited.The variety in development among river basins resulted in different water issues and management issues.With economic development,pollution has become a serious threat in the last20years in China.According to the China Environmental Bulletin,in2003,the total indus-trial and urban wastewater discharge was46billion tons, 4.7%more than the previous year,of which21.24billion tons was from the industrial sub-sector and24.76billion tons was from the urban domestic sub-sector.The propor-tion of the industrial discharge meeting the discharge stan-dard was85.6%.43.1.3.Trends in water resources development and managementWith the social and economic development in China,the water resources development and management is under-4Available at /eic/649371571659472896/ 20040602/1050945.shtml.366 D.Shen,B.Liu/Physics and Chemistry of the Earth33(2008)364–375changing.The urbanization process is pushed fast with the economic development.The urbanization ratio has increased from28%in1993to40.5%in2003,with the urban population of520million.Together with the urban-ization process,the urban and industrial water resources development and management begins to play a more impor-tant role in water sector.The water use structure changes quickly with the continuous increase of industrial and urban water demand.In the recent20years,the total agri-cultural water usage remains stable,with the percentage in total water usage decreasing from85%in1980to68%in 2000.While during1980–2000,the industrial and urban water usages increased74.5km3,24.2km3,respectively, with an annual increase of7.2%and5.2%,respectively.It is projected that both water usages will increase with the social and economic development in the future.The increas-ing industrial and urban water demand,with its high requirement for guarantee and water quality,affects the water supply and agricultural water management.With the changes in water use structure,the relation between urban and rural affairs is increasingly closely. Due to the shortage in local water resources,high density in population and large economic scale,and intensive water demand and use,the urban area widely catches water resources from the rural area,and results in many agricul-tural water supply infrastructures shifting goals to urban water supply,especially for the water sources with stable supply and good quality,such as reservoirs and groundwa-ter aquifers.At the same time,many untreated wastewater and pollutants discharged from the urban and industrial areas to the rural areas by theflow,causing to the deterio-ration of rural environment.All these changes in water issues might require reform in the water intuitional setting,intricate the intuitional evolution.3.2.The organizational structure in water sectorGovernment in China is structured overfive levels: national;provincial(including municipalities directly under the central government,and the autonomous regions),pre-fectural(including cities with districts and autonomous prefectures),country(including counties,autonomous counties and cities),country(including townships,ethnic townships and towns).The State Council is the highest administrative authority,and the executive body of the highest organ of the state power.Ministries,commissions and administrations are departments that make up the State Council.Under the leadership of the State Council, they are in charge of directing and administering the administrative affairs in their respective areas and exercise prescribed state administrative powers.5The main func-tional organizations whose mandates directly affect the water sector include MWR,State Environmental Protec-tion Agency(SEPA),Ministry of Construction,Ministry of Health,Ministry of Agriculture,the State Forestry Administration,etc.China’s water resources management institution is under re-organization all the time,due to the external economic reform and as well as issue changes in the water sector. The management institution