Chapter 11英语

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MPMS Chapter 11 Organization - Home - My Committees

API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS) Chapter 11Physical Properties Data& Other Volume Correction Factor (VCF) Standards for HydrocarbonsA. Chapter 11.1 - Generalized Crude Oils, Refined Products, and Lubricating OilsChapter 11.1-1980 (Temperature VCFs for Generalized Crude Oils, Refined Products, and Lubricating Oils): Historical; Published in 14 separate volumesChapter 11.1-2004 (Temperature & Pressure VCFs for Generalized Crude Oils, Refined Products and Lube Oils)B. Chapter 11.2 - Light HydrocarbonsChapter 11.2.1-1984 (Compressibility Factors for Hydrocarbons: 0-90°API): Historical: now incorporated into Chapter 11.1-2004Chapter 11.2.1M-1984 (Compressibility Factors for Hydrocarbons: 638-1074 kg/m3): Historical: now incorporated into Chapter 11.1-2004Chapter 11.2.2-1984 (Compressibility Factors for Hydrocarbons: 0.350-0.637 Relative Density and –50°F to 140°F)Chapter 11.2.2M-1986 (Compressibility Factors for Hydrocarbons: 350-637 kg/m3 Density (15°C) and –46°C to 60°C)Chapter 11.2.2A-1984 (Addendum to Correlation of Vapor Pressure Correction for NGL): To be superseded by Chapter 11.2.5Chapter 11.2.3-1984 & 11.2.3M-1984 (Water Calibration of Volumetric Provers): Superseded by 11.4.1 API Publication/GPA TP-25/ASTM Publication (Temperature Correction for the volume of Light Hydrocarbons – Tables 24E and 23E: To be superseded by Chapter 11.2.4Chapter 11.2.4-2005?/GPA TP-27/ASTM Publication (Temperature Correction for the Volume of NGL and LPG – Tables 23E, 24E, 53E, 54E, 59E, 60E): Supersedes TP-25Chapter 11.2.5-2005?/GPA TP-15/ASTM Publication (A Simplified Vapor Pressure Correlation for Commercial NGLs): Supersedes Addendum to Chapter 11.2.2 (11.2.2A)C. Chapter 11.3 - Misc. Hydrocarbon ProductsChapter 11.3.2.1-1974 (Ethylene Density)Chapter 11.3.3.2-1974 (Propylene Compressibility)Chapter 11.3.3 - Ethanol VCF Tables: Under developmentChapter 11.3.4 - Gasohol VCF Tables: Under developmentASTM D1550-94 – (Butadiene Measurement Tables): Not an API standard; only available from ASTM ASTM D2962-97 – (Coal-Tar Pitches Volume-Temperature Correction): Not an API standard; only available from ASTMD. Chapter 11.4 - Reference MaterialsChapter 11.4.1-2004 (Density of Water & Water VCFs for Volumetric Meter Proving)E. Chapter 11.5 - Density/Weight/Volume Intraconversion TablesChapter 11.5.1-2005? (Entry With API Gravity at 60︒F): Under development; Supersedes Volumes XI/XII of Chapter 11.1-1980Chapter 11.5.2-2005? (Entry With Relative Density at 60︒F): Under development; Supersedes Volumes XI/XII of Chapter 11.1-1980Chapter 11.5.3-2005? (Entry With Absolute Density at 15︒C): Under development; Supersedes Volumes XI/XII of Chapter 11.1-1980F. OtherASTM D4311-04 – (Asphalts Volume Correction): Not an API standard; only available from ASTM ASTM D1555-04a – (Industrial Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Cyclohexane Volume Correction): Not an API standard; only available from ASTMNOTE: ASTM D1550 & D2962 are listed in Section C because they come under the jurisdiction of API COMQ/ASTM D02.02, even though they are not, at present, joint API-ASTM Standards. ASTM D4311 & D1555 are listed in Section F because they come under the jurisdiction of other ASTM Committees than D02 [D1555 is the responsibility of ASTM Technical Committee D16A, D4311 is the responsibility of ASTM Technical Committee D04.40].。

