金融学讲义chpt6
金融经济学第六章PPT课件

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上述方程中证券i的期望收益、方差、协方差分别为
期望收益率:根据单因素模型,证券i的期望收益 率可以表示为
E(Ri ) i i E(F )
方差:在单因素模型中,同样可以证明任意证券i 的方差等于:
历史数据库
年
1 2 3 4 5 6
2020/1/13
GDP增长率 (%)
5.7 6.4 7.9 7.0 5.1 2.9
证券收益率 (%)
14.3 19.2 23.4 15.6 9.2 13.0
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• 这一关系也可用下面的图形表示
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20
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16
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•
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12
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8
4
2468
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• 为了阐明图中所反映的数量关系,我们使 用一元回归分析的统计技术做一条直线来 拟合图中的点。那么,图中这条直线的回 归方程则为Ri=4%+2GDP
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第一节 单因素模型 第二节 资本资产定价模型与因素模型 第三节 多因素模型
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第一节 单指数(SIM)模型
一、单指数模型的估计
二、单指数模型的一般形式
三、单指数模型中的系统风险与 非系统风险
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因素模型由威廉.夏普在1963年提出.它是 是描述证券收益率生成过程的一种模型, 建立在证券关联性基础上。认为证券间的 关联性是由于某些共同因素的作用所致, 不同证券对这些共同的因素有不同的敏感 度。这些对所有证券的共同因素就是系统 性风险。因素模型正是抓住了对这些系统 影响对证券收益的影响,并用一种线性关 系来表示。
金融基础知识讲义(DOC)

金融基础知识讲义2第一节 金融市场的要素和分类1、 金融市场的概念:金融市场是指各种金融商品进行交易而时限资金融通的场所。
广义的金融市场有货币市场、资本市场、外汇市场、黄金市场;狭义的金融市场专指货币市场和资本市场。
2、 金融市场的构成要素:(一) 金融市场交易的主体:企业、政府、金融机构、中央银行、个人(二) 金融市场交易的客体:货币资金(三) 金融市场交易的媒介:金融市场工具(四) 金融市场交易的价格:利率(五) 金融市场交易的组织形式:交易所交易方式和场外交易方式3、 金融市场的分类:(一) 按金融交易的程序:发行市场和流通市场(二) 按成交后是否立即交割分类:现货市场和期货市场(三) 按金融交易的内容划分:货币市场、资本市场、外汇市场和黄金市场(四) 按金融交易的业务活动范围:国内金融市场和国际金融市场;按金融交易的场所和空间:有形市场和无形市场4、 金融市场的功能:金融资金功能、资源配置功能、宏观调控功能、经济“晴雨表”功能第二节 金融工具1、 金融工具,即信用工具。
是指以书面形式发行和流通、借以证明债权、债务关系或资金所有权关系的合法凭证。
(偿还性、流动性、风险性、收益性)2、 金融工具的种类(一) 按其发行者的地位不同:直接金融工具和间接金融工具(二) 按金融工具交易的偿还期划分:货币市场的金融工具和资本市场的金融工具(三) 按是否拥有所投资产的所有权为标准划分:债务凭证和所有权凭证(四) 按是否与实际信用活动直接相关:基础性金融工具和衍生性金融工具3、 金融工具的发行价格直接发行方式下:(1)平价发行 (2)折价发行 (3)溢价发行间接发行方式下:一层是中介机构的承销价格或中标价格,二层是投资者的认购价格4、 证券行市、证券收益与股价指数(1) 证券行市:是证券流通市场上买卖证券时所交付的货币金额,是证券收益的资本化。
决定证券行市的两个基本的因素是:证券实际收益和但是的市场利率。
新编金融英语教程 Chapter6 Financial Markets

Overview of the Financial Markets
CONTENTS
6.1 L e a d - i n 6.2 K e y Po i n t s 6.3 L a n g u a g e N o t e s 6.4 F o l l o w - u p Ta s k s 6.5 E x t e n d e d Ta s k s
6.3 Language Notes
III. Sentences
1. Financial markets are typically defined by having transparent pricing, basic regulations on trading, costs and fees, and market forces determining the prices of securities that trade.