had been characterized as‘‘nine dragons(departments)involved in water management”.After1998governmental restructure,the management functions are relatively centralized.MWR is responsible for the resources management and part environ-mental management of water sector,and rural water supply service regulation;Ministry of Construction is responsible for the urban water services regulation;SEPA is responsible for part environmental regulation.Ministry of Health,Min-istry of Agriculture,the State Forestry Administration,etc. have a few functions related to water too.MWR,WAD of the State Council and the key actor in the management system,is mandated to6:formulate water-related policies,development strategies and medium and long-term development plans;draft water related regulations and supervise their implementation;implement integrated management of water resources, including atmospheric water,surface water and ground-water;assessment of water resources andflood risk and flood mitigation measures;formulate water resource protection plans;organize water function zoning and control wastewater discharge to drinking waters and other waters;monitor the water quantity and quality in rivers,lakes and reservoirs, review the pollution loading capacities of water bodies; formulate economic regulatory measures for the water sector;draft and supervise the implementation of technical standards for the water sector and specifications and codes for water works;organize and guide the management of hydraulic facili-ties,water areas,dykes and coastal areas,and the regu-lation,reclamation and development of major rivers, major lakes and beaches;provide guidance to rural water resources management; organize water and soil conservation activities;andbe responsible for the routine work of the State Flood Control and Drought Relief Headquarter.SEPA,the organ to exercise unified supervision and management of prevention and control of water pollution, is mandated to7:formulate national environmental protection policies and regulations,environmental protection standards;5Available at .6Available at /slbjs/js.htm.7Available at /649926825031499776/ index.shtml.D.Shen,B.Liu/Physics and Chemistry of the Earth33(2008)364–375367formulate and implement environmental management laws and regulations,including EIA for development projects,‘‘Three Simultaneous”(‘‘Three Simultaneous”means that the pollution prevention measures in the pro-ject must be designed simultaneously,constructed simul-taneously,and operated simultaneously with the project in China),discharge charge,etc.;manage environmental monitoring activity and network;guide urban and rural environmental management;formulate national environmental protection planning; formulate and implement laws and regulations of atmo-spheric,water,noise,solid waste,toxic chemicals and motor vehicle pollution control;implement environmen-tal management instruments,including waste discharge reporting and registration,waste discharge permit, etc.;andcompile environmental function zoning;formulate and monitor the implementation of environmental protec-tion control plan at major rivers and regions.In thefields of water pollution control,MWR and SEPA have a debate over functions.The present functions assigned to each agency or the setting rule for the current arrangement between two agencies is that MWR is respon-sible for the water related environmental management in the water body,while SEPA is responsible for those activ-ities on the land.This is the‘‘geographic”boundary between two agencies,regardless of characteristics of water pollutions.In spite of MWR and SEPA,other agencies are involved in water management:Ministry of Construction is mandated to guide urban water supply,guide the groundwater development and protection in the urban areas8;Ministry of Health is mandated to formulate,implement and monitor&assess implementation of planning,stan-dards of water borne disease control;change