刘润清新编语言学chapter 10
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题( 语义学)【圣才出品】
5. Major sense relations
(1) Homonymy
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圣才电子书
(2) Polysemy
十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
(3) Homophony
(4) Synonymy
(5) Antonymy
(6) Hyponymy
(7) Meronymy
成分分析 5. Sentence meaning
句子意义
本章考点： 语义学的定义；词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义)；识别各种实例中词与词的意义关系、
以及句与句之间的蕴涵、前提、会话含义、同义、不相容、语义矛盾、语义反常等意义关系; 用成分分析法分析同义词、反义词，句子意义的区别等; 反义词的种类及举例。
圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
第 5 章 语义学
5.1 复习笔记
本章要点： 1. Semantics
语义学 2. The referential and sense
指称和涵义 3. Analysis of meaning
意义分析 4. Component analysis
(4) Inconsistency
(5) Implicature
I. Semantics (语义学) 【考点：名词解释】
Semantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects.
practical events that precede and follow it. The meaning of a linguistic form is thus defined as observable behaviors. Such an approach to meaning is called behaviorism, or behaviorist theory, which clearly draws on psychology.
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(认知语言学)【圣才出品】
第10章认知语言学10.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Cognitive linguistics认知语言学2. Categorization and categories范畴化与范畴3. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy概念隐喻与转喻4. Iconicity and grammaticalization象似性与语法化常考考点：认知语言学定义；范畴化与范畴定义分类等；概念隐喻与转喻的定义，层次分类；象似性的分类以及语法化等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitive linguisticsII. Categorization and categories1. Definition of categorization2. The classical theory3. The prototype theory4. Levels of categorizationIII. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy1. Conceptual metaphor2. Conceptual metonymyIV. Iconicity1. Iconicity of order2. Iconicity of distance3. Iconicity of complexityV. GrammaticalizationI. Definition of cognitive linguistics (认知语言学定义)【考点：名词解释】Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》章节题库-第一章至第三章【圣才出品】
第二部分章节题库第1章导论I.Fill in the blanks.1.In Saussure’s view,the relationship between signifier(sound image)andsignified(concept)is_____.（北二外2003研）【答案】arbitrary【解析】索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系，所以两者之间的关系是任意的。
2.Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present(in time and space)at the moment of communication.This quality is labeled as_____.（北二外2003研）【答案】displacement【解析】移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点。
3._____refers to the role language plays in communication(e.g.to express ideas, attitudes)or in particular social situations(e.g.Religious,legal).（北二外2016研）【答案】Function【解析】本题考查语言学中对“语言的功能”的定义。
功能指的是语言在沟通中（例如表达观点、态度）或在特定社交场合（如宗教、法律）中所起的作用。
4.The features that define our human languages can be called_____features.（北二外2006研）【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(1-6章)【圣才出品】
第1章导言1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2.The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3.The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4.Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。
(2)语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。
(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
2.有关语言的常考考点(1)语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2)语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3)语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。
)本章内容索引：I.Definition of linguisticsII.Linguistics vs.traditional grammarIII.Scope of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsIV.Definition of languageV.Origins of language1.Ding-Dong Theory2.Sing-Song Theory3.Pooh-Pooh Theory4.Yo-He-Ho Theory5.Ta-Ta Theory6.Bow-Wow TheoryVI.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Productivity4.Interchangeability5.Displacement6.Specialization7.Cultural transmissionVII.Functions of language1.Phatic function/communion2.Directive functionrmative function4.Interrogative function5.Expressive function6.Evocative function7.Performative functionVIII.Some major concepts in linguistics1.Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsngue and parolepetence and performance5.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6.Functionalism and formalismI.Definition of linguistics(语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language,which is always guided by the-three canons ofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。
新编语言学教程刘润清版1,2章复习大纲
