3.3 1-D steady flow in heterogeneous
反应工程 英文版 课件Chapter 1~3
FA
∫
V
rj dV = rj ⋅ V (put into eqn. A’)
∴V =
F jo − F j − rj
(Design equation of CSTR)
Fj = Cj⋅v (molar flow rate = concentration × volume flow rate)
C. Tubular Reactor or Plug-flow Reactor (PFR)
dN j dt
= F jo + G j − F j ; Nj: number of moles of j species
dG j = r j dV ; G j = ∫ V rj dV ; rj varies with position
∴ dt
dN j
= Fjo − F j + ∫ V rj dV
(A)
Outlines: Introduction & Basic Concepts (Physical Chemistry) Mole Balance & Reactors Design Equations & Conversion Rate Law & Stoichiometry Interpretations of Collected Rate Data Systems Involving Multiple Reactions Kinetics of Non-Elementary Reactions Design of Isothermal Reactors Design of Steady-State Non-Isothermal Reactors Catalysis & Catalytic Reactors Effects of External Diffusion on Heterogeneous Reactions Text Books: H, Scott Fogler, “Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering”, 3rd. ED., Prentice Hall (1999) ·s¤ë¡C Octave Levenspiel, “Chemical Reaction Engineering”, 3rd, ED. John Wiley & Sons (1999) ¼Ú¨È¡C
多孔介质内对流换热的非热平衡模型相关问题研究
介质中的流动传热现象。
对多孔介质内的流动，可使用考虑非达西效应的Darcy –Brinkman -Forchheimer [1]模型进行分析；而对于多孔介质内的传热过程，能量方程可用热平衡(local thermal equilibrium,LTE)模型或非热平衡(local thermal non-equilibrium,LTNE)模型进行分析。
其中，热平衡模型被广泛用于分析多孔介质中的对流换热过程，该模型假设多孔固体骨架温度与流体温度局部相等（T s =T f ），适用于多孔固体骨架与流体局部温差不大的场合。
热平衡模型控制方程如下[2-4]：()[]()()()T T c T c c t ∇+∇=∇+-+∂∂d m p pf f ps s pf f 1λλερερερu (1)式中λm 为有效滞止导热系数[5]，λd 为热弥散导热系数。
然而，当多孔固体骨架与流体局部温差不能忽略（T s ≠T f ）时，热平衡模型便会引起较大误差，应该采用非热平衡模型。
非热平衡模型考虑多孔固体骨架与流体的对流换热，其控制方程包括流体能量方程和多孔固体骨架能量方程[3,6-9]：()()()[]()f s sf sf f d f f p pf f f pf f T T a h T T c T c t -+∇+∇=∇+∂∂λελερερu (2)()[]()[]()f s sf sf s s s ps s 11T T a h T T c t --∇-∇=-∂∂λεερSchumann 最早在1929年就考虑了非热平衡模型，但在他的研究中忽略了导热项的影响。
Quintard [10]在1998年第11届国际传热大会的主旨报告中，对在多孔介质中采用局部非热平衡模型进行理论建模做了系统分析，并在非热平衡模型中考虑了颗粒与流体间界面热阻的影响。
不少研究者已经使用非热平衡模型进行了一系列的研究。
如多孔介质中的瞬态传热Nouri-Borujerdi 等[11]、混合对流Shi 和Vafai [12]、强制对流Jiang 等[3,6-9,13-17]、双扩散多孔介质Nield 和Kuznetsov [18]等。
FLUENT软件操作界面中英文对照
FLUENT 软件操作界面中英文对照File 文件Read 读取文件：scheme 方案journal 日志 profile 外形 Write 保存文件 Import :进入另一个运算程序 Interpolate :窜改，插入Hardcopy :复制，Batch opti ons —组选项Save layout 保存设计 Grid 网格| F 屆 Grid Define Solve i-Read► Write►Import ► Export-, Interpolate —Hardcopy...Batch Options.^Save LayoutRun...RSF...ExitDefine Models模型：solver解算器Pressure based 基于压力Den sity based基于密度末解用丁 pressure based,雀改用Censity based 岀观不苻合秦相36的摄不，请甸pres 羊WE base d Al density based 慎仆则迢.41刊卜 IS 况？北外.血OC ・EHU ^ cotipled ＞（/^ ptiaw ccupl ed simple 可这孔 & pimple ijEpiso 逞划.--■轟=Sortg 冲-丸布时制* ^jfe-5-6 1844DOden ba&ed 亘工F 吋.压聲血ptessurt ba$«i 适可于那可乐册斤"dens Ply based 把丸“河悴掏t ：至殳嗟之一.刑牛可爪門d 的创R 监當歎1一，般如人锻暮叫人丄有用 轴怀，火薩墟迭牛才H5）-0 程：yje8D8-丸布门 1叫；20GS-3-7 10-2ODQ歆；I ：谢PrflSsdrfl-Bawd Soker ^Fluflnt 它星英于压力快的束解孤便丹的圮压力修止畀法"求释旳控制片悝足标联式的，擅K 家鮮不町压縮舐Mb 对于町压砂也可旦索麟；Fk«nl 6-3 tl 前的I 板』冷孵臥 B fjS4^r«^at«d &Olvar fli Cfruptod Solvtr,的实也fltje Pr#4iurft-ea5<KJ ScFvAi 约两种虽幵方ib应理拈Fluent 氐J 眇坝犢型小的.它拈垒于曲喪红旳求聲塞，最辑的出H .也桿 艮先■那式的.丰誓■載密式冇Roz AU$hk>谏方法的初和&让Fhwrt 耳有比我甘的求IT 可压胃（说 劫謹力，們耳帕榕式淮冇琴加IF 科限闾辉，倒比还丰A 完荐匚Coupted 的算送t 对子慨站何Hh 地们足便用円匕口讷油皿购 加£未处為 性上世魅端计棒低逢刈趾.擁说的DansJty-Bjiwd Solver F ft St SiMPLEC, P 怡DE 些选以的.闪为進些ffliQl ；力修止鼻袪・不金在这种类崖的我押■中氏现泊I 建址祢匹足整用Fw»ur 护P.sed Solver 堺决昧的利底*implicit 隐式， explicit 显示Space 空间：2D , axisymmetric （转动轴）， axisymmetric swirl （漩涡转动轴）；Time 时间 :steady 定常，unsteady 非定常 Velocity formulatio n 制定速度： absolute 绝对的；relative 相对的Gradient option 梯度选择：以单元作基础；以节点作基础；以单元作梯度的最小正方形。
01-asd
T utorial: T urbulent Flow Through a Planar A s ym metricDiffuserIn t r o ductio nThe purpose of this tutorial is to provide guidelines and recommendations for solving aCFD problem which in c lu des:• Building the geometry and generating a mesh in GAMBIT.• Setting up the CFD model in FLUENT.• Solving the problem and comparing the results with the experimental d ata.Prer equi sit esThis tutorial assumes that you are familiar with the FLUENT in t e rfac e and you have a good understanding of the basic setup and solution procedures. Some steps will not be showne x plicitly.If you have not used FLUENT before, i t would be helpful to first refer to FLUENT 13.0 Us er’s Guide and FLUENT 13.0 Tutorial Guide.Problem Descr i pti onThe geometrical description of the 2D asymmetric plane diffuser is shown in Figure 1. The origin of the x-axis is located at the intersection of the tangents to the s tr aigh t and inclin e d walls at the beginning of the asymmetric expansion. The y-axis originates from the b ottom wall of the downstream c h annel.The problem is to simulate the flow through an asymmetric plane diffuser with a Reyn olds number Re = 20000. The Reynolds number is based on the centerline velocity and the channel heigh t at the inlet. The complete e xp erime n t al results were obtained by Buice and Eaton [1]. This is a classical test case for flows dominated by adverse pressure gradi e n t and boundary-layer s eparati on.Figure 1: Aysmmetric Planar Diffuser GeometryPrepar at io n1. Copy the mesh file, asymmetric.msh and the profile file, channelu.prof to y our workingd irectory.Fluen t Case Setup and Sol uti onStep 1: Mesh1. Start FLUENT 2DDP.2. Read the mesh file, asymmetric.msh.File −→Read −→ Ca s e...3. Scale the mesh.Mesh −→Scale...(a)Select Specify Scaling Factors, and specify values of 0.1 for both Xand Y(b)Click Scale and close the pan el.4. Check the mesh.Mesh −→CheckFLUENT will perform various checks on the mesh and will report the progress in t he console window. If no error messages are reported in the FLUENT window, the mesh check was successful. Step 2: Mo d e ls1. Keep the default General settings.Define −→General2. Enable the realizable k-epsilon turbulence m o del.Define −→Models −→Viscous...(a) Enable k-epsilon (2 eqn) under Model.(b) Enable Realizable under k-epsilon Model and Enhanced Wall Treatment under Ne a r-Wall T r e atment.Note: You have created a very fine near wall mesh in GAMBIT in anticipation of the use of Enhanced Wall Treatment with the turbulence models. A f t e rc a l c u l a t i n g t h e s o l u t i o n,t he xy plot tool in FLUENT can be used toverify the adequacy of the near wall mesh.(c) Click OK to close the pan el.Step 3: Materials and Operating C ondi tionsThe fluid is standard air with constant density so there is no need to visit the materials and operating c on dit ions pan el.Step 4: Boundary C ondit ionsIn order to obtain a fully-developed channel flow at the inlet, you can either extend the channel sufficiently long in the upstream direction, or separately compute a fully-developed channel flow using the same turbulence model for this problem (i.e., the same R ey n ol ds number). Take the latter approach in this tutorial to minimize the size and CPU tim erequired by the model. Profiles of u, v, k, and ε are stored in the file called channelu.prof.This fully-developed channel flow uses the inlet velocity (at the centerline) calculated as follows (the given Reynolds number Re = 20000 is based on the channel height and c enter- line velo ci t y):1. Read in the profi les.Define −→Profiles...