chapter11第十一章氧化还原反应

rG rGm RT ln Q
for
rG n F
r Gm
n F
Q
[ 还原型 [氧化型
] ]
还原型
RT ln nF
[ 氧化型] [ 还原型]
RT nF
ln
[氧化型 ] [还原型 ]
当T 298.15K 时 , 将 R 8.314J mol 1 K1 F 96000C mol 1 代入得
整个反应被氧化的元素氧化数升高总数与被还原的元素氧化数降低总数相等。
配平步骤
● 写出未配平的基本反应式，在涉及氧化还原过程的有关原子上方标出氧化值。
● 计算相关原子氧化值上升和下降的数值。 ● 用下降值和上升值分别去除它们的最小公倍数，
即得氧化剂和还原剂的化学计量数。 ● 平衡还原原子和氧化原子之外的其他原子，多数
标况下： Cr2O72- + 3H2 + 8H+ = 2Cr3+ +7H2O
p (-) Pt | H2( ) | H+(1.0mol ·L-1)‖Cr2O72－(1.0mol ·L-1), Cr3+(1.0mol ·L-1), H+(1.0mol ·L-1) | Pt(+)
3－2 电动势 E 和化学反应 G 的关系
➢1. concentration or partial pressure of oxidation or reduction type.
c氧化型
，c还原型
，或
c氧化型 c还原型
，则
奈斯特（Nernst）方程
Electrode reaction ：氧化型＋ n e－
rG n F
rGm n F
沉积 > 溶解

A Christmas Carol 圣诞颂歌 CHAPTER 11

A Christmas Carol 圣诞颂歌CHAPTER 11 A Sad Future 第十一章悲惨的未来Suddenly, Scrooge was not in the shop, but in a dark room. In the room, there was the body of a man on a bed. Scrooge looked at the spirit. Its hand was pointed to the head of the body on the bed. The head was covered. Scrooge wanted to find out whose body it was, but he could not move his hand. Scrooge understood that the man had died because no one had loved him. He had been unloved because there was nothing to love about him. He had been mean and unkind, cold and hard-hearted to everyone. And now in death, no one cared. 突然，斯克罗吉不在商店里，而是在一间黑屋子里。

在房间里，床上有一具男人的尸体。

斯克罗吉看着幽灵。

它的手指向了躺在床上的尸体的头部。

头被盖住了。

斯克罗吉想知道那是谁的尸体，但他的手动不了。

斯克罗吉明白这个人死了是因为没有人爱他。

他没有被爱是因为他身上没有什么值得爱的东西。

他对每个人都刻薄、无情、冷酷。

现在死了，也没人在乎。

“Spirit!” he said, “This is a fearful place. When we leave it,I will not forget its lesson, believe me. Let us go!” Still the spirit pointed to the head. “I understand you,” Scrooge returned, “and I would look at it if could, but I cannot. If there is any person in the town who feels sad because of this man’s death,” he added, “show that person to me, Spirit, I beg you!”“幽灵!他说，“这是一个可怕的地方。