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Definition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by thethree cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.LinguisticsLinguistics versustraditional grammar:Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics PragmaticsMacrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics Stylistics Discourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguisticsDefinition:Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered.Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise.Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions.Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work.Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements. Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.Design featuresLinguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word .pen) and the thing. what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d?g/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaningin themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speakFunctionsSome major concepts in linguisticsDescriptive and prescriptive grammarDescriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language; while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsWhen we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on he difference in two or more than two tates of language over decades or centuries.Langue and paroleSaussure made an important distinction between langue and parole. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is , the actual use of this knowledge.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSaussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.Functionalism and formalismFunctionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.课后练习If language is partially defined as communication, can we call the noises that dogs make language Why or why notNo,we can ’t call the noises that dogs make as language even though language is partially defined as communication. There are two reasons for that: first, language is human-specific,it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used only for human communication. Second, language has design features which are totally lack in animal communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Noises made by dogs represent certain meaning but can not be further analyzed into smaller units.What is the difference between a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to languageDescriptive approach to language attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive approach to language tells people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described. Certain forms are sued more regularly than others and by different people. Though some forms occur less frequently they should not be ignored. They can all be recorded and explained as aspects of the languages since hey are actually used.A wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleven postures of the tail that express such emotions as self-confidence, Phatic function/communion Directive function Informative functionInterrogative function Expressive function Evocative function Performativeconfident threat, lack of tension, uncertain threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a language similar to man ’s If not, why notNo, we can not say a wolf has a language similar to that of men even though there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express with his positions of body parts. There are two reasons for that:First, language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is human-specific. Second, language has design features which are lack in animals ’ communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. But in wolf ’s communication system, one position stands for one certain meaning, and can not be further analyzed into smaller units. And no the other hand, human linguistic units can be grouped and regrouped, arranged and rearranged according to certain rules but those positions owned by wolf have no such features. Therefore, wolf ’s this system is not so productive as human languages.Chapter 2 THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGEINTRODUCTIONPhonology : is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Phoneme :Minimal pairsandminimal sets\Free variationDistinctive featuressyllablesConsonant clusterWith some phonetic knowledge we can give a much more precise description to speech sounds. And with some phonological knowledge we can become more aware of the functions of sounds in different languages. More importantly, phonetics and phonology have made the greatest contribution toPhoneme is the phonological units of language, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which and distinguish meaning. For example, sip and zip is signaled by the fact that the initial sound of the first word is s/s/ and the initial sound of the second word is z/z/./s/and /z/can therefore distinguish or contrast words. Minimal pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound. For example, chunk and junk ,ban and bin, be and bat, fan and van, fine and vine, sink and zinc, site and side are minimal pairs in English. When a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set. For example, a minimal set based on the vowel when two or more sounds occur in the same positon without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation. For example, there are two pronunciation of the word either,we can say /i:δ?r/ and /’a ?