(a) Click Read... and select the file channelu.prof.(b) Close the panel.2. Set the boundary conditions for velocity inlet (inlet v).(a) Selec t Components as the Velocity Specification Me th o d.(b) Selec t inner x-velocity for X-Velocity (m/s) and inner y-velocity for Y-Velocity (m/s). (c)Selec t K and Epsilon as Turbulence Specification Me th o d.(d) Selec t inner turb-kinetic-energy for Turb. Kinetic Energy and inner specific-diss-ratefor Turb. Dissipa t i on Rate.The name ’inner’ refers to the to the zone where the profiles were exported f r om.3. Use the d e f aul t No-slip boundary conditions for both the w al ls.4. Set the boundary conditions for pressure ou tle t(outlet).(a) Selec t In t ensit y and Viscosity Ratio for Turbulence Specification Me th o d.(b) Specify a value of 10 for both Backflow Turbulence Intensity and Backflow T urbu-lence Viscosity R atio.Step 5: Soluti on1. Set the solution methodsSolve −→Methods...(a) Select SIMPLEC for the pressure-velocity coupling scheme(b) Click OK to close the panel2. Set the solution controlsSolve ControlsChange the Momentum under-relaxation factor from 0.7 to 0.3. Otherwise keep the default values for the other entries.2. Initialize the s ol ution.Solve −→Initialization…(a) Selec t all-zones in the Compute From drop-down list. (b)Click Initialize3. Use default convergence criteria for all r e sid uals.4. Set up a monitor for wall-shear stress on the w all.Solve −→Monitors… then click Create… below Surface Monitors(a) Enable Plot and Print(b) Enable Plot and Pri nt.(c) Select Area-Weighted Average in the Report Type drop-down list(d) Selec t Wall Fluxes... and Wall Shear Stress in the Report Of drop-down lists.(e) Selec t wall bottom and wall top under Su rf ac es.(f) Click OK to close the pan el.Step 6: Define Custom Field F uncti onsDefine −→Custom Field F unctions...1. Selec t Mesh... and X-Coordinate in the Field Functions drop-down list, and click Selec t.2. Click the buttons /, ., and 1 in a sequence in the Custom Field Function Ca lc u lato r Pad3. Specify x-by-h as the New Function Name and click Define.4. Close the p anel.Step 7: Iterations and C onvergence1. Start the calculations by requesting 1000 iterati ons.Solve −→Run Calculation...Click the Calculate button. Due to the default convergence criteria based on the reduction of the level of the r esi d uals, the solution will converge after just over 300 iterations. Though the calculations have proceeded smoothly so far, two things need to be not ed:(1) The monitor plot shows that the average surface shear stress (on the walls) has not yetreached a constant valu e.(2) You have used the first-order upwind scheme for the convective terms of the governingequations. This scheme is numerically diffusive. Hence it should not be u se d forobtaining the final r esu lts.Switch the discretization scheme for convective terms for the momentum and turbulence equations to second-order u p wind.2. Save the case and data files (asdn3L-initial.cas.gz).3. Change the reference v al ues.Report −→Reference Values...in(a) Change the Velocity value to 2.921469.(b) Change the Length value to 0.1.(c) Click OK to close the pan el .4. Plot the initial r e sults.Display --> Plots… --> XY Plot(a) Des elec t Node Values and Position on X Axis under Option s .(b) Selec t Wall Fluxes... and Skin Friction Coefficient under Y Axis Fun c tion . (c) Selec t Custom Field Functions... and x-by-h under X Axis Fun c tion .(d) Click Load File... and select the cf top.xy file and click OK. Experimental data for skin friction coefficient (C f = τw /0.5ρU 2 ) for the top wall and bottom wall are stored in cf top.xy and cf bot.xy r es pe cti vely .(e) Change the line and symbol style for Curve 0.i. Click on Curves... in the Solution XY Plot pan el.ii. Make the changes as shown in the p anel. iii.Click Apply and close the pan e l.(f)Selec t wall top under Surfaces and click Plot.(g) Repeat the same procedure for bottom wall by loading file cf bot and sele ctin g wall bottom under Su rf ace s.Figure 3: Skin Friction Coefficient Vs x/h (rke - Unconverged Solution) for Top W allFigure 4: Skin Friction Coefficient Vs x/h (rke - Unconverged Solution) for Bottom W a ll5. Change the Discretization scheme to Second Order Upwind for all e qu ation s.6. Disable convergence check for all residu als.Solve −→Monitors −→Res i dual...7. Increase the number of iterations to 4000 and continue the calculation until the monitored quantityb e come s ac on s tan t v alu e.You can see the residuals of all the equations also have dropped below 5 orders of magnitude, so t h e solution can be taken as c onver ge d.8. Save the case and data files (asdn3L-rke.gz).9. Change the viscous model to SST k-omega.Define −→Models −→Viscous...10. Set the boundary conditions for inlet_v(a) Set the Spec. Dissipation Rate to inner specific-diss-rate.11. Continue the calculation with more iterations until the monitored quantity b e come s a c on s tan tv alu e.12. Save the case and data files (asdn3L-sst.gz).Step 8: P ostpr oces singResults and DiscussionDefine a new custom field function as shown below. This will make comparison of the skin friction on the lower wall more convenient.Plot C f for the top and the bottom walls versus data as explained in this tutor ial, (Figures 5 and 6). Compare the results with those obtained from the unconverged soluti on. There is a very sub s tan t ial differe n c e.The predictions for C f along the top wall are substantially different (lower) than the exp er imental data by the realizable k-εmodel. The main reason for the failure is due the fact that it does not correctly predict the size of the sep ar at i on/r e cir culation zone along the incl ine d wall.On the other hand, SST k-ωis the only turbulence model among all the two-equation turbu- lence models which can successfully capture the recirculation zone. SST k-ωmodel’s pr e dic- tion of C f on the top wall is good (see Figure 7), but along the bottom wall it predicts the flow separates slightly upstream of the actual separation point (see Figure 8).Figure 5: Skin Friction Coefficient Vs x/h (rke - Converged Solution) for Top Wal lFigure 6: Skin Friction Coefficient Vs x/h (rke - Converged Solution) for Bottom W allFigure 7: Skin Friction Coefficient Vs x/h (sstkw) for Top Wal lFigure 8: Skin Friction Coefficient Vs x/h (sstkw) for Bottom W allGrid Independence StudyTest whether the converged results (from the SST k-ωmodel: asdn3L-sst.cas.gz, asdn3L-sst.dat.gz) obtained so far are independent of the grid resolution, you can either uniformly double the total cell count, or use the grid adaption feature of the solver to achieve the objective mor e effici en tly.Grid independence is attained when further mesh refinement yields only small andinsignif icant changes in the solution fields. You can use many possible criteria toadapt the mesh. Here we choose the pressure gradient. The separation/recirculationzone should be sensi tive to the computed pressure gradient of the flow. If you proceedfrom your own c a l cul at i on, first save the case and data before attempting any adaptionsince any change is ir r evers ible.1. Open the Gradient Adaption pan el.Adapt −→Gr adi e nt...