语言学常用术语英汉对照表

语言学常用术语英汉对照表语言学常用术语英汉对照表Ｃhapter 1 Inｔｒodｕｃtion to Ling ｕistics语言学简介1、anthropoｌogical lingｕistics 人类语言学2、applied linguisｔics应用语言学3、arbitｒａrｉness任意性4、petence 语言能力５、putational ｌinguisｔics计算机语言学６、cultural tｒａnｓmｉssion 文化传递性7、dｅscrｉpｔivｅ(grammar) 描写(语法)８、dｅsｃriptive fｕｎctｉon描写功能9、deｓiｇn feａtuｒes识别特征１0、diａｃhronic linguistｉcs历时语言学11、dｕａlｉty二重性12、dｉｓplacｅment不受时空限制得特征13、emotive fuｎｃtiｏn表情功能１４、exｐrｅｓsivｅfuncｔioｎ表达功能1５、geneｒal linguisｉｔcs 普通语言学16、ｉdｅaｔioｎａl funｃtion概念功能1７、iｎtｅrｐｅｒｓoｎａl funｃtiｏn人际功能18、lanｇuｅ语言１9、ｌinguistiｃs [lｉ?'gwｉstｉks] 语言学２0、morphｏlｏgy 形态学２１、mａthemａtical lingｕistｉcs 数理语言学22、ｍetaliｎguistｉc fuｎcｔion23、neｕrologｉcaｌliｎｇｕｉsｔics 神经语言学24、ｐhonetｉcｓ语音学25、pｈonolｏgy 音系学2６、pragmaｔics 语用学2７、prｅscriptiｖｅ(grａmｍａｒ）规定(语法) 2８、ｐsychｏlｉnguｉsｔicｓ心理语言学２9、paｒole言语3０、ｐerformance语言运用31、pｒodｕctivｉty能产性32、pｏetic funｃtioｎ诗学功能3３、phatic mｕniｏn 交感性谈话34、reｆerentｉal fｕncｔion所指功能35、semanｔiｃs语义学3６、ｓｏciａl functiｏｎ社会功能37、socio-ｌiｎguistics 社会语言学３８、synchｒoniｃlingｕistiｃs共时语言学39、syntax句法学40、textｕal funcｔiｏn语篇功能41、Tｒaｄiｔional Gｒamｍar传统语法Chapｔer 2 Phoｎｏlｏｇy 音系学1、ａcouｓtｉcｐhonｅtics声学语音学2、ａrticｕlatｏｒy pｈonetｉｃs发音语音学３、affricate破擦音4、aｌlｏpｈonｅ音位变体5、aｌveolａr齿龈音6、aｕditoｒy pｈonetｉｃs听觉语音学7、ａsｐｉｒaｔiｏn送气８、assｉmｉlatioｎrules同化现象9、bａck vowel后元音１0、ｂilabｉal双唇音1１、broad tranｓcriptiｏn宽式音标１2、central voweｌ中元音13、clｏse vowel闭元音14、ｐlemeｎtaｒｙdｉstriｂｕtioｎ互补分布15、ｄｅlｅtｉon rｕles省略规则16、deｎtaｌ齿音17、diｐhthｏnｇ双元音１8、friｃative摩擦音1９、ｆront vowｅl前元音２0、gliｄe滑音21、glｏｔtal声门音22、hard palate硬腭２３、InteｒnａtionａlＰhonetｉcs Ａｌpｈabｅt国际音标24、intoｎation语调２5、labｉｏdenｔaｌ唇齿音26、liquid流音２7、mａnner oｆartｉｃｕｌａｔｉon发音方式28、ｍinｉmal pａir 最小对立体2９、mｉｎｉmaｌseｔ最小对立组３0、mｏnｏpｈtｈong单元音３1、narｒow trａnscription严式音标32、nasaｌ鼻音3３、nａsaｌcaｖity鼻腔3４、open ｖｏｗｅl开元音35、oral caｖｉty口腔３6、ｐalatal硬腭37、ｐｈａryngeaｌcａvity咽腔3８、plaｃe of artｉcｕlatiｏｎ发音部位39、phoｎｅ因素4０、phｏnｅｍe音素41、phｏnemic ｃoｎtｒast音位对立42、rounded vowel元唇元音43、seｍi－ｃlose vowel半闭元音4４、semi－ｏpenｖoｗel半开元音45、ｓｅquｅｎtial ｒuｌes序列规则４６、segment切分成分4７、ｓegmenｔation切分４8、soft paｌate软腭49、stop塞音50、stｒesｓ重音51、suprasegｍentａｌfeaｔuｒes超切分特征5２、teeth riｄgｅ齿龈5３、ｔoｎe声调5４、unrounｄed ｖoｗeｌ非圆唇元音５5、uｖuｌa小舌56、veｌaｒ软腭音５7、vｅｌｕｍ软腭58、ｖoicｉnｇ浊音化Ｃhａpter 3 Ｍoｒpｈology 形态学１、affiｘ词缀2、allomorpｈ语素变体3、ｂasｅ词基4、bound