2. Financial markets can be classified as debt or equity markets, as primary or secondary markets, as exchanges and Over-the-Counter markets, as money or capital markets, or as spot or futures and forward markets.
discuss the various functions of the financial market.
6.2 Key Points
6.2.1 Definition of Financial Markets
¥$
Financial Markets
金融学讲义

等。
[编辑]金融学的定义不是一个简单的问题,而且用来定义学科的术语对该学科的发展方向会有极其重要的影响。
Webster字典将“To Finance”定义为“筹集或提供资本(To Raise Or Provide Funds Or Capital For)”。
华尔街日报在其新开的公司金融(Corporate Finance)的固定版面中将(公司)金融定义为“为业务提供融资的业务(Business Of Financing Businesses)”,这一定义基本上代表了金融实业界的看法。
代表学界对金融学较有权威的解释可参照《新帕尔格雷夫货币金融大辞典》(The New Palgrave Dictionary Of Money And Finance) 的“Finance”相关词条。
由斯蒂芬•A•罗斯(Stephen A. Ross)撰写的“Finance”词条称“金融以其不同的中心点和方法论而成为经济学的一个分支,其中心点是资本市场的运营、资本资产的供给和定价。
其方法论是使用相近的替代物给金融契约和工具定价。
”罗斯概括了“Finance”的四大课题:“有效率的市场”、“收益和风险”、“期权定价理论”和“公司金融”。
罗斯的观点,集中体现了西方学者界定“Finance”倚重微观内涵及资本市场的特质。
在国内学界,对“Finance”一词的翻译及内涵界定存在较大争议。
总览50多年来国内出版的各类财经专业辞典,“Finance”一词的汉语对译主要有“金融”、“财政”、“财务”、“融资”四种。
相对而言,后三种译法用途相对特定,唯有“金融”颇值商榷。
“金融”就其理论内涵来说,在国内具有转轨经济背景下的典型特征。
基于货币、信用、银行、货币供求、货币政策、国际收支、汇率等专题的传统式金融研究,对于“金融”一词的代表性定义为“货币流通和信用活动以及与之相联系的经济活动的总称”(刘鸿儒,1995),并不突出反映资本市场的地位。
金融学讲义

金融学讲义一、金融的涵义货币资金的融通或货币资金在盈余单位和亏空单位之间调剂余缺的信贷活动。
二、金融的构成1、金融主体:谁参与了金融活动;2、金融对象:货币和资金;3、金融方式:有偿的信誉方式;4、金融工具:票据和各种有价证券;5、金融市场:有形和有形两类;三、金融的特点1、可回收性:授信人〔债务人〕原那么上要按等值收回本金;2、期限性;3、收益性:利息或股息;4、风险性:如债务人〔受信人〕的违约风险;购置力风险;市场风险。
违约风险如政府债券的归还,其来源是税收,因此本息归还才干高,违约风险低。
尤其是中央政府发行的债券,违约风险就更低。
而公司债券的归还能和与经济状况大环境和公司运营的小环境都有亲密关系,因此不确定性高,违约风险大。
违约风险低的债券,其利率也低;违约风险高,其债券的利率也就。
债券利率与无风险证券利率之差称为风险溢价。
而无风险证券是指信誉风险相对较小的证券,如国库券、政府债券、大银行存单等。
有违约风险的公司债券的风险溢价必需为正,违约风险越大,风险溢价越高。
活动性风险是指因资产变现速度慢而能够遭受的损失。
假定A公司债券与B公司债券在初始时节利率是相等的,A公司因运营盈余致使其公司债券不易变卖,活动性下降,债券需求下降,从而招致该债券的利率上升;而B公司债券的活动性溢价。
活动性风险往往与违约风险相伴而生,因此风险溢价是两个风险共同带来的。
巴林银行的破产1995年2月7日,世界各地的旧事都以最耀眼的标题报道了同一事情:巴林银行破产了。
巴林银行集团是有着233年历史的老牌英国银行,在全球拥有雇员1300多人,总资逾94亿美元,所管理的资产高达460亿元,在世界1000家大银行中按中心资本排名489位。
巴林银行阅历了1986年伦敦金融市场解除控制的〝大爆炸〞,依然屹立不倒,已成为英国金融市场体系的重要支柱。
但是,巴林银行长达两个多世纪的辉煌业绩,却在1995年2月毁于一旦。
巴林银行破产的直接缘由是其新加坡的买卖员尼克·李森的违规买卖。
《金融学纲要讲义》课件

金融工程的基本原理与方法
基本原理
金融工程运用数学、工程学和信息科学的基本原理,结合现代金 融理论,对金融工具和金融市场进行量化和模型化分析。
方法论
金融工程的方法论包括定性和定量分析、实证和规范分析、系统分 析和分解分析等。
应用领域
金融工程的应用领域包括风险管理、投资组合优化、资产定价、衍 生品设计和定价等。
金融衍生品市场与风险管理
金融衍生品市场的功能
01
金融衍生品市场是进行风险转移和资源配置的重要场所,具有
价格发现、套期保值和投机等功能。
风险管理
02
金融衍生品是风险管理的重要工具,可以帮助企业和金融机构
规避价格风险、利率风险和汇率风险等。
衍生品市场的监管
03
衍生品市场具有高杠杆性和高风险性,需要严格的监管和规范
《金融学纲要讲义》ppt课件
目录
• 金融学概述 • 金融市场与金融机构 • 货币与货币政策 • 投资学基础 • 国际金融学 • 金融创新与金融工程
01
金融学概述
金融学的定义与研究对象
总结词:基本概念
详细描述:金融学是研究货币、信用、银行、证券、保险等金融活动的科学,其研究对象包括金融市场、金融机构和金融工 具等。
总结词
金融机构的种类与功能
详细描述
金融机构是指专门从事金融活动的组织,在金融市场中发挥着重要的作用。按照不同的 分类标准,金融机构可分为银行、证券公司、保险公司、基金公司等。各类金融机构具 有各自独特的功能,如吸收存款、发放贷款、证券承销、保险保障等,共同为资金供求
双方提供服务。
金融市场与金融机构的关系
总结词
外汇市场的功能和参与者,汇率决定的经济学原理和实 际操作。
金融学概论讲义(北大光华管理学院)lecture06

Principles of FinanceLecture 06Forward and Futures ContractsThe Nature of Derivatives∙ A derivative is an instrument whose value depends on the values of other more basic underlying variables∙Examples of derivatives-F orward-F utures-O ptions-S waps……Derivative Markets ∙Exchange Traded-Standard products-Trading floor or computer trading-Virtually no credit risk∙Over-the-Counter (OTC)-Non-standard products-Telephone market-Credit riskForward Contracts∙ A forward contract is an agreement made today to buy or sell an asset at a certain time in the future for a certain price (referred to as the forward price or the delivery price)∙The delivery price is usually chosen so that the initial value of