(a) Ensure Pressure... and Static Pressure is selected in the Gradients Of dr op-down list.(b) Click Compute.This will list the current Max and Min gradients in the boxes.You can use the so-called “10-percent rule” to determine the adaption thr eshol d:to refine the mesh wherever the gradient exceeds 10% of the maximum level.(c) Enter a value of 8.7e-07 for the Refine Threshold and click Ma r k. (d) Click Manage...button to open t h e Manage Adaption Registers pan el.i. Plot the adaptively refined mesh by clicking Display.In general, it is desirable to have the marked cells clustered in a c ontiguous manner.(If they are not, delete the register and reduce the R efinement Threshold and do it again.) For the the current problem we have incr e ase d about 10000 cells (about 17% more) and they are mainly concentrated around the inclined section of the channel. We consider it to be satisfactory and pr ocee d.ii. Click Adapt and click Yes when prompted Hanging-node mode: Ok to a dap t grid?.(e) Continue the iterations until the case is converged.(f) Save the case and data files (asdn3L-sst-adapt.gz).(g) Plot the results, (Figures 9 and 10).It can be seen that there are no detectable changes from the previously obtaine d results (except some small improvement over the range of 10 < x/h < 20), s o now you can say that the converged solution for this case is grid-indep endent.Figure 9: Skin Friction Coefficient Vs x/h (sstkw) After Grid Adaption for Top W allFigure 10: Skin Friction Coefficient Vs x/h (sstkw) After Grid Adaption for Bottom W allSumm aryIn this tutorial, you performed a simulation of steady-state turbulent flow through an asymmetric, planar diffuser by using the popular realizable k-ε model. The calculated skin friction coefficients (C f) at the top and bottom of the diffuse r walls were compared with e xp e r ime n t al data reported by Buice and Eaton. Be t we en the t w o-equati on turbulence models, only the SST k-ωmodel gives reasonable predictions of the skin fr ic t ion and the recirculation z on e.You have also le arn ed how to use FLUENT´s grid adaption feature to test whether or not th e calculation is grid independent, without having to uniformly double up the cell coun t in the whole flow d om ai n.Refe rence s[1] C.U. Bruice and J.K. Eaton. Experimental investigation of flow through an asymm et ric plane diffuser. Technical Report No. TSD-107, Thermosciences Division, Dept. of MechanicalEngineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA, Augu s t 1997.。
石油工程专业英语单词
石油工程专业英语单词Aabnormal pressure 异常高压absolute open flow potential 绝对敞喷流量absolute permeability 绝对渗透率acetic acids 乙酸acid-fracturing treatment 酸化压裂处理acidize 酸化acidizing 酸化additives 添加剂Alkali/Surfactant/Polymer（ASP） tertiary combination flooding 三元复合驱anhydrite 无水石膏annular space 环形空间appraisal well 估计井，评价井aquifer 含水层areal sweep efficiency 面积波及系数artificial lift methods 人工举升方法Bbeam pumps 游梁式抽油机bitumen 沥青blast joint 耐磨钻头block and tackle 滑轮组blowout preventes 防喷器blowout 井喷bone strength 胶结强度borehole 井筒，井眼bottomhole/wellhead pressure 井底/井口压力bottorm water 底水breakthrough 突破，穿透bubble point 泡点bubble point pressure 泡点压力Ccable tool drilling 顿钻钻井capillary action 毛细管作用carbonate reservoirs 碳酸盐储层casing hanger 套管悬挂器casing head 套管头casing collapse 套管损坏casing corrosion 套管腐蚀casing leak 套管漏失casing pressure 套管压力casing string 套管柱casing 套管casing-tubing configuration 套管组合casing-tubing configuration 油套管井身结构caustic flooding 碱水驱油cavings 坍塌cement additive 水泥浆添加剂cement job 固井作业cement plug 水泥塞cement slurry 水泥浆cementation 固井，胶结cementing practices 注水泥施工centralizer 扶正器chemical flooding 化学驱油chock 节流器choke 油嘴，阀门christmas tree 采油树combustion engines 内燃机compatibility 兼容性compatibility 兼容性，配伍性completion interval 完井层段compressibility 压缩系数compression coefficient 压缩系数compressive strength 抗压强度cone bit 牙轮钻头connate water 共生水，原生水continuous gas lift 连续气举core sample 岩心样品cost-per-day basis 每天成本基价cost-per-foot basis 每英尺成本基价crank 曲柄crown block 天车crude oil 原油cumulative production 累计产量Ddamage well/zone 污染井/带darcy 达西darcy‘s law 达西定律dead line 死绳dehydration 脱水deposit 沉积，贮存n，矿床，蕴藏量derrick 井架derrick 钻塔，井架development well 开发井development well 生产井dewpoint 露点diesel fuel 柴油discovery well 资料井displacement efficiency 驱油效率displacement efficiency 驱替效率displacement rate 驱替效率displacing fluid 驱替液displacing medium 驱替介质dissolved-gas drive reservoir溶解气驱油藏downhole assembly 井下装置downhole equipment 井下装置downhole 井底，井下downsroke 下行冲程drainage areas/radius 泄油面积/半径drill collar 钻铤drill collars 钻铤drill 钻井driller 司钻，钻工drilling floor 钻台drilling line 大绳drilling slot 井槽drilling contract 钻井合同drilling fluid 钻井液drilling location 井位drilling rate 钻速drillpipe 钻杆drillship 钻井船drillsite 井场drillstring 钻柱dry forward combustion 干式正向燃烧Eeffective displacement 有效驱替effective permeability 有效渗透率effective wellbore vadius 有效井筒半径electric submersible centrifugal pumps 电泵embrittlement 脆裂emulsion 乳化剂encroachment 水侵enhanced oil recover（EOR）提高采收率ethane 乙烷Ffault 断层fishing tool 打捞工具flow efficiency 完善系数flow regime 流动类型/方式flowing tubing pressure 井口流压flowing well 自喷井fluid loss agent 降滤失剂fluid loss control 防液体漏失foam flooding 泡沫驱油、foam-type drilling fluid 泡沫钻井液formation volume factor 地层体积系数formic acids 甲酸fractional flow 分相流动fracture acidizing 酸化压裂fracture fluid 压裂液fracture pressure 破裂压力fracture 裂缝，断裂free gas 游离气Ggas cap 气顶gas condensate reservoir 凝析气藏gas lift 气举gas-lift valve 气举阀gas-liquid ratio 气液比gas-oil ratio 汽油比gasoline 汽油gear reducer 齿轮减速器geothermal gradient 地温梯度gravity drainage 重力泄油gravity segregation 重力分离gum bed 地蜡gusher 自喷井，喷油井Hheavy oil 重油heterogeneous reservoir 非均质储层heterogeneous 非均质的high gravity 高API度，轻质的hole angle 井斜角horizontal well 水平井hreaded coupling 螺纹接口huff and puff 蒸汽吞吐hydraulic fracture 水力压裂hydrocarbon 