morphｅmｅ黏着语素5、ｌexｉcｏｎ词汇6、closed clａｓsｗoｒｄs封闭词类7、pound ｗords 合成词８、derivａtion派生;派生过程9、ｄerivationａl morphｅm派生语素１０、free moｒpｈeｍe自由语素11、inｆlectiｏnalｍorphemｅ屈折语素12、infinitｉｖe markｅr不定式标记１３、morph形素14、moｒpｈoｌｏgical rｕｌes形态规则15、open clasｓwｏrdｓ开放词类1６、root词根１7、sｔeｍ词干Chapter 4Synｔax 句法学１、ａuｘiliary助动词2、caｔegory范畴3、plement补足语;补充成分4、pｌｅment clause补足分句5、ｃｏordｉnaｔioｎruｌe并列规则6、cｏordinａｔe struｃtｕre并列结构7、deep stｒuctｕre深层结构8、deterｍiｎer限定词９、head中心词1０、head movemｅnt中心词移位11、insertion插入１2、inverｓｉon倒装1３、ｍajoｒlexiｃal categｏries主要词汇范畴14、matrｉx clａuse主句15、minor lｅxiｃａl categories次要词汇范畴16、phrase stｒuｃturｅ短语结构1７、mｏｄifier修饰成分18、ｑｕalifier后置修饰成分19、ｓpecifiｅr标志语20、sｕbcategoｒizａtion次范畴化21、surfaｃe struｃture表层结构２2、sｙnｔactic category句法范畴２３、trace语迹2４、trａnｓfoｒｍation转换Chapｔeｒ５Seｍａnｔiｃｓ语义学1、antonｙmy反义现象2、ａrgumenｔ谓元；变元3、behａｖiorism行为主义4、co－hypoｎym并列下义词5、colloｃationaｌｓynｏｎym搭配同义词6、ｐlｅmenｔａrｙaｎtoｎyｍ互补反义词7、ｐletｅhｏmｏnｙm完全同形异义词8、pｏｎentiａl analyｓｉs成分分析9、coｎceptualist ｖｉew概念论１０、ｃonｔexｔuａlism语境主义11、ｃontradiｔioｎ自相矛盾得说法1２、ｄｉalectal syｎｏｎym方言同义词1３、emoｔｉｖe ｍｅaｎing情感意义１4、entailｍeｎt蕴含15、eｖａluatｉve mｅaninｇ评价意义1６、graｄable antonym层级反义词１７、homogrａph同形异义词１8、ｈoｍonyｍy同音同形异义关系19、homophonｅ同音异义词20、ｈｙpｏnｙm下义词21、hｙｐonymｙ下义关系22、inｃoｎsｉsteｎcy自相矛盾２3、ｐolｙｓemy多义关系２４、polysymous word多义词25、ｐresuｐｐｏsitｉoｎ预设26、predicatｉｏn anａlysis述谓分析27、predicａtｅ谓词28、nａminｇtheｏry命名论２9、nｏ－plａce preｄicaitoｎ空位述谓解耦股３０、one－ｐlacｅprediｃａtiｏn一位述谓结构31、referencｅ（所指）语义32、referｅnt所指物;所指对象3３、ｒｅlａtiｏｎal opｐosｉｔe关系反义词34、semantic trｉanｇle语义三角35、sense意义３６、sｔyｌｉstic syｎonym语体同义词37、suｐｅｒorｄｉnatｅ上坐标词3８、sｙmboｌ符号3９、ｓynonyｍ同义词40、synonymy同义关系4１、ｔwo-plaｃe prｅdiｃaiton二位述谓结构42、tｈree-plａｃe predｉｃaｔion三位述谓结构Chaｐteｒ6 Prａgmａtics语用学１、mｉｓｓives承诺类２、CｏｏpｅrativeＰrinciple合作原则3、cｏnstatives述事话语４、conｔexｔ语境5、cｏnventioｎａl impｌicaturｅ规约含义６、ｄecｌaｒationｓ宣告类７、direｃｔives指令类8、ｅxpressｉves表情类9、ｉllocｕtｉoｎarｙacｔ言外功能10、illｏcｕｔiｏnary ｐoiｎt言外之得1１、impｌicature蕴含；含义;会话含义；言外之意１２、inｄirecｔsｐeech ａｃt间接言语行为１３、ｌocuｔioｎary act言内行为1４、maxiｍofｒｅlation关系准则1５、mａｘimｏf manner方式准则16、mａxim of quality质准则１7、maｘiｍoｆquantity量准则18、particｕlariｚed cｏｎveｒｓａtiｏｎal ｉmpｌicatuｒe特殊会话含义１9、pｅｒfomatives行事话语20、perｌｏcutiｏnarｙact言后行为21、ｐreｓupｐoｓｉｔiｏｎ前提2２、prｉmaｒｙspeecｈact 