the contract is zero; No money changes hands when contract is first negotiated and it is settled at maturity∙An OTC agreement between two parties and both parties are subject to credit risk∙Both parties have the obligation to honor the contractSettlement of Forward Contracts∙Physical: requires delivery of actual assets∙ Cash settled: requires only the exchange of the difference between the delivery price and the prevailing spot price at maturity∙Suppose that:Long 3-month Gold forwardDelivery price $300Spot price at t = 3 months: $320P/L from a Long Forward PositionS, TP/L from a Short Forward PositionSTFutures Contract∙Futures are standardized forward contracts.∙Whereas a forward contract is traded OTC a futures contract is traded on an exchange∙Specifications need to be defined:-The underlying asset-Delivery location-Maturity date and delivery time-Method of settlement∙Most contracts are closed out before maturityFeatures Promoting Liquidity ∙Standardized Contract-Maturity dates-Contract size-Price tick size, i.e. minimum price movement-The underlying asset (especially commodities) ∙Organized exchangesFeatures Reducing Credit Risk∙Daily settlement: Futures contracts are marked to market and settled at the end of every business day∙Margin account: To buy or sell a futures contract, the investor is required to post a specified margin to guarantee contract performance∙Clearinghouse: The clearinghouse does not take a position in any trade but interpose itself between two parties in every transactionMargin Accounts∙ A margin is cash or marketable securities deposited by an investor with his or her broker∙The balance in the margin account is adjusted to reflect daily settlement (profit or loss)∙Initial margin: The amount a trader must deposit into his/her trading account (i.e. margin account) when establishing a futures position∙When the balance in the margin account falls to, or below, a maintenance margin level, the trader receives a margin call and is requested to top up the account to the initial level. The extra funds deposited are known as a variation margin∙If the balance in the margin account exceeds the initial margin level, the trader is entitled to withdraw the excess funds in the accountExample of the Margin Account ∙An investor takes long position in $/£ futures∙Contract size: £62,500∙Initial margin: 1,485$∙Maintenance margin: 1,100$Date SettlementPrice OpeningBalance($)DailyP/L ($)ClosingBalance($)Margincall ($)Cumulative P/L ($)1.6500 1,48501/11 1.6508 1,485 50 1,535 50 02/11 1.6412 1,535 -600 935 550 -550 03/11 1.6384 1,485 -175 1,310 -725 04/11 1.6456 1,310 450 1,760 -275 05/11 1.6492 1,760 225 1,985 -50The Economic Function of Futures MarketsThe futures markets facilitate the re-allocation of exposure to commodity price risk among market participants.By providing a means to hedge the price risk associated with storing a commodity, futures contracts make it possible to separate the decision of whether to physically store a commodity from the decision to have financial exposure to price changes.The Economic Function of Futures MarketsThe existence of the futures market for wheat conveys information to all producers, distributors, and consumers; and this eliminates the necessity for market participants to gather and process information in order to forecast the future spot priceSuppose the commodity is wheat, and next year’s crop is expected to be much higher than average, then futures prices