δ?r/. When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature (or a phonemic feature). For example, seal and zeal distinguishes by /s/ ad /z/,/s/ is voiceless and /z/ is voiced,so The English word beautiful consists of three speech units: beau-ti-ful. These units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. Syllable structure syllable onset Rime(rhyme)Nucleus(peak coda Consonant(s) vowel In English some words may contain a sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable, for example, /spl/ in /’splendid/. Sequences of consonants like this are called consonant clusters. Initial cluster: /spl/ in /’spl??/ splash Final cluster: /st/ in /test/ test Medialcluster: /str/ in /’pe?str?/ pastryA word which begins with three-consonant clusters always observes three strict rules:Suprasegmentals Definition: The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics.Articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how speech sounds are produced, or “articulated ”.Three research fields Acoustic phonetics, which deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.Auditory phonetics, which deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.Articulators andfunctionsVoicedand voiceless soundsNasaland oral soundsVariations ofsoundsVowels Pharynx is a tube which begins just above the larynx.Velum or soft palate i s seen in the position that allows air to pass through the nose and the mouth. Hard palate is often called the “roof of the mouth ”, you can feel its smooth curved surface with your tongue. Alveolar ridge or alveolum is between the top front teeth and hard palate. Tongue can be moved into many different places and different shapes. Larynx is also an articulator. Notices Jaws are sometimes called articulators,but the jaws are not articulators in the same way as others. Teeth Lips When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sounds. The sounds represented by /p/,/t/,/k/,and /s/ in the English wordsseep/si:p/,seat/si:t/,and seek/si:k/ are voiceless sounds. When the vocal cords are drawn together, the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced sounds. The sounds represented When the velum is lowered, air escapes through the nose as well as the mouth; sounds produced this way are called nasal sounds. There are three nasal consonants /m/, /n/,and /?/ in English. When the velum is raised all the way to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off. When the nasal passage is blocked in this way, the air can escape only throughthe mouth. Sounds produced this way are called oral sounds. /p/ and /b/ are oral sounds. Definition: vowels are sounds produced without obstruction, so o turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. Front vowels: /i:/ /?/ /e/ /?/ /?/ /ɑ/The height of the tongue Central vowels: /з:/ /?/ /?/Back vowels: /u:/ /u/ /?:/ /?/ /ɑ:/The shape of the lip Rounded vowels: /u:/ /u/ /?:/ /?/Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of two words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel, is called liaison. The phrase “an egg ” is often pronounced /?’neg/. Elision : the loss of a sound or sounds in speech is called elision. The word “suppose ” is often pronounced as /sp??z/, “factory ” as /’f?ktr?/. Assimilation : the way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation. In English the negative prefix occurs as “im-” before words such as “possible ”---”impossible ”.Sound contrasts that extend over several segments (phonemes),and such contrasts are called suprasegmentals. Suprasegmental featuresStress Intonation When a word has more than one syllable, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech sound phenomenon, that of When sounds which are identical as to their place or manner features may differ in length, pitch or loudness. When speaking, people generally raise and lower the pitch of their voice. This phenomenon is called intonation.ClassificationofEnglishSpeechSoundsConsonantsCAPTER 2 课后练习 2. What is the test most often used for determining phonemes in a language Minimal pair test or substitution test is the first rule of thumb to determine the phonemes of any language, that is ,to see whether substituting one sound for another result in a different word. If it does , the two sound represent different phonemes. For example, we see from the contrast between fine and vine and between chunk and junk that /f /, /v /,/? /and /?