water sources in rural areas with poor quality9;Ministry of Agriculture is mandated to guide the man-agement of protection offishery waters10;The State Forestry Administration is mandated to orga-nize and guide bio-measure soil and water conservation activities11;Ministry of Transportation is mandated to formulate inland transportation planning,policies,regulations and standards12;andThe State Development and Reform Commission is mandated to arrange the state budget for water projects.13Under China’s centralized and unified system,almost all agencies at the central level couldfind their line agencies at the province,prefecture,and county.The line agencies, having comparable responsibility,conduct duty and responsibility in their jurisdictions.However,these agen-cies report administratively to the local governments and their links to upper-level agencies are primarily those asso-ciated with technical guidance and to ensure implementa-tion of the laws.The specific structure of,and allocation of functions,to line agencies may vary depending on local decisions and requirements.The organizational structure in water sector at the central level points out the organizational issue when implementing integrated urban and rural water affairs management.Under China’s administrative system,organizational reform at one level will disorder the unified structure.4.Integrated urban and rural water affairs management:affecting factors and their influencesThe design of local governmental structure in China is based on the upper-level governmental structure and local conditions,and made by local government.Therefore,inte-grated urban and rural water affairs management could only be achieved by the local governmental design and function arrangements.So,the local governments play a key role in this institutional evolution.From an economic view,it is reasonable to assume that only the local govern-ment realizes the benefits(including the direct and indirect benefits)from this reform will they implement the reform.When selecting the affecting factors in integrated urban and rural water affairs management reform,two aspects are elaborated:natural and socio-economic factors.The nat-ural factors related to integrated urban and rural water affairs management reform mainly include the local water resources condition;the socio-economic factors are the indi-cators related to water management,such as water availabil-ity per capita,water investment,and urbanization ratio.In the analyses,the data implementing integrated urban and rural water affairs management reform before the end of March2004were collected.Because integrated urban and rural water affairs management reform is involved with different levels of governments,the different level data were chosen.Due to different numbers of administrative regions in provinces,autonomous regions and municipality directly under central governments,the percentage of total admin-istrative regions(including prefectural,county levels) which implemented integrated urban and rural water affairs management in total provincial administrative regions were employed to reflect the progress of the reform in different provinces and regions.4.1.Water factorsAmong water factors,water resources,water use struc-ture and wastewater factors are selected.Water resources8Available at /main/jsb/default3.htm.9Available at /zzjgyzz/200207160017.htm.10Available at /MOA/zhize.htm.11Available at /JIGOU/INDEX.HTM.12Available at /zhinengbm/sys.htm.13Available at /.368 D.Shen,B.Liu/Physics and Chemistry of the Earth33(2008)364–375factors consist of water availability per capita and runoffdepth,because water availability per capita is the most typ-ical indicator reflecting the condition of regional water resources,and from one aspect could reflect the water resources constrain on regional socio-economic develop-ment.But at the same time,due to the great population density difference,water availability per capita