may be lower than the spot, (the spread may be negative,) nobody will store wheat.The Law of One Price and Arbitrage∙In a competitive market, if two assets are equivalent they will tend to have the same price∙The law of one price is enforced by a process called arbitrage∙Arbitrage is the purchasing of a set of assets, and immediate sale of another set of assets, in such a way as to earn a sure profit from price differences∙Arbitrage process brings two equivalent assets to the same price, this is known as market clearing.An Arbitrage Opportunity?∙Shares of General Motors (GM) are listed on both NYSE and LSE ∙The quoted price is £100 in London and $148 in New York∙The current exchange rate is $1.4500/£∙An arbitrage opportunity?Another Arbitrage Opportunity?∙There are two investment portfolios: portfolio A and portfolio B∙The payoffs at maturity are as follows:State 1 State 2Portfolio A $70 $100Portfolio B $70 $100∙The current quoted price of portfolio A is $80 and the current quoted price for portfolio B is $82∙An arbitrage opportunity?Framework for Forward/Future Pricing ∙Future price: price of the future∙Spot price: price of the underlying asset at present∙Future spot price: price of the underlying asset in the futureFramework for Forward/Future Pricing Suppose you have some spare cash, and you want to invest it in gold in a year’s time. There are 2 ways to do it:A.Buy gold at the spot price with your money, store it for a year(which means you incur some storage costs), sell it at the future spot price.B.Enter into a forward/future contract of gold, put your money in abank for a year, buy A at the forward/future price in the end of the year, sell it at the future spot price.Since the two strategies are equivalent, they must provide the same return so that there are no arbitrage opportunities.Framework for Forward/Future PricingDenote S as the spot price of gold, F as the forward/future price of gold, FS as the future spot price of gold, s as the storage cost of gold as a fraction of spot price, r as the risk-free interest rate:Return of A: FS S s S -- Return of B: FS FrS -+FS S FS Fs rS S---=+Therefore: (1)F r s S =++Framework for Forward/Future Pricing∙Forward price must be arbitrage-free∙Suppose that-The spot price of gold is US$300-The 1-year US$ interest rate is 8% per annum with annual compounding-Storage costs 2% of gold.-The forward-spot-price-parity relation implies that the one-year forward price is:+=++F⨯rs=S+08)30033002.0)1(.01(=∙Forward prices above $330 permit arbitrage-Suppose the forward price is $340-At time t = 0- Sell gold forward at $340- Borrow $300 at 8% pa- Purchase gold in the spot market at $300, store for a year (storage costs $6)-At time t = 1 year- Deliver gold and receive $340-Pay back loan with interest ($324)-Pay storage cost: ($6)- Make a profit of $10: 340-324-6=10∙Forward prices below $330 permit arbitrage-Suppose the forward price is $320-At time t = 0-Buy gold forward at $320-Sell short gold in the spot market at $300 (borrow gold and sell it immediately)-Deposit $300 at 8% pa-At time t = 1 year-Accept delivery of gold for $320: ($320)-Return the gold and receive storage cost: $6-Receive deposit with interest of $324-Make a profit of $10: 324+6-320=10Financial FuturesThe underlying asset of a financial future is a financial instrument, e.g. stock, bond, foreign currency, etc.Example: Share A has a spot price of $100 (S=100), the risk-free interest rate is 8% (r=0.08) with