碳氢化合物hydrogen sulfide 硫化氢hydrostatic head 静水压头hydrostatic pressure 静液压力Iindividual well 单井inhibitor 抑制剂initial completion 初次完井injection rate 注入速度/量interfacial tension 表面张力intermediate casing string 技术套管intermediate casing 中间套管intermittent gas lift 间歇气举Jjackknife derrick 折叠式井架jelly 胶状物，凝胶物joints 根数junction box 接线匣Kkelly 方钻杆kerosene 煤油kick 井涌kill corrosion 压力液kill line 压井管线kill the well 关井Llanding nipple 坐放短节leading edge 前缘leakoff rate 漏失速率load-bearing capacity 承重能力logger 测试仪器logging 测井lost circulation 漏失lost circulation additive 堵漏剂lubricant 润滑油Mmaking a trip 起下钻making a connection 接单根massive hydraulic fracturing 大型水力压裂material balance calculations 物质平衡方程matrix acidizing 基质酸化mechanical efficiency 机械效率methane 甲烷microbial enhanced oil recovery 微生物强化采油microemulsion flooding 微乳液驱油mobility rate 流度比mobility 流度，流动性mud pump 泥浆泵mud thinner 降粘剂mud 泥浆mud/section pit 泥浆池multipay reservoir 多油层油田Nnatural fissure 天然裂缝nature gas 天然气net thickness 有效厚度net thickness 有效厚度nogo nipple 不过端短节nozzle 喷油嘴numerical simulation 数值模拟Ooffset well 补偿井oil formation volume factor 原油地层体积系数oil saturation 残余油饱和度oil seeps 油苗oil spill 油漏open-hole completion 裸眼完井organic acids 有机酸overburden 地层表土overburden pressure 上覆岩层压力overload protection 过载保护Ppacker 封隔器pad fluid 前置液paraffin 石蜡，链烷烃paraffin base 石蜡基pay zone 生产层，产油层pay sand 产油层，生产层peak load 最大载荷，峰值负值penetration rate 进尺速度penetration rate 渗入速度，机械钻速percussion 顿钻perforating job 射孔作业performance velationship 动态关系permeability 渗透率permeability anisotropy 渗透率各向异性petroleum 石油petroleum engineer 石油工程师petroleum industry 石油工业petroleum jelly 石油膏phase diagram 相态图piston stroke 活塞冲程pitman 联杆泵plate tectonics 板块构造理论plunger lift 活塞气举polished rod 光杆polymer flooding 聚合物驱油pore volume 有限孔隙体积porosity 孔隙度porous medium 多孔介质porous rock 多孔岩石positive-displacement position 容积式驱替活塞power fluid 传动液preflush 前置液preflush fluid 前置液，冲洗液pressure build up test 压力恢复试井pressure differential 压差pressure drawdown 压降，压差pressure gradient 压力梯度primary recovery 一次开采primary cementing 固井，初次注水泥primary porosity 原生孔隙度prime mover 原动机produced fluid 产出液producing rate 开采速度producting formation 生产层production technology 采油技术production casing 生产套管production platform 采油平台production string 生产（油层）套管productivity 生产率productivity index 生产指数proposed well 资料井proppant 支撑剂pseudo-steady-state flow 拟稳定流动put back on production 恢复生产Rradial area 径向面积radical flow 径向流recoverable reserve 可采储量recovery rates 回采收率，开采速度relative permeability 相对渗透率remaining oil 剩余油remedial work 修井作业reservoir drive mechanism 油藏驱油机理reservoir heterogeneous 储层非均质性reservoir 储层，储集层，油层residual oil saturation 残余油饱和度resistivity curre 电阻率曲线reverse combustion 反向燃烧rig 钻机riser 隔水管rodless pumping system 无杆泵系统roller bit 牙轮钻头rotary drilling 旋转钻井rotary hose 水龙带rotary system 旋转钻井系统rotary table 转盘rotary table 转盘rotary 旋转钻井Ssafety valve 安全阀salinity 矿化度salinity 矿化度sand control 含沙量控制sand production 油井出砂sandstore 砂岩secondary recovery 二次开采secondary porosity 次生孔隙度seep 漏出，渗出n，（油气）苗seepage n，渗出，流出seismic interpretation 地震解释separator 分离器setting time 凝固时间shale 页岩，泥岩shear rate 剪贴速率shut-in well pressure 关井压力skin effect 表皮效应slotted liner 割裂衬管sloughing 坍塌性的slurry density 水泥浆密度slurry viscosity 水泥浆粘度sonic bond log 声波测井spontaneous potential（SP）自然电位stabilizer 稳定器standpipe 立管stands 立管static reservoir pressure 油层静压steam flooding 蒸汽驱油stimulation 增产措施stricking problem 卡钻stripper well 低产井stroke length 冲程长度stuffing box 填料盒submersible rig 坐底式钻井平台substructure 井架底座subsurfance unit 地下单位subsurfance pump 井下泵sucker rod 抽油杆sulfide embrittlement 硫化氢脆裂sulfur 硫磺superficial velocity 表观粘度surface casing 表层套管surface flow line 地面流动管线surface tesion 表面张力surface unit 抽油机，地面装置surfactant flooding 表面积活性剂驱油switchboard 配电盒swivel 旋转钻头Ttensile strength 抗拉强度thickening time 稠化时间tool pusher 钻井队长torque rating 扭矩测定transformer 变压器，转换器transient flow 瞬变流动tubing string 油管柱turbulent flow 紊流Uunswept zone 未波及区upstroke 上行冲程Vvalve 阀门，阀vertical flow 垂直流vertical sweep efficiency 纵向波及系数vertical well 垂直井vibrating screens 振动筛viscosity 粘度void space 孔隙volume factor 体积系数volumetic sweep efficiency 体积波及系数volumetric efficiency 容量效率vug 孔洞，溶洞Wwait on cement（WOC）侯水泥凝固water flood recovery 注水采油water flooding 水驱water injection 注水量water-oil ratio 油水比water-sensitive 水敏性的wax 石蜡well bore 井眼well completion 完井well deliverability equation 油井产能方程well intake pressure 井口注入压力well-killing fluid 压裂液wet combustion 湿式燃烧wettability 润湿性wildcat well 预探井wildcatter 勘探者withdrawal 产出，采出workover 油井维修汉译英原油 crude oil天然气 natural gas方钻杆 kelly钻杆 drillpipe泥浆泵 mud pump转盘 rotary table封隔器 packer旋转钻井 rotary drilling固井 cementing裸眼完井 openhole completion井口 well head扶正器 centralizer三次采油 tertiary recovery射孔 perforating油管 tubing油井流入动态 inflow performance relationship 井底流压 bottom hole flowing pressure采油指数 productivity index增产增注措施 stimulation近井地带 near-well bore region含水率 water cut最终采收率 ultimate recovery剩余油 remaining oil提高采收率 IOR水驱 water flooding原始地质储量 OOPI（original oil in place）流度比 mobility ratio有效渗透率 effective permeability孔隙体积 pore volume上冲程 upstroke下冲程 downstroke润湿性 wettability聚合物驱 polymer flooding11。
专业英语题库1
选择题：1.If the system does not exchange energy with surroundings, it is an _________A open systemB closed systemC isolated systemD ontrol volume2. If the temperature of the liguid is lower than the saturation emperature for the existingpressure,it is called a_________liquid.A superheatedB subcooledC saturationD dry saturated3. If the efficiency of a real engine is significantly_______ the efficiency of a Carnotengine between the same limits, thenadditional improvements may be possible.A lower thanB more thanC equal toD greater than4. The velocity bector of a flow is expressed as V =ax2i+byztj, such a flow is a ____dimensional flow.A oneB twoC threeD four5. the critical Reynolds number of a rough-walled pipe is about_______.A 3x106B 3x105C 2000D 15006. If _______，the density variations influence the flow and compressibility effects shuldbe accounted for;such flows are compressinle flows.A M>0.3B M<0.3C M>0.2D M>0.17. Any _______effects that may exist are confined to a thin layer,called a boundarylayer,that is attached to the boundary ,the velocity in a boundary laryer is alwayszero at a fixed wall.A shearB gravitationalC inertialD viscous8. The ratio of the heat transfer surface area of a heat exchanger to its volume is calledthe area densityβ.A heat exchanger with_______is classifiedas being compact.A β<700m2/m3Bβ>700m2/m3Cβ>500m2/m3Dβ>1000m2/m39. The type of heat exchanger that involves the alternate passage of the hot and clodfluid streams through the same flow area is the _______heat exchanger.A regenerativeB compact Cplate and frame Dshell-and -tube10. Not all the radiation leaving one surface will reach the other surface sinceelectromagnetic