could not properly reflect the water resources conditions in regions, such as Xinjiang Autonomous Regions and Qinghai Prov-ince.Therefore,the runoffdepth is selected as another indi-cator.Water use structure factor includes ratio of urban water usage(sum of industrial and urban domestic water usage)to rural water usage(sum of agricultural and rural domestic water usage).Fig.1shows that there is a relation between implement-ing integrated urban and rural water affairs management and water availability per capita.The distribution of the spots in thefigure could explain that water availability per capita has the influence on this reform.The higher water availability per capita results in lower reform per-centage.Thefigure provides the evidence that the reform isproblem-oriented.D.Shen,B.Liu/Physics and Chemistry of the Earth33(2008)364–375369Fig.2shows the relation between integrated urban and rural water affairs management reform and provincial run-offdepths.Thefigure reflects that the region with less run-offdepth has a higher rate of integrated urban and rural water affairs management,while with more runoffdepth has a lower rate.It means that the natural water resources condition is an affecting factor in integrated urban and rural water affairs management reform;that runoffdepth, representing the local moisture conditions,is a factor impacting reform.Combined with the geography and climate,Fig.2points out that more reforms are conducted in the northern China than in the southern;and in the western than in the eastern. Fig.2also shows an interesting fact that400mm runoffdepth is a rational line to distinguish the reform.In China, 400mm runoffdepth line is almost the boundary between the Yangtze and Huai,Yellow rivers,a line to separate the humid and semi-humid zones.At the same time,it is realized that institutional evolu-tion could be correlated to the occurrences of naturalphe-370 D.Shen,B.Liu/Physics and Chemistry of the Earth33(2008)364–375。
《水工程经济》课件
3
Economic Viability
Determining whether a water project is financially viable by comparing the costs and benefits over the project's lifespan.
水工程项目的融资策略
水管理的机制与框架
Water Management Organizations
Exploring the different organizational structures for water management, including river basin authorities, water utilities, and regulatory agencies.
industrial development, and
models for water services to
agricultural practices.
ensure efficiency, fairness, and
sustainability.
3
Water Conservation
Incentives
水工程项目的成本效益分析
1
Cost Analysis
Understanding the financial aspects of water engineering projects, including construction costs, operational expenses, and maintenance budgets.
water projects and
financing, such as
UNEPMediterranean Action Plan Ministry of Environm
OPTIMA - Lebanon Case Study
Economic Instruments
STRESSES Population growth, industrial, agricultural and touristic development, environmental and ecological needs, climate change, lack of awareness
Water Demand Management
Economic Instruments
Increased conflicts
More complex management and insufficient capacity of institutions - Institutional and legal development - Capacity building - Private sector participation
Optimization for Sustainable Water Resources Lebanon Case Study The Lower Litani River Basin
Earth Link and Advanced Resources Development (ELARD) in cooperation with The Lebanese National Center for Remote Sensing (NCRS) Malta October 28-29, 2019
Private Sector Participation
OPTIMA - Lebanon Case Study
DESCRIPTION OF CASE STUDY
气候变化综合评价模型
气候变化综合评价模型2016-2-17内容介绍•气候变化综合评价模型（IAMs）•气候变化综合评价模型类别•DICE/RICE•MERGE•FUND•PAGE气候变化综合评价模型•气候变化综合评估模型主要的模型框架主要有最优化模型，CGE 模型和模拟模型等三类•最优化模型按其目标函数可以分为福利最大化模型和成本最小化模型•模拟模型通过外生的排放参数决定了未来每个时期可用于生产的碳排放量评估在未来各种可能的排放情景下的社会成本•CGE模型以微观经济主体的优化行为为基础，以宏观与微观变量之间的连接关系为纽带，以经济系统整体为分析对象描述多个市场及其行为主体间的相互作用估计政策变化所带来的各种直接和间接影响最优化模型•最优化模型按其目标函数可以分为福利最大化模型和成本最小化模型。
福利最大化模型的原理比较简单,即生产带来消费,同时带来排放；排放引起气候变化,而产生损失, 降低消费。
福利最大化模型是通过选择每个时期的减排量, 最大化整个时间内贴现的社会福利。