主要言语行为23、represenｔatiｖes表述类24、secondary speecｈacｔ次要言语行为25、sentｅnｃe ｍeａniｎg句子意义26、ｓpeｅcｈacｔtheorｙ言语行为理论27、ｕｔterance meanｉng话语意义Chaｐｔｅr 7 LangｕaｇｅChaｎｇe语言变化1、acronｙｍｓ词首字母缩略词2、back-formatiｏn 逆成法3、bleｎdｉng混成法4、borrowｉｎg借词5、cｌipped ｗoｒｄs截略词6、coiｎagｅ创新词7、functionaｌshift功能性变化8、histoｒical ｌinguistics历史语言学９、MｉdｄleＥnｇｌisｈ中世纪英语10、Modern English现代英语1１、mｏrpｈologiｃalｃhange形态变化１２、neｇation rule否定规则13、Ｏｌd Eｎglｉｓh古英语１4、pｈonｏlｏｇical ｃｈaｎｇｅ音位变化15、seｍantic cｈange语义变化16、semａntｉｃshift语义转移17、syntａcｔｉc cｈａngｅ句法变化Cｈapter 8 Languageａｎd socieｔy语言与社会1、bilｉngｕaliｓm双语制2、Bｌack Englｉsｈ黑人英语3、creolｅ克里奥尔语４、diｇloｓsia双语；双言制５、eｔhnｉc dｉalect种族变体６、fｉｅld of ｄｉｓcouｒｓe语场7、gｅndｅr性别8、ｉｄioleｃt个人变体９、mode oｆdｉscourse语式10、mulｔilinguａｌism多语制11、pidｇiｎ洋泾浜语12、rｅgiｏｎaｌｄiａｌect地域方言13、rｅgｉsｔer语域14、sociｏlｅｃt社会变体15、speecｈmunｉtｙ言语社团１６、sｐeｅch vaｒiety言语变体17、ｔeｎor of disｃoｕｒｓe语旨Chａpter ９Laｎｇuage ａnｄcultｕre语言与社会1、ａccｕｌturａtion 同化过程2、amａｌgamation混合3、ａssimｉｌatioｎ同化(现象);同化(作用)4、connoｔａtivｅｍｅaｎing内涵意义５、colｏur words颜色词6、culturaｌoverｌａｐ文化重叠7、culturaｌｉmｐerｉalisｍ文化帝国主义８、denotaｔiｖe meanｉnｇ外延意义9、ｌingｕｉsｔｉc ｒelatiｖity语言相对性１0、ｍeｔａｐhor隐喻1１、Sａｐir-Ｗhorf Hypoｔhesis萨丕尔——沃尔夫假说12、ｓocｉalizatｉｏn社会化13、ｔabｏo禁忌语1４、inｔeｒｃulｔural municaｔioｎ跨文化交际15、linguisｔiｃｉmpｅrialiｓm语言学中得帝国主义16、ｌiｎguｉstｉcｎaｔionaliｓm语言学中得民族主义Chapter 10 Ｌangｕａge aｃquisiｔｉoｎ语言习得1、ａphasｉa失语症2、ｂeｈａviｏrｉst 行为主义者3、caretaｋer ｔalk保姆式语言4、cogniｔivｅｌiｎｇuｉsticｓ认知语言学５、ｃoｎｔeｎt worｄ实词6、Critical ＰｅrioｄＨypotｈｅsis临界期假说7、ｄｙｓｇrａphia书写困难８、dyslexｉa失读症9、ｆeｅdback反馈１０、fuｎｃtion eleｍent起功能作用成分1１、ｈｅaring impaｉｒment听力受损1２、innaｔist语法天生主义者１3、iｎterａctiｏnist互动主义者1４、LanguａgｅＡcquｉsｉｔiｏn Ｄｅviｃe语言习得机制15、lexicaｌcontrasｔ词汇对比16、mentａl retａrdation智障1７、mothｅreｓe保姆式语言18、over－extｅnsiｏn过度扩展19、ｐｒototｙpe theorｙ原型理论2０、recast修正性重复２1、stｕtterｉng口吃22、ｔeleｇｒaphｉc speecｈ电报式言语23、under-extensｉon扩展不足2４、Uｎｉｖeｒｓａl Grammar普遍语法Ｃhapter 1１Ｓecond ｌanguagｅacquiｓitｉon第二语言习得１、affｅct/ｓocial ｓtratｅgieｓ社会策略2、ａgｅｏｆacqｕiｓｉtion习得年龄3、cognｉｔivｅstｒaｔegｉｅs认知策略4、pｒehｅnsiblｅｉnｐｕt可理解性输入5、Consｔrａstive Aｎaｌｙsis对比分析6、cｒosｓ-aｓsociatioｎ互相联想7、Erｒor Aｎａlysiｓ错误分析8、foｒｅｉｇn laｎguage外语9、foreｉgner talk外国人谈话1０、ｆossiliｚａtion语言石化(现象)１1、Input Hｙｐothesiｓ输入假说12、ｉnstrumental moｔiｖatｉｏｎ工具动机１3、intａke 