radiation travels in straight lines and some will be lost to thesurroundings,we introduce _______in net radiant exchange.A reflectivityB emissivityC view factorD transmissivity11. _______use heat to conver water into steam for a variety of applications.A TurbinesB BoilersC GeneratorsD Condensers12. The modern 660MW coal-fired boilers has some _______tons of pressure parts.A 600B 2000C 6000D 2000013. ______is burned in coal boilers to ignite the coal burners,to warm up the boiler andraise pressure before coal is adimitted.A CoalB GasC WaterD Oil14. The radiant superheater outlet temperature ______with an increasing boiler out-put.A declinesB increasesC remains unchangedD decreases.15. The economizer is a ______heat exchanger for recovering enery from the fluegas.A parallelflowB upstreamC downstreamD counterflow.16. The ______utilises the heat in the boiler flue gases to heat the combustion air andprovide hot air for drying coal.A economizerB air heaterC reheaterD air preheater.17. There are no boiler tubes in the ______furnace of CFB because the rapidly movingsolids cause excessive erosion.A toppingB lowerC upperD middle18. The job of the pulverizers is to ______the feed coal down to a suitable size.A grindB heatC crushD warm19. The ball-and tube mill is a ______cylinder,partly filled with small diameter balls .A decliningB verticalC screwyD horizontal20. The Universal Pressure boiler is designed to maintain a ______flow inside thefurance circuits to prevent furace tube overheating during all operating conditionsA maximalB minimumC middleyD generic21. The steam after expending through the ______condenses in the condenser at a lowpress.A turbineB heaterC boilerD HP cylinder22. Machines in which there is no change of static or pressure head of the fluid in therotor are known as ______machine.A reactionB impulseC combined impulse and reactionD multi-stage23. The ______of a turbo-machine stage is defined as the ratio of the static orpressure head change occurring in the rotor to the total change across the stage.A degree of reactionB pressureC efficiencyD enthalpy24. For a turbine cylinder, substantial flanges and _____are required to withstand thepressure forces at the horizontal joints.A couplingB pipeC boltingD flange warming syetem25. With _____governing, the inlet belt is divided into sections each controlled by a sper–ate valve opening in sequence,resulting in a more complicated casting.A throttleB nozzleC slide pressureD constant pressure26. _____rotors required very careful attention to shrink fit and location geometries toavoid problems in running and with fatigue cracking.A integralB MonoblocC built-upD drum27. _____construction has the advantage of smaller forging components at the expenseof high integrity welding.A integralB shrink-on discC sub-criticalD Welded28. _____means that the weight is evenly disposed around the axis of theshaft. .A Static balanceB Dynamic balanceC balanceD Unbalance29. If critical speed is below running speed,the shaft is regarded as _____A rigidB flexibleC semi-flexibleD super-critical30 As a_____stage uses approximately the same heat drop as four impulse stage, it is usedto provide a shorter and cheaper turbine ,although with some sacrifice in efficiency.A impulseB reaction Cvelocity-compounded D single单词及词组aiabaticbafflebladeboilerboundary layerCarnot cyclecompositioncompressibilitycondensationconductionconvenctiondiffusiondry saturated vaporemissivityequilibriumfriction lossinternal combustion engineisentropicisobaricisolated systemisometricisothermallaminarmanuscriptmoisturemoleculepathlinepumpqualityradiationRankine cycleReversibleSaturationsteadystreamlinesubcooled liquidsuperheated vaporsurroundingturbulentultrasonicvacuumviscousAnchor 支座，固定Atomized 雾化Blast 鼓风Blowdown 排污Axis 轴Circulating fluidized bed CFB循环流化床锅炉Compressor 压缩机、压气机Coordinated 坐标，定位Counterflow 逆流（换热器）Creep strength 蠕变强度Critical pressure 临界压力Deterioration 恶化Distortion 变形Distillate 馏出物Drainage 疏水Drum 汽包Economizer 省煤器Erosive 侵蚀的，腐蚀的Embrittlement 脆性，脆化Evaluate 评估，评价Ferrite 铁素体Furnace 炉膛Generator 发电机Govern 控制、调节Hydraulic 水力的，液压的Ignite 点火Inert 惰性Ingredients 成分Inorganic 无机的Limestone 石灰石Margin 裕量，安全系数Mill 磨煤机Organisms 有机体Heterogeneous 不均匀的Hydraulic 水力的，液压的Ignite 点火Plasma spray coating 等离子喷涂Impurity 杂质Prefabricated 预制的Inert 惰性Inferior 低级的，劣质的Ingredients 成分Premium fuel 优质燃料Oxidation 氧化Polymer 聚合物Porosity多空的Radius 半径，范围Retract缩回Resonant 共振Reynolds number 雷诺数Rare earth element 稀土元素Regulate 控制，调节Rigid 刚性的，紧密地Rollers 辊子Regenerator 回热器，蓄热器Sootblower 吹灰器Saturated 饱和的Stress corrosion 应力腐蚀Superheater 过热器Temperature-entropy 温熵图Tenacious 黏的Thermodynamics 热力学Turbine 汽轮机Viscosity 黏度Velocity 速度Wear磨损Welded 焊接AccessAssemblyBack pressBalance pistonBearing boxBlowerBoundary layerBrittle fractureCarrier ringCasingCastChordConvergent-divergent type nozzle CouplingCoverbandCraneDouble-shell casingDuctilityDynamic balanceFabricationFatigue crackingFixed bladeFlexible rotorForgingFractureFull admissionHeadImpulseImpulse turbineInner casingKeyLacing wireMach numberMakeupMonobloc rotorMoving bladeNozzle boxNozzle governingOffsetPenetrationsPenultimate stageReaction machineResonanceRigid rotorRivetRobustRuptureStatic balanceThrottle governingToughnessWakeWheelTwisted三.翻译Thermodynamics is a science in which the storage,transfer of energy are studied.Energy is stored as internal energy,kinetic energy,potential energy and chemical energy; it is transformed from one of these forms to another;and it is transferred across a boundary as either heat or work.If a substance exists as vapor at the temperature,it is called saturated vapor.when the vapor is at a temperature greater than the saturation temperature,it is said to exist as superheated vapor.The pressure and temperature of superheated vapor are independent properties,since the temperature may increase while the pressure remainea constant.The first law of thermodynamics is commonly called the law of conservation of energy.In elementary physics course ,the study of conservation of energy emphasizes changes in kinetic and potentical energy and their relationship to work.A more general form of conservation of energy includes the effects of heat transfer and internal energy changes.Other forms of energy could also be included,such as electrostatic, magnetic,strain,and surface energy.Steam discharged from the turbine is directed into a condenser for two reasons.The condenser is operated at a high vacuum in order to create a low turbine exhaust pressure,rangingdown to 12mercury,abs.Turbines are ordinarily equipped with surface condensers that are indirect or nonmixing –type heat exchangers.In the abence of mixing,the