这些模型中,消费的边际效用都是正的,但随着社会变得富有而递减,DICE,RICE,FUND等模型都是福利最大化模型。
成本最小化模型是寻找成本一效率最高的气候政策的模型.有些成本最小化模型明确地包含气候模块,而有些模型只是选择排放代表气候模块——GET-LFL模型便是成本最小化模型。
模拟模型•模拟模型是基于对未来碳排放和气候条件的预测的模型模拟模型通过外生的排放参数决定了未来每个时期可用于生产的碳排放量，可以评估在未来各种可能的排放情景下的社会成本CGE模型（略）•CGE模型被用于分析气候政策的影响, 关注的焦点包括减排的经济成本和为实现某一减排目标所必需的碳税水平——碳税收入不同的使用方式对社会经济系统的影响；减排政策对不同阶层收入分配的影响、对就业的影响、对国际贸易的影响等；减排政策对公众健康和常规污染物控制的共生效益与减排政策灵活性对温室气体减排的效果及相应的社会经济成本等。
水结构的英语作文
水结构的英语作文The Structure of Water。
Water is one of the most important substances on Earth. It covers about 71% of the Earth's surface and is essential for all forms of life. The unique structure of water makes it a versatile and vital component of our planet.The structure of water is simple yet fascinating. It consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom, forming a molecule with the chemical formula H2O. The arrangement of these atoms gives water its distinctive properties, such as its ability to exist in three states –solid, liquid, and gas – at normal Earth temperatures.One of the most remarkable features of water is its ability to form hydrogen bonds. These bonds occur between the positively charged hydrogen atoms of one water molecule and the negatively charged oxygen atoms of another. This results in a network of interconnected water molecules,which gives water its cohesion and surface tension. It also allows water to absorb a significant amount of heat before its temperature rises, making it an excellent regulator of temperature.The structure of water also gives rise to its high polarity. The oxygen atom in a water molecule has a slight negative charge, while the hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge. This polarity makes water a powerful solvent, capable of dissolving a wide range of substances. It is this property that allows water to transportnutrients and waste products within living organisms and across ecosystems.Furthermore, the structure of water plays a crucialrole in its density. Unlike most substances, water is denser in its liquid form than in its solid form. This means that ice floats on water, which has significant implications for the Earth's climate and the survival of aquatic life. The floating ice acts as an insulating layer, preventing the water below from freezing completely and allowing life to thrive in the coldest of environments.In addition, the structure of water is responsible for its high specific heat capacity. This means that water can absorb and store a large amount of heat energy without a significant change in temperature. As a result, water helps to moderate the Earth's climate and maintain stable temperatures in both aquatic and terrestrial environments.In conclusion, the structure of water is a marvel of nature. Its simple yet intricate arrangement of atoms gives rise to a wide range of unique properties that areessential for life on Earth. From its ability to form hydrogen bonds to its high polarity and density, water's structure is a key factor in shaping the world we live in. Understanding and appreciating the structure of water is crucial for our efforts to conserve and protect this precious resource for future generations.。
水资源需求管理项目英汉互译
UK/China Water Resources Demand Management Assistance Project 中英合作水资源需求管理项目 WRDMAP Glossary of Terms : Chinese and English 术语汇编（中英对照）（初版）中央项目办公室水资源需求管理援助项目 术语汇编WRDMAPWater Resources Demand Management Assistance Project 水资源需求管理援助项目 WRDMAP Glossary of Terms : Chinese and English 术语汇编（中英对照）“Acquire new knowledge whilst thinking over the old, and you may become a teacher of others.” —Confucius “温故而知新，可以为师矣”——孔子Preface 前 言本术语表是水资源需求管理项目术语表的初级版本，是在水资源需求管理项目中汇编而成，该项目是由 英国国际发展部出资、水利部负责实施的双边合作项目。
在水行业发展项目初期就开始编写术语表，随 后在水资源需求管理援助项目（WRDMAP）启动之前进一步对术语表进行了修订和更新。
WRDMAP 项 目决定将目前版本的术语表印刷成册，尽管专家们指出它还存在诸多不足之处。
在项目起始阶段对术语 表尽可能地进行了修正。
WRDMAP 项目计划在 2006 年底重新印制术语表， 在第二版中将纳入来自相关 各方的修改意见和建议。
