英语专业考研语言学复习资料 句法学
英语语言学 句法学
Functional Approach declarative (陈述句), interrogative (疑问句), imperative (祈使句), exclamatory (感叹句).
3.3 IC Analysis (直接成分分析法):
Constituent (构成成分)
immediate constituent（直接成分） ultimate constituent （最终成分）
Aux-movement（助动词移动）
The movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence-initial position, such as be, have, do, will, can, and should.
eg. John will buy a present. Will John buy a present?
IC Analysis refers to divide the sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.
（把句子按其组成部分/成分用两进制切分法/二 分法一直划到最小的语法单位－又称最终成分 －词素。）
The XP rule
The X stands for the head of N,A,V and P.
The X bar theory（X杠理论）
The coordinate rule
3.Sentence （句子）
3.1 The sentence rule
Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate
英语句法学
英语句法学
英语句法学是语言学的一个分支，其研究范围涵盖英语句子的构成、结构、语序、成分等方面。
其重要性在于了解英语句子的组成结构，从而准确理解和使用英语语言，避免语法错误、歧义、模棱两可的表达方式。
英语句法学主要涉及以下内容：
1. 词性和句子成分的划分：英语单词可以根据其在句子中的作用被分为名词、动词、形容词等词性。
句子成分也可以被划分为主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语等。
2. 语句的结构：英语句子可以按照结构被分为简单句、并列句、复合句等。
简单句由一个主语和一个谓语构成；并列句由两个或多个简单句通过连接词连接而成；复合句由一个主句和一个或多个从句构成。
3. 语序规则：英语中有一定的语序规则，主语通常放在句子的前面，而定语、宾语等成分通常放在主语或谓语的后面，从而构成正确的语序结构。
4. 句型的变化：英语句子的结构和语法可以通过一定的变化形成不同的句型，例如疑问句、感叹句、条件句等。
通过学习英语句法学，我们可以掌握英语语言的基本结构和规则，进而提高自己的英语水平，更加准确有效地表达自己的意思。
英语语言学复习资料
英语语言学复习资料一：名词解释1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Linguistics(语言学) is generally defined as the scientific study of language.3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学)The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.7. Syntax(句法学) then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics.9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.10. Phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.11. Phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.12. Allophones(音位变体) the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones.13. IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.14. Diacritics(变音符) it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.15. broad transcription(宽式标音) one is the transcription with letter-symbols only.16. narrow transcription(严式标音) the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.17. open class words(开放类词) In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes. 18. closed class words(封闭类词) In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words arenot usually added to them.19. Morpheme(词素) the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.20. bound morpheme(黏着词素) morphemes which occurs only before other morphemes. They cannot be used alone.21. free morpheme(自由词素) it is the morphemes which can be used alone.22. suprasegmental features(超音段特征) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.23. Category(畴) it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.24. Phrases(短语) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases.二：简答题1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学.2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？)Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Languageis human-specific.3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)Language exists in time and changes through time. The description ofa language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？)Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught late r when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised” record of speech.5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on.6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？) Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize,maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？) Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive. 8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？)Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统. 9. Competence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？) Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledgein linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10. Organs of speech (发音器官)Pharyngeal cavity—the throat, oral cavity—the mouth, nasal cavity—the nose. 11. Word-level categories(决定词畴的三个标准) To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.三：问题回答1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规则)sequential rules(序列规则)；assimilation rule (同化规则) ；deletion rule(省略规则)。
英语专业考研语言学复习资料句法学
Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure oflanguage, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order,with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rulesthat comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is nolimit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinatingthe other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixedand new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonlyrecognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct objectusually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete listof words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon,generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmativeto interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subjectand a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16.? A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises anumber of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedesthe predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase andwhich says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which isincorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normallycalled an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new wordsare constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a caserecipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C_____condition explains the fact that noun phrases appearonly in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25.? A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26.? A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word thatintroduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.27.? A. recursive B. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A.? how words and phrases form sentences.B.?? what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC.? how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD.? All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________. ????? A.? transformational rulesB.?? generative rulesC.? phrase structure rulesD.? x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A.?? noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B.?? noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC.?? noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD.?? noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical ?32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite ?33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to formgrammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structure ?IV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43.? What are the basic components of a sentence?44.? What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45.? Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46.? What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentencestructures?47.? What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I.? Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms:35.? syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentencestructure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36.? Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and apredicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37.? coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joinedby a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38.? syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntacticcategory usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relationsof constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all humanlanguages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules thattransform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation thatexists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure. V. Answer the following questions:43.? What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44.? What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.45.? Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficialsyntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.。
英语专业考研语言学复习资料句法学word精品