annual compounding, what’s the forward price?Forward-spot-price-parity for a share with no dividend with maturity of T years:T1(+=SrF)Financial FuturesThe investor has two equivalent investment strategies:1.buy one share A, hold it for a year, and sell it at the future spotprice of 1S. Cash flow in a year’s time: 1S2.buy a forward/future contract of share A at the price of F, make adeposit in a risk-free asset with future value of F, take the money out after a year, and buy the share at F, sell it in the market at the future spot price of 1S. Cash flow in a year’s time: 1SThe law of one price says that they should have the same price today since they produce the same amount of cash flow in a year’s time!Financial FuturesPrice of strategy 1: the spot price of share A: SPrice of strategy 2: the amount of cash invested into the risk-free asset so as to generate F in a year’s time: F/(1+r)Therefore: S=F/(1+r)Rearranging, we have:F+=S)1(rIf the futures contract matures in T years, it becomes:T=1(+rSF)Financial FuturesWhat if share A pays dividend of D in a year’s time?Again the investor has two equivalent strategies:Strategy 1: buy share A at the spot price S, hold it for one year, receive dividend of D, and sell the share at the future spot price of S. Cash flow in a year’s time: 1S+ D1Strategy 2: buy a forward/future contract at the price of F, make an investment in a risk-free asset with future value of F+D, take the money out after a year, buy the share at F, sell it in the market at the future spot price of 1S. Cash flow in a year’s time: 1S+DFinancial FuturesPrice of strategy 1: the spot price of share A: SPrice of strategy 2: the amount of cash invested into the risk-free assetso as to generate F+D in a year’s time (F+D)/(1+r)Applying the law of one price, we have: S=(F+D)/(1+r) Rearranging, we have the forward-spot-price-parity of a share with dividend payment:F=S(1+r)-DThe Forward Price is not a Forecast of Future Spot Price The forward price is obtained without risk from the current spot and risk free investmentThe spot value at a future date is obtained by investing in the security and accepting (market) risk, and this risk must be rewardedFX Forward RateDefine HC r and FC r as the effective interest rates at home andabroadFCHCr r S F ++=11where F and S are defined as the number of units of HC per unit of FC. For example, suppose £1=$1.6, then F =1.6 and $r r HC =, £r r FC = if you are buying a pound future; F =0.625 and £r r HC =, $r r FC = if you are buying a dollar future.The FX Forward RateSuppose an investor wants to buy a futures contract of pound sterling at F , i.e. he can buy pound at the price of £1=$F in a year’s time. The spot price of pound is S , i.e. £1=$S . So here pound is the foreign currency, dollar is the home currency. The risk-free interest rates are: $r r HC =, £r r FC =. What is the proper price of the future contract?The investor has two equivalent strategies: Stragegy 1:At t=0: Enter into a futures contract of pound with futures price of F . Cash flow: 0At t=1: Buy pound at F . Cash flow: FThe FX Forward RateStrategy 2:At t=0: Borrow )1/(£r S + of US dollars, change into £1/(1)r + of pounds, put it in a bank at the pound interest rate. Cash flow: 0At t=1, take the money out (in pound), pay back the dollar loan. Cashflow: $£11r Sr ++The FX Forward RateSince the two strategies both will give you one pound in a year’s time, the law of one price says that they have