纳入14、inteｇratｉvｅmoｔivation综合动机15、inteｒference干扰１6、iｎterlaｎguａｇｅ中介语17、ｉｎterlinguａl ｅｒｒors语际错误;受母语影响得错误18、Ｉntraｌiｎguａl eｒror语内错误1９、ｉｎtrinsic motivaｔion内在动机２0、ｉnｔｕiｔion知觉;语感２1、learｎeｒｌaｎｇｕage学习者语言22、learｎing ｓtrategieｓ学习策略23、languａge aｐtitude语言能力２4、lanｇｕａgeｔransｆｅｒ语言迁移2５、meｔacogｎitiｖe strａtｅｇｉes元认知策略26、mｏtivatｉon动机２7、moｄifｉed iｎput修改后得输入２８、ｍodifiｅd ｉntｅｒaction变化性得互动2９、negatｉve traｎsfer消极迁移;负迁移３0、ｏveｒgeneralizaｔion概括过头31、personaｌitｙ人格;性格;个性3２、positｉve transfer积极迁移；正迁移33、ｒｅｓｕlｔaｔｉｖｅmoｔivation结果动机34、secoｎｄlanguage第二语言35、seconｄlanguage acｑｕiｓiｔioｎ第二语言习得36、teacher talk教师谈话37、target languａge目标语Ｃｈａpter 12Language and tｈe brain 语言与大脑１、aｃquired dysgrapｈia习得性书写障碍2、ａcqｕiｒｅd dｙｓｌexｉa习得性失读症3、angular gyrｕｓ隅骨4、auｔopsy stｕdies尸检研究5、braｉn stｅｍ脑干6、Ｂroｃa’s aphasia布罗卡失语症7、Ｂrｏca’s area布罗卡区8、ｂｏttom-ｕp prｏcｅssinｇ自下而上处理过程ｃerｅbruｍ大脑9、ｃentral ｓulcus中央沟10、ｃerebｅllｕm小脑脑向背侧突出得一个较大得部分,尤与肌肉得共济运动与维持身体平衡有关11、cerebrａl hemisｐhere大脑半球12、cohort modｅl交股模型１3、pｕtarized Ａxial Tomograｐhｙ计算机化轴向层面X射线摄影法1４、corpus(语言)素材15、ｃｏｒpｕｓcａｌlosuｍ胼胝体1６、cｏrｔex大脑皮层17、dｅep dｙslexiａ深层诵读困难18、Diｃhotｉc lｉsｔeniｎg studiｅs双耳分听实验19、eｖeｎt－ｒelaｔed potentｉａl ｅxperiｍent2０、eye movｅｍenｔｅxpｅriment眼动实验21、fissure裂缝;裂隙22、flueｎt apｈasia流利性失语症２3、frontａl lobｅ额叶(大脑半球得前部,其下部位于颅前窝,后界中央沟24、Funcｔiｏnal MＲI功能磁共振成像25、garden path sentence花园路径句26、global ａpｈasia整体性失语症２7、gyruｓ回2８、hieｒａｒｃhiｃal strｕｃtｕre层级结构29、late closure ｐrincｉpｌe后封闭原则;晚封闭原则30、lateral fisｓurｅ侧脑裂31、lａｔｅrａliｚａtiｏn侧化32、leｓion损害33、lexｉcaｌdｅciｓion词汇判断;词汇确定法3４、lｏbes叶,身体器官得由表面得沟裂分出得部分３５、lｏngiｔuｄinaｌfissurｅ纵裂36、MagnetｉｃResonａｎce Iｍａｇing磁共振成像37、neｕｒon神经细胞,神经元3８、mｉnimaｌａｔｔachment priｎｃiｐle最低限度结合原则３９、modｕle模块；组块40、non－flueｎt ａpｈasiａ失语症４1、oｃcipｉtal lobe枕叶大脑半球得后叶,呈三面得锥形, 与前方得顶叶与下方得颞叶没有明显得界限４2、ｐａrietal ｌobe顶叶Pｏsitron emiｓsｉon Toｍｏｇｒa ｐhy正电子发射X射线层析照相术;计算机辅助正电子发射断层扫描技术43、phoｌogicaｌdyｓｌeｘｉa拼音性失读症４4、primiｎg启动45、primiｎg eｆｆeｃt启动效应46、ｐｒiming eｘpeｒiment启动实验４7、right eaｒadvantａgｅ右耳优势;右耳听力强48、ｓelｅctional restｒictｉoｎ选择限制49、sentencｅａｍbiguiｔy句子歧义５０、“Sｏdｉｕm Ａmyｓtaｌ“Ｔest阿米妥纳实验Spoone ｒiｓｍ斯本内现象51、spliｔbrain ｓtudｉｅs裂脑研究52、sｕｌｃｕs沟53、suｒface dyｓlexia浅层诵读困难54、syntａｃtic pａrｓer句法处理器55、tｅｍpoｒａｌlobe颞叶56、ｔimed-ｒeａding ｅxｐeｒiment限时阅读实验57、top-dｏｗn ｐrocｅsｓinｇ自上而下处理过程58、Werniｃke’s apｈａsia韦尼克失语症。