second function of the condenser can be realized,that is ,the reture of the condenate to the boiler.beacause of the high steam flow,the condensate must be conserved,otherwise the operation of a large power boiler would be impracticable.A fluid flow may be broadly classified as either a viscous flow or an inviscid flow.An inviscid flow is one in which viscous effects of viscosity are important and cannot be ignored.To model an inviscid flow analytically,we can simply let the viscosity be zero;this will obviously make all viscous effects zero. It is more difficult to create an inviscid floe experimentally ,because all fluids of interest have viscosity.The questionthen becomes:Are there flows of interest in which the viscous effects are negligibly small? The answer is “Yes,if the shear stresses in the flow are small and act over such small areas that they do not significantly affect the flow field.”This statement is very general,of course, and it will take considerable analysis to justify the inviscid flow assumption.A viscous flow can be classified as either a laminar flow or a turbulent flow .In a laminar floe the fluid flows with no significant mixing of neighboring fluid particles. If dye were injected into the flow,it would not mix with the neighboring fluid exept by molecular activity; it would retain its identity for a relatively long period of time .Viscous shear stresses always influence alaminar flow . The floe may be highly time dependent or be steady.Incompressible gas flows include atmospheri flows, the aerodynamis of landing and takeoff of ommercial aircraft,heating and air-conditioning airflows, flow around automobiles and through radiators, and the flow of air around building, to name a few compressible flows include the aerodynamics of high-speed aircraft, airflow through jet engines, steam flow through the turbine in apower plant,airflow in a compressor, and the flow of the airgas mixture in an internal combustion engine.When a temperature gradient in a body,experience has shown that there is an energy transfer from the high-temperature region to the low –temperature region.We say that the energy is transferred by conduction and that the heat-transfer rate per unit area is proportional to the normal temperature gradient.热力学是一门科学,存储,传输的能量进行了研究。
Chapter 3 the Development of the__ English Vocabulary
Chapter 3 the Development of the English Vocabulary In the study of words, it is of great importance to know something about the origin and growth of the vocabulary. The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles. Then where does it come from? In what way is English related to other languages? A synchronic overview of the Indo-European Language Family will answer these questions.3.1 The Indo-European Language FamilyThe world has 3,000 (some put it 5,000) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.The Indo-European, one of these, is made up of most languages of Europe, the Near East and India. Most of the Indo-European languages are dead. The surviving Indo-European languages fall into ten principal groups, which fall into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic, Hittite, and Tocharian.The Germanic family, which is our chief concern as English and its nearest relations are all members of this family. First, we have the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then come German, Dutch, Flemish and English.3.2 Three Phases of the Historical Development of EnglishEnglish has been the language of England for a comparatively short period. Since its introduction into the island about the middle of the fifth century it has had a career extending through only fifteen hundred years. The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. Their languages Celtic were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language family. The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions.葡萄牙语 Potuguese 古法语 Old French 罗马尼亚语 Romanian 诺曼法语 Norman French 现代法语 Modern French 印欧语系 Indo-European （消亡） 意大利语族 Italic 奥斯干语支 Oscan 拉丁语支 Iatin 温布利安语支 Umbrian （消亡） 凯尔特语族 Celtic 盖尔语 Gallic 不列颠语支 Brittanic 盖尔语支 Gaelic 古爱尔兰语 Old Irish 古威尔士语 Old Welsh 哥特语 Gothic 东部语支 East 西部语支 West 日耳曼语族 Germanic 北部语支 North 东部语支 East 古诺尔斯语 Old Norse 冰岛语 Icelandic 挪威语 Norwegi 皮克特语 Pictish 威尔士语 Welsh 布列特尼语 Breton 科尼什语 Cornish 西部语支 West 德语 German 低地德语 Low German 高地德语 High German 现代标准德语 Modern German 荷兰语 Dutch 佛兰芒语 Flemish 古撒克逊语 Old Saxon 古低地弗兰克尼语 Old Low Franconian 肯特方言 Kentish 诺森布里亚方言 Northumbrian 默西亚方言 Mercian 西撒克逊方言 West Saxon 现代英语Modern English南部方言 Southern Dialect (盎格鲁人) Angles北部方言 Northern Dialect 中部方言Midland Dialect 东中部方言East Midland Dialect早期现代英语Early Modern English瑞典语 Swedish 丹麦语Danish 苏格兰盖尔语 Scottish Gaelic 爱尔兰盖尔语 Irish Gaelic 曼克斯语 Manx 古英语 Old English 西班牙语 Spanish 意大利语 Italian 盎格鲁·弗里西亚语Anglo-Frisian 古弗里西亚语 Old Frisian3.2.1 Old English (450-1150)The withdrawal of Roman troops virtually invited the invasion of the rich lowlands by the Picts and Scots from the North. The Celts appealed to Germanic warriors from across the North Sea for assistance in defending their land. Soon these German tribes, called Angles, Saxons and Jutes, came in great numbers and became their conquerors.The Germanic speakers took permanent control of the land that was later to be called England (the land of Angles). Their language, historically known as Anglo-Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic.Though the Saxons were numerically superior to the Angles, the latter were influential enough to impose their name on the whole. That is why the country was called England, and the language English. It is from this language that our present-day English is derived.Old English (the Anglo-Saxon) has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60,000 words, which are almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian.Old English was a highly inflected language, which differ greatly from the language that we use today.3.2.2 Middle English (1150-1500)The Danish rule continued from 1016 to 1042. Then the Saxon Dynasty was restored and Edward the Confessor, who had no children, came to the English throne and reigned over a united England until 1066. At his death, Harold succeeded him as king of the country. As he was not in the direct line of succession, his rule was opposed by William, Duke of Normandy, first cousin of Edward, for William considered himself the rightful heir to the throne. The English nobles disagreed, so William invaded the island. At the battle of Hastings (1066), the power of Harold was crushed and William became master of England. This event was known in history as the Norman