/ must be phonemes in English because substituting /v/ for /f /,or /?/ for /? / produce a different word.3. What ’s the difference between an open and a closed syllableThe units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. Syllables can be divided into two sorts: the open syllables and the closed syllables. Syllables like me, by or no that have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda are called open syllables; while the coda is present in the syllables like up, cup or hat, which is called closed syllables.4. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature or features which they share /p/ /b/ /m/ feature: bilabial,stop,consonant/g/ /p/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /b/ feature: stop, consonant/?/ /u:/ /?/ feature: back, rounded, vowel5. Name the single feature that distinguishes the following pairs of sounds./ δ / : /?,/ voicing ( voiceless vs. v oiced )/p /: /f / place of articulation ( bilabial vs.labio-dental )/? /: /e / the height of the tone rising. ( high vs. mid ) /b /: /m / manner of articulation. (stop vs. nasal) /s /: /? / place of articulation (alveolar vs. palatal) /s /: /δ / place of articulation (alveolar vs. dental)6. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial and final positions.Initial Medial finalpit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cabFind similar seets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:Initial Medial final/k/-/g/ Kook/gook raking/raging lak/leg/m/-/n/ Moon/noon dime/dine beam/bean/b/-/v/ Berry/very dribble/drivel dub/dove /b/-/m/ Be/me ribbed/rimmed rib/rim/p/-/f/ Pat/fat depend/defend rap/raff7. The english data below provide examples of stress placement on certain verbs.Consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. Bilabials / p, b, m, w/ Labiodentals / f, v/Dentals /?, δ / in terns of place of articulation Alveolars / t, d, n, s, z, r, l / Palatals / ?, ? / Velars /k, g, ? /glottal /h /Stops / p, b, t, d, k, g / Fricatives /f, v, ?, δ, s, z, ?, ?, h / Affricates / ?, ? /In terms of manners of articulation Liquids /l, r /Nasals /m, n, ? /Aap’pear col’lide e’rase ca’rouse cor’rode Ba’daptcol’lapsee’lectob’servetor’mentCas’tonishcon’sideri’maginede’termine‘promise1)Describe in words the stress placement on these verbs. Make sure you refer to syllable structure in your statement.2)Provide syllable representations of the words col’lide, e’lect, and con’sider in order to illustrate your conclusion about stress placement in these forms.1)Stress in languages may be predictable by rules: lexical category, morphological structure and number of syllablesall seem to be relevant factors for the placement of stress in English words.For two-syllable verbs, the final(ultimate) syllable will receive main stress if tie has a long vowel or ends in at least two consonants. In this case, the first(penultimate) syllable may have secondary stress, contain an unstressed full vowel, or contain a reduced vowel. For example, a’dapt, e’lect.If the ultimate syllable does not have a long vowel or end in two or more consonants, the penultimate syllable is stressed, as in’promise. Otherwise, the main stress will be put on the second syllable. For example, ca’rouse, ob’serve, astonish, de’termine.If there is a double-letter in the word, the main stress should be put between them, or in other words, on the second one of the two. Such as ap’pear, cor’rode, col’lide, col’lase2)They are two-syllable words; therefore the final (ultimate ) syllable will receive main stress,, as col’lide,e’lect and con’side.。
刘润清,文旭新编语言学教程学习指南
这本书的内容编排十分合理，由浅入深，从基础知识到高级理论，让我在阅读 的过程中感受到了语言学的魅力。同时，书中还提供了大量的实例，这些实例 既生动又具有说服力，使得我在理解理论知识的同时，也能看到这些理论在现 实生活中的实际应用。
再者，这本书虽然是关于语言学的教材，但并不枯燥乏味。两位作者在阐述观 点时，运用了生动的语言和丰富的例子，使得整本书的阅读过程变得非常愉快。 我在阅读的过程中，不仅能够学到知识，还能感受到语言学的乐趣。
我想说的是，《刘润清，文旭新编语言学教程学习指南》这本书对于想要深入 学习语言学的人来说是一本非常值得推荐的教材。它既包含了丰富的理论知识， 又有生动的实例说明，让人在阅读的过程中既能学到知识，又能感受到语言学 的魅力。我相信，这本书对于我在语言学方面的学习和研究将会有很大的帮助。
目录分析
《刘润清，文旭新编语言学教程学习指南》是一本为语言学本科生和研究生编 写的教材，旨在帮助他们掌握语言学的基本概念、理论和研究方法。该书的目 录经过精心设计，有助于学生更好地理解和掌握语言指南》这本书的目录经过精心设计，注重 理论与实践相结合，有助于学生更好地理解和掌握语言学知识。
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刘润清，文旭新编语言学教程学习指 南
读书笔记
01 思维导图
03 精彩摘录 05 目录分析
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02 内容摘要 04 阅读感受 06 作者简介
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刘润清《新编语言学教程》章节题库(认知语言学)【圣才出品】