the same price, i.e. the amount of investment of these two strategies must be the same:$£11r F Sr +=+More generally:FCHCr r SF ++=11Pricing FX Forward Contract∙ Suppose that:Spot $/£: 1.4222One-year $ interest rate: %00.5 per annum with annual compounding One-year £ interest rate: %00.6 per annum with annual compounding∙ The six-month £ forward rate:415.10296.010247.014222.11111£$=++⨯=++=++=r r S r r S F FC HCAs a rule of thumb, if the foreign currency offers a higher interest rate, the future price of the foreign currency will be lower than the spot price.Corporate Applications: Hedging∙Receive FC payment at a future date ⇒ sells FC forward short∙Boeing has just sold 10 Boeing-747s to British Airways with total price of £200m payable in one year’s time∙Boeing can hedge this cash flow in £ by selling £ forward short∙If the one-year forward rate is $1.60/£, so Boeing will receive $320m no matter how exchange rate $/£ movesCorporate Applications: Hedging∙Make FC payment at a future date ⇒ buys FC forward (long)∙An US company imported some goods from Switzerland and is due to pay SFr100m in six months’ time∙The company can hedge its exposure to SFr by buying SFr forward. The six-month forward rate is SFr1.54/$, so the company is required to pay $64.94mThe Role of Expectations in Determining Exchange Rates Consider a world in which there are two countries, Domestic & Foreign, and conditions are such in each country that the yield curves are flat, with yields of 5% and 10% respectively.Further assume that the exchange rate is 1 todayThe 1-year forward is 1*1.05/1.10=0.9545The Role of Expectations in Determining Exchange Rates If the interest rate in Foreign is higher than in Domestic, one explanation may be that the rate of inflation is higher.Assume no taxes, and the interest rate difference is the result inflation being 5% and 10% respectively.Then the price dynamics of both countries will result in an exchange rate of 0.9545 next year, which is also the forward rate.The Role of Expectations in Determining Exchange Rates In real life, things are not so simple, but several mechanisms may be postulated that support the expectations hypothesis.International investor confidence, and their forecasts of inflation, place price pressure on both spot and forward exchange rates through the international bond market。
金融学讲义chpt6资料精

• 公司税率: 40% 17
估计现金流: PC1000
• 假定资本成本: 15% • 净经营现金流 可以通过两种等价方式计算
(1) 现金流 =收入 − 现金费用(不含折旧) − 税收
(2) 现金流 = 收入 − 总费用(含折旧) − 税收 + 非现金费用支出(例:折旧)
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例1:是否采纳由开车上班改为乘火车上班这一项目。
开车上班的月费用:保险费用 120美元
公寓停车费 150美元
上班停车费 90美元
汽油等费用 110美元
总计
470美元
乘火车上班月费用:保险费用+公寓停车费
+火车票(140美元)
总计
410美元
采纳乘火车上班项目的现金流增量为:
-410 -(-470)= 60美元 8
• 得到进行该项投资的增量现金流 (incremental cash flow)
6
分析现金流量的原则
• 实际现金流原则:时间价值 • 相关/不相关原则:增量或差异现金流 增量现金流量 (incremental cash flow) • 要考虑一个投资项目对企业整体现金流入量的影响
,即该项目能使企业总体现金流入量增加多少。 项目的CF = 公司的增量CF = 公司(采纳该项目)的CF - 公司(公司拒绝该项目)的CF
• 某个被提议的项目可以产生10亿元的收入, 但是将导致另一条生产线损失 3亿元的收入
• 增量现金流仅为 7亿元
• 例子:出口与在当地建造工厂
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• 折旧的影响 – 折旧不是企业的现金流出,折旧是投资者对初始 投资本金的收回。
– 不同的折旧方法将影响企业税前利润的计算,从 而影响企业的所得税支出,影响现金流量。
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学习目的
• 利用折现现金流法分析: – 是否进入新的业务 – 是否通过设备投资降低成本
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1 项目分析的特性
• 基本的分析单位 -单个投资项目 • 使用的准则 -求出所有未来现金流的现值,减去初始投资 得到的净现值 (NPV) - 投资于NPV为正的项目 • NPV将增加公司股东的财富
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2 投资的想法源于何处?