Conquest. However, the influx of French words into English did not occur until after 1300. Norman French became the polite speech. The native tongue was a despised language which was left to the use of boors and serfs.In the next hundred years or so, with the separation of the two nations, the nobility of England still spoke French, but bit by bit English came back into the schools, the law courts and government and regained social status. It made the final step back to a position of importance when it emerged once again as a respected literary medium with the Wycliff translation of the Bible and the writings of Chaucer, Langland and others. Norman French was a class language, never the speech of England.The Middle English period was one of great changes, changes more extensive and fundamental than those that had taken place at any time before and since. The single most significant fact of this period was the steady erosion of the Old English inflectional systems. If we say that the Old English was a period of full endings, the Middle English was a period of leveled endings. Another significant point is the French influence on English vocabulary. The number of French words that poured into English was unbelievably great and covered every realm of culture and society.3.2.3 Modern English (1500-up to the present )Modern English dates from the Caxton and the establishment of printing in England. It may be subdivided into Early Modern English (1500-1700) and Late Modern English (1700- up to the present).In the early period of Modern English, enormous numbers of Latin words became English words because of the Renaissance. These contributed to the decidedly Latinate flavour of Modern English. Now the rapidly expanding use of printing and the needs of the schools began to set standard spellings for most words.Since the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power, thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.Since the beginning of 20th century, particularly after World War II, thousands and thousands of new words have been created to express new ideas, inventions and scientific achievements.3.3 General Characteristics of English3.3.1 Receptivity, Adaptability and HeterogeneityEnglish has taken to itself material from all other languages and has made the new elements its own. Having received all kinds of foreign elements, the English vocabulary is copious and heterogeneous.3.3.2 Simplicity of InflectionOld English was characterized by ‘full endings’, Middle English by ‘leveled endings’ and Modern English by ‘lost endings’.3.3.3 Relatively Fixed Word-orderIn an analytic language like Modern English, the word order is required to be relatively fixed. The semantic relation is closely connected to the positions of the words. The change of word-order may result in a change of meaning.3.4 Foreign Elements in the English VocabularyOf all the foreign languages from which words have been borrowed into English, Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian stand out as the major contributors, which have had great influence on the English language vocabulary.3.4.1 LatinFor 2,000 years Modern English vocabulary has borrowed so heavily and complexly from Latin.1) The Pre-Anglo-Saxon PeriodDuring the Pre-Anglo-Saxon Period the words borrowed naturally reflected the new conceptions and experience in war and agriculture, e.g. battle, banner, cheese, pepper, butter, etc.2) The Old English PeriodBorrowings of this period came in the wake of the introduction of Christianity into Britain in 597. In the four hundred years or more up to the Norman Conquest, a variety of additional Latin words were adopted. Among the church terms are altar, candle, creed, disciple, nun, etc.3) The Middle English PeriodThe Norman Conquest marked the beginning of the third period of borrowingfrom Latin, though many of them made their way through French. The lexical settlers of Latin via French are generally more popular than those borrowed directly from Latin. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were especially prolific in Latin borrowings under the influence of Renaissance. The following is a list of direct Latin borrowings in this period: gesture, history, include, incredible, individual, innumerable, necessary, nervous, picture, polite, popular, prevent, private, solar, temporal, etc. It is noticeable that some of the Latin suffixes, -able, -ible, -al, -ous, -ive and others now become common in English.4) The Modern English PeriodWords borrowed since 1,500 are late ones, which are mostly of abstract and scientific character. These words generally retain their Latin forms: focus, status, circus, apparatus, genius, esteem, minimum, maximum, via, criteria, species, series, protest, enterprise, etc.Many of the frequently used abbreviations are from Latin:i.e. (id est) = that is to saye.g. (exempli gratia) = for examplea.m. (ante meridiem) = before noonetc. (et cetera) = and so onp.m. (post meridiem) = after nooncf. (confer) = compareibid. (ibidem) = in the same place3.4.2 GreekThe influx of Greek words into English began with the revival of learning from Greek classics. Here is a selection of such borrowings, which, even if through Latin and French, remain identifiably Greek in form, e.g. democracy, politics, logic, philosophy, atom, geography, mathematics, clinic, diagnosis, alphabet, drama, grammar, idiom, poem, poet, rhythm, athlete, marathon, architect, hero, idiot, method, music, mystery, etc.The greatest influence of Greek perhaps lies in its loan of word-building elements into English. The Greek and Latin elements are assimilated with native elements in such a way that they can be mixed to form new words, known as hybrids. For example, anti- and hyper-, which are Greek prefixes, meaning ‘against’and ‘beyond’ respectively, can be added to English root as in anti-British and to Latin root as in hypersensitive. The Greek verb suffix –ize can be fixed at the end of words of any origin to form verbs, e.g. popularize, westernize, etc.3.4.3 FrenchIt is estimated that about one fourth of modern English vocabulary has come from French. Until the Norman Conquest, the exchange of words between English and French had been minimal. But when William the Conqueror ascended the English throne, French suddenly became the language of government. Almost overnight English had become a second class language in its native land. In the one and the half centuries immediately after the Conquest, a number of probably fewer than 1,00 French words were absorbed into the permanent vocabulary of English.The supremacy of French began to recede in the mid-13th