Chapter 4 ：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language,including the combination of morphemes into words.2. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composedof sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order,with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntacticrules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a languagespeaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but thereis no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able toproduce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinatingthe other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed andnew members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognizedand discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliaryphrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usuallyfollows the verb.11. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list ofwords and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon,generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative tointerrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s _______ sentence consists of a single clause which contains asubject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s _______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprisesa number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s ____ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usuallyprecedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and whichsays something about the subject is grammatically called p .19. A c _______ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whichis incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normallycalled an e ______________ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words areconstantly added.22. A ___ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor anda case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P _____ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principlesto operate in one wayor another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C ___ c ondition explains the fact that noun phrasesappear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered _______ when it does not conform to thegrammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embeddedclause refers to the introductory wordthat introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have __ properties.27. A. recursive B. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand ___________________ .A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally calledA. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that _______ .A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ______ .A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ___ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ______ rules are the rules that group words and phrases toform grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34. ______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules 42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentencestructures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure oflanguage. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to becombined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question orcommand. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and apredicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by alinking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic categoryusually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called aphrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations ofconstituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the wayeach noun phrase in the sentence relates to theverb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what towhom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all humanlanguages, syntactic rules comprise the system ofintern alized lin guistic kno wledge of a Ian guage speaker known aslin guistic compete nee.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules thattran sform one sentence type into ano ther type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representationthat exists before moveme nt takes place. Phrase structure rules,with the in serti on of the lexic on, gen erate senten ces at the levelof D-structure.V. An swer the follow ing questi ons:43. What are the basic comp onents of a senten ce?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate whichcontains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of senten ces? Illustrate them with examples.Traditio nally, there are three major types of senten ces. They are simplesentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simplesentence consists of a single clause which contains a subjectand a predicate and sta nds alone as its own senten ce, for example:Joh n reads exte nsively.A coordi nate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coord in ati ng conjun cti on, such as "an d", "but", "or". Forexample:Joh n is read ing a lin guistic book, and Mary is prepari ngfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do nothave equal status, one is subordi nate to the other. For example:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence isuttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after ano ther in a seque nee. A closer exam in ati on of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequenee of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. I n fact, sen ten ces are alsohierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of thesamesyntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a lin ear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural con stitue nts.It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it isbelieved to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. NP VPDetVt NPDetThe boy likes the mus|c. tree diagrams in the an alysis of 46. What are the adva ntages of using47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NPmovementinvolves the movementof a noun phrase. NP-movementoccurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B) . The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movementof the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to theleft.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.。
语言学第四章句法学考研真题
Chapter Four: SyntaxI 名词解释1.（上海外国语大学2000年考题）deep structure考点分析：考查深层结构的定义Answer: Deep structure refers to the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.2. (中山大学2004，吉林大学2000年考题) category考点分析：范畴的定义Answer: The term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in a narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc. 3. (华南理工大学2004年考题)constituent考点分析：考查成分的定义Answer: Constituent refers to a component element of a sentence.4. (中山大学2003年考题)immediate constituent analysis考点分析：考查直接成分分析法.Answer: Immediate constituent analysis is the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.5. (南开大学2003年考题)endocentric construction考点分析：向心结构的定义Answer: Endocentric construction one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It is also known as a headed construction.6. (南开大学2001年考题) exocentric construction考点分析：离心结构的定义Answer: “Exocentric construction”, the opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole to the whole group; that is to say, there is no definable center or head inside the group.7.（武汉大学2003年考题）transformational roles考点分析：转换规则的定义Answer: In Noam Chomsky’s Transformational Grammar, transformational rules are those rules which change the deep structures generated by the phrase structure component into surface structures. A transformational rule consists of a sequence of symbols which is rewritten as another sequence according to certain convention.II 填空题1. (中山大学2003年考题）The category of ____ is prominent in the grammar of Latin, with sixdistinctions of nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative and ablative考点分析：考查格范畴在拉丁语中的特点Answer: case2. (中山大学2003年考题)____ construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase,predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction.考点分析：考查哪些短语属于离心结构Answer: Exocentric3. (电子科技大学2002年考题)In the construction of the phrase “the girl”, the immed iateconstituents of it are _____.考点分析：直接成分及成分名称Answer: the determiner plus the noun phrase4. (苏州大学1997 年考题)Transformational rules are those which relate or transform ____ of a sentence into ____考点分析：转换规则的作用Answer: deep structure; surface structureIII 选择题1.