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估计现金流: PC1000
• 假定资本成本: 15% • 净经营现金流 可以通过两种等价方式计算 (1) 现金流 =收入 − 现金费用(不含折旧) − 税收 (2) 现金流 = 收入 − 总费用(含折旧) − 税收 + 非现金费用支出(例:折旧) =净收入+非现金费用支出
18
估计现金流: PC1000
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平衡点和无差异分析
• 分析使得项目达到盈亏平衡点(即NPV=0)时 的销售(或其它变量)水平 • 销售的平衡点 - 求出净经营现金流的值 -计算每年的(销售)单位数
NCF NCF NCF NCF + 2 .2 0 = − 5 .0 + + +L+ + 2 6 1 .15 1 .15 1 .15 1 .15 7
• 监控现有的顾客的需求(和抱怨) • 监控公司现有的和潜在的技术能力 • 监控主要竞争者的营销、投资、专利和技术人 员的招聘 • 监控生产和销售以提高收入或降低成本 • 对提出创新意见的员工进行奖励
5
4 估计某项目的现金流
• 估计 没有 该项投资时的现金流 • 估计 进行 该项投资时的现金流 • 求出两者的差额
• 某个被提议的项目可以产生10亿元的收入, 但是将导致另一条生产线损失 3亿元的收入 • 增量现金流仅为 7亿元
• 例子:出口与在当地建造工厂
10
• 折旧的影响 – 折旧不是企业的现金流出,折旧是投资者对初始 投资本金的收回。 – 不同的折旧方法将影响企业税前利润的计算,从 而影响企业的所得税支出,影响现金流量。 • 沉淀成本 – 指已经使用掉而且无法收回的成本,这一成本对企 业的投资决策不产生任何影响。 • 机会成本 – 指因为得到目前的现金流量而损失的现金流量。 • 筹资成本 – 筹资成本用于折现,在计算现金流量中不考虑。 11
NCF
= 1 , 003 , 009
0.6 × (1,250Q − 3,500,000) + 400,000 = 1,003,009
Q = 3,604
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平衡点和无差异分析
• 内部收益率(IRR): 使得NPV = 0的折现率
1.3 1.3 1.3 3.5 0 = −5.0 + + +L+ + 1+ IRR (1+ IRR 2 ) (1+ IRR)6 (1+ IRR)7
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PC1000 NPV对销售量的敏感性
销售量
2000 3000 3604 4000 5000 6000
净经营现金流 −$200,000 $550,000 $1,003,009 $1,300,000 $2,050,000 $2,800,000
项目NPV −$5,005,002 −$1,884,708 0 $1,235,607 $4,355,922 $7,476,237
增量现金流: 例3
到目前为止,你投入项目的R&D费用为10万元, 而 你打算再投入20万元, 一共就是30万元。 − 其中的10万元是沉没成本(sunk cost)。是 否接受这一项目不会改变这些已经支出的费用。 − 沉没成本对未来现金流不产生影响。 − 只有20万元才是新投入的成本, 而这10万元 不应该计算在内。
5 资本成本(1)
• 资本成本是将现金流折算成现值的资本报酬 率。 • 一般而言,(投资决策过程中的)项目的风 险不同于现有项目的风险 。 • 只需要考虑市场风险(market-related risk) 。 • 只需要考虑与项目产生的现金流相关的风险, 而与项目的融资方式无关。
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资本成本(2)
12
• 侵蚀(erosion)成本 – 指新项目的销售额对已有产品销售额的侵蚀,是 现金流量的转移,也是一种机会成本。 • 分摊费用 – 分摊到项目上的费用如果与项目的采用与否无关 ,则这些分摊费用不应计为这一项目的现金流出 。 • 运营成本 – 营运资本的增加和减少属于现金流。 – 项目结束时,营运资本的名义改变量之和为0。
30
期限不同的项目分析
• 资本成本: 10% 公司所得税率: 35% • 设备 A - 资本投资$5,000,000,该设备在未来5年内按直 线法折旧,残值为0 - 每年的维护成本: $500,000 设备 B - 资本投资$6,000,000,该设备在未来8年内按直 线法折旧,残值为0 - 每年的维护成本: $550,000
1 33 3
%
27
削减成本型项目分析
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削减成本型项目分析
年度 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 资本投资 劳动力成本减少 折旧 税前利润变动 公司所得税 净经营现金流 净现金流 (2.0) 0 (2.0) 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.6 1 2 3 4 5
• 得到进行该项投资的增量现金流 (incremental cash flow)
6
分析现金流量的原则
• 实际现金流原则:时间价值 • 相关/不相关原则:增量或差异现金流 增量现金流量 (incremental cash flow) • 要考虑一个投资项目对企业整体现金流入量的影响 ,即该项目能使企业总体现金流入量增加多少。 项目的CF = 公司的增量CF = 公司(采纳该项目)的CF - 公司(公司拒绝该项目)的CF
IRR = ?