This draft/preliminary version of the Water Resources Demand Management Project Glossary has been assembled under the Water Resources Demand Management Project funded by DFID and carried out by MWR. The Glossary was started during the earlier Water Sector Development Project and was subsequently further developed during the period prior to the commencement of WRDMAP. It has been decided to print this version despite the fact that WRDMAP experts have identified many shortcomings in the document. These have been corrected to the extent possible during the Inception Phase of the Project. However, it is intended to reprint an improved second edition at the end of 2006 incorporating comments and modifications, suggestions received. 本术语表的编写目的是为项目人员提供水资源管理方面的常用术语、短语以及技术、机构缩略语，以便 促进项目中方人员与国际专家之间的相互理解和交流沟通。
流域水资源集成管理
中国环境科学 2001,21(2)１．北京师范大学环境科学研究所，环境模拟与污染控制国家重点实验室，北京 １００８７５ 摘要组织结构与技术路线． 关键词水资源冲突分析 中图分类号 A 文章编号２．Ｄｅｐａｒｔｍｅｎｔ ｏｆ Ｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔａｌ Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ ａｎｄ Ｅｎｇｉｎｅｅｒｉｎｇ， Ｔｓｉｎｇｈｕａ Ｕｎｉｖｅｒ－ｓｉｔｙ， Ｂｅｉｊｉｎｇ １０００８４， Ｃｈｉｎａ）． China Environmental Science. 2001,21(2)Starting from analyzing the course and problems of domestic and oversea water resources management pro-gressing, the model, organization structure and technical line of integrated water resources management on river basinsuitable for national conditions were put forward on the basis of systemic analysis and conflict analysis theories on com-plicated watershed system and actual problems of water resources management.Key words water resources conflict analysis 随着人口增长与社会经济的发展，人类对水资源的开发与利用不断深入，水资源紧缺形势日趋严峻，水资源的各种利用方式之间矛盾也日益激化．城市生态用水生活用水之间，流域上下游水资源开发利用之间，以及水资源利用现状与可持续发展利用之间的矛盾等均孕育着巨大的冲突［１，２］．这些部门间求174 中国环境科学 21卷资源实行统一管理，或者由国家指定某一机构对水资源进行归口管理，协调各部门的水资源开发利用．分散管理是由国家有关各部门按分工职责对水资源进行分别管理，或将水资源管理权交给地方政府，国家只制定法令和政策． 流域水资源集中管理与分散管理各有利弊，分散管理的弊端是各部门间利益的冲突问题难于解决，特别是上下游流域开发利用间的冲突无法解决．集中管理同样也不可行，尽管集中管理体制避免多头领导，有利于水资源统一管理，易于方案的实施，政策的推广，但是这种统一规划综合化民主与公平，与当前市场经济的大趋势相违背，不利于流域水资源的持续利用． 流域水资源集成管理是针对集中管理与分散管理存在的问题，从更高层次提出的一种全流域统一管理模式．更高层次的流域水资源综合管理体现在各部门法规与标准的制定．流域水资源集成管理是通过水资源使用权与排污权的拍卖，通过市场调节，通过流域内水资源管理过程中冲突各方的磋商与仲裁等手段，实现流域水资源统一管理． 西方许多国家的流域水资源管理已逐步向多目标集成化集中式的管理模式．体现在由统一的流域水资源管理部门进行政策分散 地区按分工职责与区域对水资源分别进行管理．如此，即发挥部门与地区的自主性，又不失全流域的统筹与综合管理． 2 我国流域水资源管理的经验教训 在我国流域水资源管理与水污染控制分属不同部门管理,水量与水能由水利水电部门管理,城市供水与排水则由市政部门管理,国家环境保护总局虽然全面负责水环境保护与管理，但是它与其他很多机构分享权力，责权交叉多.难以实现合理布局珠江水利委员会等,但往往只在处理洪水危机中起作用，在水资源分配与协调方面的作用微乎其微，尚未形成一整套流域水资源集成管理体系．由于这些管理部门都不是权力机构,无权过问地方水资源开发集中化法规制定，宏观调控与冲突协调的功能．水资源保护2期曾维华等分部门开发到分部门管理发展的必然趋势，是水资源管理发展到现阶段的必然产物．早在２０世纪８０年代末，一些缺水与跨流域国家在流域水资源集成管理方面做了大量工作，在银行参与水权交易费用回收机制与流域级组织机构建设等流域水资源集成管理的市场化与社会化方面取得可喜进展，并获得巨大效益． 流域水资源集成管理的对象不仅涉及水资源供给与防洪调节，同时还包括湿地保护水资源可持续发展，以及全球环境保护等问题．流域水资源集成管理强调的是水资源的长期可持续的相互矛盾的水资源利用经费，提高水资源的多目标应用潜能．它是一个协商的过程，通过冲突分析实现有限水资源在冲突各方的合理分配． 水资源的各种利用方式间既相互联系相互影响，由此构成复杂流域水环境大系统．这一大系统具有复杂大系统的典型特征：多级多子系统．高层次系统并不是低级子系统的简单加和，而具有低级子系统没有的性质．对于这一复杂大系统的管理，只从各部门或各地区分别考虑是远远不够的，需要从全局角度，从各部门综合高度考虑问题．这就提出思想．而则是所要解决的问题，是通过的协商集成管理综合管理利用与保护以及流域社会经济发展综合在一起，视为整体统一考虑，由综合管理部门全面负责水资源开发利用与保护分解到各个部门和一些私有化公司管理，由流域水资源管理委员会统一协调，将各方需求集中起来，平衡权益与利益，通过磋商湖泊问题等）；流域水资源集成管理强调的是水资源的长期协同发展方向发展；机构重组，通过水资源管理内部结构的调整，消除各部门间互相削弱的不利影响，使水资源开发利用大系统向有利方向发展． 4.2 流域水资源集成管理的组织结构 流域水资源集成管理的组织结构以流域水资源管理委员会为核心，水资源管理委员会的成员则包括流域所辖各行政区的水利部门国土资源管理部门城建部门利用与保护的法律利用与保护项目间冲突问题的仲裁176 中国环境科学 21卷的主要职责，也是流域水资源集成管理的核心，因此，水资源集成管理也称作水资源冲突管理． 4.3 流域水资源集成管理的技术路线 流域水资源集成管理的技术路线涉及流域水环境复杂大系统的系统分析,在此基础上对水资源的多用途进行分解协调,为各种用途间冲突的集成分析做准备;水资源开发利用过程中系统内部与外部冲突的识别(冲突源冲突类型分类评价与调度，确定各种冲突约束条件与替代方案，为冲突分析模型与中间调停提供依据；冲突分析模型（基于规则的冲突缓解模型基于实例的冲突缓解模型与基于协商理论的冲突缓解模型）的建立，冲突的协商冲突磋商支持系统信息发布系统法规团体与个人在开发利用与保护政策规划目标与方案，缓解乃至消除流域各种水资源开发利用行为间的冲突，流域水资源集成管理是唯一的选择． 5.2 流域水资源集成管理与流域水资源集中管理存在着本质的区别，前者有效地回避了后者因所造成的种种弊端，使流域水资源管理公平有效，更适应市场经济的大趋势． 5.3 流域水资源集成管理的核心是冲突分析，包括冲突的辨识与冲突的缓解．因此流域水资源集成管理也可称作流域水资源冲突管理． 5.4 流域水资源集成管理是建立在对流域各种 信息的系统分析基础上的，流域内信息在各方间的共享及其间的协同工作平台的建立非常重要． 参考文献曾维华（１９６５－），男，北京人，北京师范大学环境科学研究所副教授，博士，主要从事环境规划与管理环境信息系统等方面的研究与教学工作．承担国家重点科技攻关课题；国家重点基础研究发展规划（９７３）项目；国家自然科学基金项目等研究工作．出版专著１部，发表论文２０余篇． 全国臭氧技术应用研讨会将开新世纪国内臭氧界的全方位论坛全国臭氧技术应用研讨会将于3月13∼15日在京召开.来自科技部建设部轻工系统的专家与相关行业协会代表将出席这次由中国国际促进会臭氧分会筹委会主办中国环境报环保信息。