century, when theacculturated descendants of the invaders at last began to think of themselves more as Englishmen than French and with it Norman French gave way to English. Borrowing from French now was free. Between 1250 and 1500 an approximate 9,000 words of French origin poured into the language, of which at least 75 percent are still in use today, e.g. govern, crown, country, power, council, people, nation, prince, duke, judge, jury, court, angel, sacrifice, miracle, preach, virtue, duty, conscience, war, battle, captain, soldier, beef, mutton, pork, bacon, roast, soup, supper, feast, tower, castle, fashion, dress, coat, fur, joy, pleasure, leisure, sport, etc.Although the rate of foreign borrowings tapered off to a certain extent during the 15th century, it sharply revived in the 16th and the English Renaissance. Nevertheless, new French borrowings during this period tended to be supplementary rather than central to the English vocabulary as there was a resistance that grew on the part of the English to borrowing of any kind. In the 150 years between 1650 and 1800, less than half as many French words were brought into English as had been added in the preceding years of the same length of time. Such words as ballet, dentist, cartoon, publicity, ridicule, routine are representatives of the hundreds of words absorbed in the period under discussion.Contemporary French influence on English since 1800 is difficult to define. But one thing is certain that the rate at which we have borrowed has increased considerably over that of the 18th century though the rate is still a fraction of what it was in the Middle Ages.3.4.4 ScandinavianThe Scandinavian languages: Norwegian, Swedish, Danish and Icelandic, constitute the northern branch of the Germanic group. The earliest recorded form of Scandinavian is Old Norse. The Vikings, who were first to raid Britain in A.D. 787, were a Germanic people closely related to the Anglo-Saxons, who had originally lived just south of them on the Continent. Their languages known as Old Norse were very similar to Old English. Sharing a stock of basic words, the two peoples could understand each other quite well. In the 200 years that followed from the Norsemen invasion, Norsemen swarmed into the British Isles and occupied the greater part of the land, which remained bilingual. However, the English element eventually prevailed and the descendants of the Norsemen gradually forgot Norse and spoke English. The English then was the result of the fusion of the two peoples and cultures. Accordingly, hundreds of words were permanently absorbed into the English vocabulary. Many of these were basic and everyday words, often displacing original English ones such as skill, husband, sister, bag, bank, club, both, they, them, get, take, die, hit, happy, low, tight, ugly, wrong, etc.Numerically, the Scandinavian words in the English vocabulary are not many as compared with those of French.3.4.5 Other Foreign ElementsAs we have mentioned above, English is a heavy borrower, which has absorbed words from all the major languages of the world with which it has had contact. Apart from Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian, the other elements are much less important. Even among the minor languages, Italian, German, Dutch and Spanishhave made considerable contributions to the English vocabulary. All the others are felt to be superficial.1)ItalianSome of the Italian words borrowed into English are: corridor, balcony, design, sonnet, model, picturesque, piano, violin, concert, opera, spaghetti, macaroni, broccoli, campaign, cannon, attitude, casino, influenza, jeans, umbrella, volcano, etc.2) GermanThe number of German borrowings is limited, some of them are nickel, Fahrenheit, ecology, hamburger, noodle, dollar, kindergarten, semester.3)DutchDutch is closely related to English. As the Dutch were leaders in the sea and the seafaring as well as industry, and transportation, especially in the golden ages in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, three quarters of the Dutch borrowings occurred during this period: yacht, sledge, stove, landscape, sketch, skate, boss, Santa Claus, etc.4)Spanish and PortugueseWords from Portuguese are mainly associated with slave culture. The more recent loanwords coming directly from Portuguese include Negro, potato, cafeteria, zebra, apricot, banana, etc.5)CelticCeltic is the language spoken by the earliest people in the British Isles, but unfortunately it has hardly had any influence on English vocabulary. Only a meager handful of Celtic words are left in English: dun, slough etc. the Celtic element is also found largely in place names such as rivers (Thames, Avon) and city names (York, London, Kent).There are some other loan words borrowed from other languages.Arabic: alcohol, coffee, cotton, magazine, muslin, sofa etc.Indian: candy, pajamas, shampoo etc.Russian: czar, vodka etc.Czech: robot.Bulgarian: coachPersian: bazaar, orange, check, lilac etc.Turkish: turkey, yoghurt etc.Malay: bamboo, caddy etc.Polynesian: taboo, tattooJapanese: kimono, karate, judo, tatami, etc.Australian aboriginal dialect: kangaroo, koalaAmerican Indian: moose, raccoon etcMexican: chocolate, tomato etc.Caribbean: barbecue, canoe, hurricane, maize etc.African: lion, paper, sack etc.Chinese: typhoon, tea, china, chopsticks, tofu, yin-yang, zongzi, etc.In earlier times, borrowing was a very important means of vocabulary development. While in modern times, the role of borrowing is diminishing and can hardly compare with some of the means of word-creation such as affixation,compounding and conversion.。
基于Fluent流场数值仿真的管路流量计算_张功晖
Hydraulics Pneumatics&Seals/No.12.2010基于Fluent流场数值仿真的管路流量计算张功晖1黎志航2周志鸿1(1.北京科技大学土木与环境工程学院，北京100083; 2.广东肇庆爱龙威机电有限公司，广东肇庆526238)摘要：利用Fluent三维单精度求解器，对管路内的三维稳态流场进行仿真，利用后处理工具得到管路体积流量，并将Fluent数值仿真计算的体积流量结果与实测结果进行对比，数值仿真计算结果得到实际测量实验的验证。
关键词：Fluent；管路；流量中图分类号：TH138.52文献标识码：A文章编号：1008-0813（2010）12-0041-03Air-passage Structure Improving of Pneumatic ElectromagneticValve Based on Flow Field Simulation withing FluentZHANG Gong-hui1LI Zhi-hang2ZHOU Zhi-hong1(1.Civil&Environment Engineering School of University of Science and Technology Beijing,Beijing100083,China; 2.Guangdong Zhaoqing L&V Co.,Ltd.,Zhaoqing526238,China)Abstract:This thesis applies Fluent single-precision solver calculate the volumetric flow rate by simulating3D steady flow field of the pipeline,and compares the calculated flow rate and the actual measured result.Key Words:fluent；pipeline；volumetric flow rate0提出问题广东肇庆爱龙威公司构建了如图1所示的管路，管路由一段长为L1=500mm、管内径为D1=4mm的塑料管AB，与一个长度为L2=40.14mm、孔径为D1=1.25mm 的不锈钢零件BC连接而成。