当内部收益率大于该项目所要求的临界收益率时, 接受该项目,否则拒绝该项目 • 当存在二个或二个以上互相排斥的项目时,选择 内部收益率高的项目
26
7 削减成本型项目分析
• 资本投资为$2百万,设备在未来5年按直线法 折旧,设备残值为0 • 劳动力成本支出减少: $700,000/每年 • 公司所得税率: • 资本成本: 10%
31
期限不同的项目分析
设备A
年度 1 2 4 5 6 资本投资 税后维护成本 折旧税盾 净经营现金流 净现金流 (5.0) 0 (5.0) 0.325 0.35 0.025 0.025 0.325 0.35 0.025 0.025 0.325 0.35 0.025 0.025 0.325 0.35 0.025 0.025 0.325 0.3 0.025 0.025 1 2 3 4 5
7
例1:是否采纳由开车上班改为乘火车上班这一项目。 开车上班的月费用:保险费用 上班停车费 总计 120美元 90美元 470美元 公寓停车费 150美元 汽油等费用 110美元 乘火车上班月费用:保险费用+公寓停车费 +火车票(140美元) 总计 410美元 采纳乘火车上班项目的现金流增量为: -410 -(-470)= 60美元 8
0.025 0.025 0.025 PV (Cost ) = −5.0 + + +L+ = −4.905230 2 5 1.1 1.1 1.1 ACC ACC ACC − 4.905230 = + +L+ 1.1 1.12 1.15 ⇒ 年金化成本 ACC = − $ 1 . 2940 million
年度 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 资本投资 营运资本改变量 收入 现金费用支出 经营利润 税收(税率40%) 折旧的税盾 (Tax-shield) 净经营现金流 净现金流 -5.0 0 -2.8 -2.2 20 18.1 1.9 20 18.1 1.9 20 18.1 1.9 20 18.1 1.9 20 18.1 1.9 20 18.1 1.9 2.2 20 18.1 1.9 -0.76 0.16 1.3 3.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 NPV = −2.0 + + 2 + L+ 5 = −2.0 + 1 −1.1−5 = $274,472 1.1 1.1 0.10 1.1
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(
)
8 期限不同的项目分析
• 如果要在两个具有相同期限的竞争性项目之间 进行选择,我们可以简单地选择NPV高的那个项 目 • 但如果两个项目有不同的期限,比如说,一个5 年一个是7年,那就很难对它们进行比较 • 等价年金成本(equivalent annual cost )或 年金化成本(annualized capital cost )就 是针对这一问题的 • 它定义为与初始投资具有相同现值的年金现金 流
• 公司有三个部门: – 电子部:资本成本,22% – 化学部:资本成本,17% – 天然气传输部:资本成本,14% – 公司的平均资本成本:17.6% • 公司正在评估一新的电子项目,资本成本为 多少?
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6 敏感性分析
• 资本预算的敏感性分析是指在一些关键变量 不同于我们的假设前提时,分析该项目是否 仍值得投资。 分析某个关键变量的改变对项目NPV的影响 • 销售销售:正相关 • 成本:负相关 • 贴现率(资本成本) :负相关
• 无关费用(成本):公寓停车费和汽车保险费 • 相关费用(成本):上班停车费和汽油等费用 由于相关费用总计为90+110=200美元,而火车 票成本为140美元,二者的差额60美元即为现金流增 量。 现金流的计算要从相关的财务报表中“推测”, 需要根据相关性原则“识别”现金流“要素”。