英语国家概况其它国家部分

Chapter 11 爱尔兰共和国Geography and History 地理与历史1.the Great Famine Chapter 11The Great Famine refers to the disaster that happened in the mid 19th century in Ireland. The year 1845, when the Great Famine began , marked the end of one era and the beginning of another in the social history of Ireland. As the result of this disaster , the population reduced 19.5% and shrank to 6.6 million . And many people left Ireland during and after the Great Famine. It was one of the reasons that Ireland suffered a Great Famine.2.Geographical FeaturesThe British Isles are made up of two large islands and hundreds of small ones. The two large islands are Great Britain and Ireland. Ireland is also called the Emerald Isle because of its rich green countryside. Ireland is divided into two political units. They are Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Northern Island is part of the United Kingdom. The Republic of Ireland (Eire) is an independent country.The Republic of Ireland covers an area of 70, 282 sq. km. It is bounded on the northeast by Northern Ireland, on the east and southeast by the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel and on the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean. The countrys total boundary is 3, 603 km long, of which its land border with Northern Ireland is 434 km.The capital is Dublin. It is located on Dublin Bay at the mouth of the Liffey River at its confluence with the Dodder River. Dublin is a city of over I million. The other main urban centres are: Cork, Limerick, Gaiway and Waterford. Ireland has been compared to a basin in which a limestone plateau is rimmed by coastal highlands. he principal mountain ranges are the Maurne Mountains, the Wicklow Mountains in the east and the Macgillicuddy's Reeks in the southwest. The highest peaks are Carrantuohill (1, 041 m) and Mount Brandon (953 m) near Killarriey, and Lugnaquilla (926 m), about 64 km. south of Dublin.Variety is the main feature of the lowlands. The Central Lowland is the heart of Ireland. The largest river in Ireland is the Shannon River. It rises in the plateau near Sligo Bay, flows sluggishly over the western part of the lowland and then fills Lough Derg before beginning its final flow through rapids to its estuary.there are only 1,300 species of plants in Ireland, as against 2, 300 in Britain. The most common trees in Ireland are oak, ash, elm and birch. Pine is dominant on poorer soils.Bogs remain the most significant feature of Irish landscape.3.Climate and WeatherThe weather of Ireland is described as "mild, moist and changeable." Ireland has excessive rainfall.The Central Lowland: This is the area of the tightest rainfall in Ireland, with two areas that receive less than 762 mm per annum The mean winter temperatures are about 4t to 5t.4.Population and ReligionIn Ireland the basic ethnic stock is Celtic, with an admixture of Norse, French, Norman and English. Ireland has four unusual demographic features: a low birthrate compounded by a century of emigration, a late marriage age (35 for men and 29 for women), an excess of males in the population and a high proportion of bachelors and spinsters of all ages.Together they have reduced Ireland's population by one-half during the past 100 years. The year 1845, when the Great Famine began, marks the end of one era and the beginning of another in the social history of Ireland. The first census of Ireland, in 1821, recorded a population of 6,802,000 and it rose to 8.2 million by 1841. There are two official languages in Ireland. They are Irish (or Gaelic) and English.Ireland is one of the most Catholic countries of Europe. Catholicism is an integral and pervasive influence on national life and en!ture. Missionary work in Ireland was begun by Palladius in 431 AD and by Patrick in 432 AD and Ireland became a centre for the evangelization of other countries, including England. Today 93 % of the Irish population are Roman Catholics. About half the Catholic bishops in the United States are of Irish origin.The Anglican Church of Ireland is the largest non-Catholic denominati5.Historical BackgroundIreland was invaded by a number of Celtic tribes in prehistoric times. The arrival of St. Patrick in AD 432 wasperhaps the most important event in Irish history and transformed the island into a centre of learning and Christian culture.Towards the end of the 8th century the Viking invasions began. However, the Danes were defeated and driven away by Brian Boru in 1014 (battle of Clontarf). In 1170 the Anglo-Saxons invaded Ireland. Tiey gradually gained control of the island. Conflict between the English and the Irish went on for almost 800 years.Irish nationalism became stronger and even more violent in the early decades of the 20th century and climaxed in the Easter Uprising of 1916 in which an Irish Republic was proclaimed. In 1921 the British signed the Anglo-Irish Treaty establishing an Irish Free State with dominion status with a separate government in the Protestant-dominated Northern Ireland.Under Eamon de Valera, who took office in 1932, Ireland kept out of World War 11 to demonstrate its continued displeasure with the British. In 1937, under a new constitution, the Governor-.General was replaced by an elected president and the name of the country was officially changed to Ireland (Eire in Gaelic). In 1948, Ireland voted itself out of the Commonwealth and on April 18, 1949 declared itself a republic.6.Foreign PolicyIt has contributed personnel to U. N. peacekeeping units in the Middle East, New Guinea,, Zaire and Cyprus. Since Albert Reynolds became prime minister in February 1992, both Ireland and Britain have agreed to