第10章认知语言学I. Fill in the blanks.1. ______ is the mental process of classification, while ______ is the products of the preceding process.【答案】Categorization; category【解析】范畴化是人类对经验进行分类的过程。
范畴是范畴化的产物。
2. ______ is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.【答案】Cognitive linguistics【解析】认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。
3. There are three aspects in basic-level categories: ______, ______ and ______.【答案】perception; communication; knowledge organization【解析】基本层次范畴的三方面：感知，交流和知识系统。
Ⅱ. Multiple Choices.1. In the following sentences, which is not a metonymy?A. The sax has the flu today.B. Watergate changed American politics.C. Wall Street is in a panic.D. She is the apple in her parents’eyes.【答案】D【解析】其他三句为转喻，D为暗语。
新编语言学教程刘润清重点笔记
新编语言学教程刘润清重点笔记一、语言学的基本概念1. 语言学的定义语言学是研究人类语言的科学，旨在探讨语言的结构、功能、演变和使用规律。
2. 语言的特征语言具有多样性、可变性、创造性和交际性等特征，是人类文化和社会生活的重要组成部分。
3. 语言的层次结构语言包括语音、词汇、句法、语义和语用等层次结构，每个层次相互交织，共同构成了具体的语言系统。
二、语音学1. 语音和语音学的基本概念语音是语言的声音表现形式，语音学是研究语音的学科，主要包括语音的产生、分类和规律等内容。
2. 语音的分类语音可以根据发音部位、发音方法和语音特征进行分类，这些分类对于理解不同语言的语音现象具有重要意义。
3. 语音的运用语音系统是语言的基础，正确、标准的语音能够促进交际的顺利进行，也是语音教学的重要内容。
三、语音变化规律1. 语音演变的观点语音演变是语言发展的必然规律，主要有自然演变和人为干预两种形式。
2. 语音演变的原因语音演变的原因有内在原因和外在原因两类，其中心理因素和社会因素是主要的影响因素。
3. 语音演变的类型语音演变的类型包括同化、咀嚼、发音简化、重音移位和音位交替等，这些类型在不同语言中都有所体现。
四、词汇学1. 词汇的概念词汇是语言中最基本的语言单位，包括单词和词组两种形式，构成了语言的基本载体。
2. 词与词的关系词的构词规律和词的语义关系是词汇学的重要研究内容，也是词汇教学中需要重点关注的问题。
3. 词的分类词可根据词性、构词法、语义感情色调和语言长短等属性进行分类，不同的分类体系能够为语言的学习和教学提供指导。
五、句法学1. 句法结构的基本要素句法结构主要包括主语、谓语、宾语等要素，这些要素之间的组合形式决定了句子的结构类型。
2. 句法关系的层次结构句法关系包括层级结构和包含关系，这些关系是句子语法结构的重要组成部分。
3. 句法结构的功能句法结构的功能包括构句、分句和复句等，这些功能是语法结构的基本表现形式。
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Chapter 10 Cognitive linguistics
10.1 Introduction
• • Can you describe a car? Engine, steering wheel, accelerator and brakes, seats , driver , passengers, comfortable and fast, mobility, independence and perhaps social status, first love affair, or injury. This example tells us that the description of a car goes beyond objective descriptions, but provides a richer, more natural view of its meaning, and includes the use of metaphors. This approach that language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it is called cognitive linguistics. As a new approach to the study of language and mind, cognitive linguistics began to appear in the 1970s and has been increasingly active since the 1980s. The interesting topics for cognitive linguistics include: (i) the structural characteristics of natural language categorization (such as what is a prototype, metaphor, mental imagery, and cognitive models), (ii) the functional principles of linguistic organization (such as iconicity and naturalness), (iii) the conceptual interface between syntax and semantics, (iv) the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use, and the relationship between language and thought.
10.2.2 Prototype theory
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10.2 Categorization and categories
• • • • • • Have you seen a tree? a willow, a peach tree, or any particular tree, but you haven’t seen an abstract tree. Have you seen a dog? a white dog, a yellow dog, your own dog or your neighbour’s dog, but you haven’t seen an abstract dog. The special term for this phenomenon is called category. The mental process of classification is called categorization, which is one of the important capabilities of the human mind. Categorization occurs everywhere around us, without it a lot of information would be in disorder. In fact, people are quite able to divide the world into categories, and they can learn to distinguish between different categories such as CAR and BUS. As a student, you may be classified as a FRESHMAN, SOPHOMORE, JUNIOR, or SENIOR; you may also be classified by your major. As to the colour system, we have colour categories, such as RED, WHITE, BLACK, YELLOW, and BLUE. Movies in America have already been
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The classical theory has dominated for a long time, but it has also suffered from criticisms. Such a view of categorization is bound to run into difficulties when it is used to describe categories which have good and bad members and fuzzy boundaries. Things in the world are much too complex for a theory as neat as the classical theory. Certain things do not fall into clear-cut categories. For instance, do ostriches and penguins belong to the BIRD category? Even if they do, aren’t they less of birds than robins are? Then what about ducks and peacocks? Are they more of birds than penguins?
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categorized as G ,PG,R,X. two major theories which deal with this problem. One is the classical theory, and the other is the prototype theory.