（北京第二外国语学院2004 年考题）____refers to the relations holding between elementsreplaceable with each other at particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.a. Syntagmatic relationb. Paradigmatic relationc. Co-occurrence relation考点分析：考查对横，纵组合关系定义的掌握Answer: b2. (东南大学2002年考题)According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, ____contain all theinformation necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.a. deep structureb. surface structurec. transformational rulesd. PS-rules考点分析：乔姆斯基标准理论中的观点Answer: aIV 问答题1.（北京第二外国语学院2004年考题）Distinguish the two pos sible meanings of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysis.考点分析：用直接成分分析法分析有歧义词组的结构Answer:more beautiful flowers more beautiful flowersAdj. Adj. N Adv. Adj. NNP2. (北京第二外国语大学200年考题) Tell is each of the following is endocentric or exocentric construction.1. take a break2. an extremely difficult book3. ladies and gentlemen4. at present5. swimming in the lake考点分析：分析短语属于离心结构还是向心结构Answer: 1. exocentric 2. endocentric 3. endocentric 4. exocentric 5. endocentric 3.（东南大学2001年考题）Explain and exemplify the following PS rules:NP → (D) N (S)AUX →t (M) (have-en) (being)考点分析：考查对某一短语结构的描述Answer:1) The first rule means that a noun phrase can be written as a determiner plus a noun, and may then be followed by a sentence. For example, a) the man who came to see me last night and b) Michael, who had never been there before.2) The second rule means that an auxiliary can be represented by a number of ways. An auxiliary should contain tense element (t) and a modal verb (M), or a past perfect tense (have-en), or be plus an ing of a verb. E.g.Aux --- t (M): May I read your paper?Aux --- t (have-en): Have you finished your paper?Aux --- t (being): Are you reading your paper?4.(大连外国语学院2001，2002年考题)Produce surface structures from the following deep structures without going through the process of transformations.1) Neg she past work last week2) Tag you past meet him3) policemen past be + en beat John4) Q the professor pres be angry SOME REASON5) Q he past do SOMETHING6) Imp you pres will wash you7) [Neg Mary past go to the bookstore] [Neg Lisa past go to the bookstore]8) the girl [the girl pres be beautiful] pres be from China考点分析：讲深层结构转换为表层结构Answer:1) She didn’t work last week2) Y ou me t him, didn’t you?3) The policemen were beaten by John4) Why is the professor angry?5) What did he do?6) Wash yourself7) Mary didn’t go to the bookstore. Lisa didn’t go to the bookstore either8) The girl who is beautiful is from China5.(广东外语外贸大学2004年考题)On the basis of the following data, write out the phrase structure rules for adverb phrases and verb phrases.1) John walked slowly2) Tom talked with Jack very quickly3) Alice discussed the matter with her best friend quite early考点分析：实例分析，归纳副词短语和动词短语的结构规则Answer: Adverbs may be preceded by a very tiny class of adverbs, as shown by the above sentences. The class of adverbs in these sentences leads to the following new Phrase Structure rules:AdvP → (Deg) Adv (Deg stands for degree words)VP → V (NP) (VP) (AdvP)6. (苏州大学1997年考题)Draw a tree diagram according to PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:考点分析：用树形图分析句子的深层结构Answer:S∣∣∣NP VP∣∣-∣∣∣∣∣Det NP V NP adv∣∣∣∣∣The student wrote yesterday∣∣Det N∣∣a letter。
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编语言学知识在英语专业八级考试中占有重要地位，是单选题目的重要组成部分，掌握好语言学知识可有效提高专业八级考试成绩。
语言学知识共包括以下六个部分：语言学本质、语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学六个部分，这六部分从学习程度上分别以单词、句子、句群、段落知识依次递进，考生逐一理解掌握，才能打牢语言学基础知识，下面我们开始吧！第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）任意性Arbitratriness双层结构Duality多产性productive移位性Displacemennt文化传播性Cultural Transmission二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main functio n人际功能Interpersonal：establish and maintain their identity行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic语音学Phonetics音位学Phonology形态学Morphology句法学Syntax.语义学Semantics语用学Pragmatics2. 边缘语言学Peripheral:·心理语言学psycho-linguistics·社会语言学socio-linguistics·人类语言学anthropo-linguistics·计算机语言学computer-linguistics四、语言学中几对基本概念1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究DescriptivePrescriptive：着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标准语法/语音等，为规定人们如何说话、写作Descriptive：着重于语言中“事实Facts”，目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic3．语言Langue和言语Parole（由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出）Langue：指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system，所有语言使用个体头脑中存储的word-image的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定。
语言学概论第四章笔记句法学
语言学概论第四章笔记句法学Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1．W hat is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.句法学研究语言的句子结构。
该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。
句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。
排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。
合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。
句法是一个规则系统。
2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。
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Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structureof language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linearorder, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntacticrules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge ofa language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but thereis no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that languageare able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, onesubordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss ofgrammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are notfixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonlyrecognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitivephrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct objectusually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a completelist of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of thelexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence fromaffirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains asubject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprisesa number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usuallyprecedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phraseand which says something about the subject is grammatically calledp_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whichis incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause isnormally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that newwords are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor anda case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C_____condition explains the fact that noun phrasesappear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to thegrammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory wordthat introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD.subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.27. A. recursive B. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases toform grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them withexamples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis ofsentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.CaseIII. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies thesentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstractrules that allow words to be combined with other words to formgrammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit thatusually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least asubject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verbphrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as"and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, asyntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexicalcategory) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performsa particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functionalrelations of constituents are called grammatical relations. Thegrammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrasein the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammaticalrelations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of allhuman languages, syntactic rules comprise the system ofinternalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules thattransform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representationthat exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them withexamples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents.It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.。