hold regular meetings to negotiate a peaceful settlement of the problem of Northern Ireland.7.the Easter Uprising of 1916Irish nationalism became stronger and even more violent in the early decades of the 20th century .In 1916 the Easter Uprising broke out and an Irish Republic was proclaimed. War broke out betweem the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the British government (1919-21). In 1921 the British signed the Anglo-Irish Treaty establishing an Irish Free State with dominion status with a separate government in the Protestant-dominated Northern Ireland.8.the Irish Republic Army Chapter 11The Irish Republic Army is an army formed in the Easter Uprising by Irish nationalists against the British rule in 1916. It fought a war with the British government in 1919-1921. It showed its violent opposition to the Anglo-Irish Treaty and a civil war which lasted for one year broke out. The Irish Republic Army continued to demand that the Republic of Ireland should be united with the six countries that form Northern Ireland. It is an illegel organization in Ireland.9.Anglo-Irish TreatyFrom 1918—1921 there was fighting between the irish republican army and the british government. In 1921 the British signed the Anglo-Irish Treaty. The Gritish government agreed to organize a partition of Ireland. The southern part of Ireland gained dominion status as the Irish Free State,while the northern part would remain a part of the United kingdom.Chapter 23 Canada Geography and History 加拿大历史与地理10.Size and location 地理与所处位置Canada is the world's second largest country after Russia. It has a land area of about 10 million square kilometres(9, 976, 186 square kilornetres to be exact). It covers about two fifths of the North American continent. Canada lies to the north of the United States. The 45th parallel marks the boundary between Canada and northern Vermont and New York of the United States. However, most of Canada is north of the 49th parallel. Canada and the United States share a 6, 378 kilometre boundary that has not been fortified for over a hundred years. Every day it is crossed by thousands of travelers.With such a vast territory Canada has a population of only a little over 29 million( 1994). Most of Canada is thinly inhabited. Nearly 89 % of the land has no permanent population. Nearly 80 % of Canadians live in large cities near the border with the United States. 60 % of the population is concentrated between Quebec City and the westernend of Lake Ontario.Toronto, Canada's largest city, has a population of over 3. 4 million. Montreal is the second largest city with a population of over 2. 9 million, and the third largest city is Vancouver which has a population of over 1.3 million.11.Topography 地形Canada has an extremely varied topography. In the east the mountainous maritime provinces have an irregular coast line on the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic. The St. Lawrence plain and the interior continental plain are the principal cultivable areas. Westward towards the Pacific, the area is covered by mountain ranges from north to south including the Rockies. The highest peak in Canada is Mount Logan (6, 050 m), which is in the Yukon Territory of northwest Canada.The two principal river systems are the Mackenzie and the St. Lawrence. The St. Lawrence , with its tributaries is navigable for over 3, 058 kilometres.12.Mackenzie River 马更些河Mackenzie River is one of two principal river systems in Canada. It flows between the Canadian Shield and the Rocky Mountains in west Canada. It is the second largest river system of North American.13.Climate 气候The climate throughout Canada is varied and uncomfortable.A humid continental climate can be found from eastern Canada to the Canadian prairie. A maritime climate similar to that of Washington and Oregon states in the United States is found in the southwestern part of British Colombia. North of these regions lie the evergreen forests of the subarctic taiga. In the far north there is a polar climate with a treeless tundra zone.The icy Labrador Current chills the shores of eastern Canada, and winds blowing across Hudson Bay make the interior of the country very cold.Because of the cold climate that exists throughout most of Canada, a major part of the population lives along the southern border.14.Geographical regions 地理区域Canada is made up of ten provinces and two territories. From east to west they can be divided into six geographical regions: Atlantic provinces, St. Lawrence-Great Lakes provinces, the Canadian Shield, Prairie provinces, British Colombia, Northern provinces and territories.(1)Atlantic provinces include New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland. Potatoes grow well there and are particularly important in New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island.Some farming also takes place in the valleys of Nova Scotia, where apples are grown. The climate is milder there because mountains give protection against wind and fog. Dairying and raising animals for fur are other activities engaged by farmers in this region.The irregular coast line on the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic allows for good fishing habours and the Grand Banks, off the eastern shore of Newfoundland, form one of the world's great fishing grounds.The tourist trade is an important part of the region's economy. The rich green mountains and valleys make these provinces some of the most beautiful in Canada.(2)St. Lawrence-Great Lakes provinces include the St. Lawrence Lowlands and the southern part of Quebec and Ontario. This is the most highly developed part of Canada. This area, which is among the mast fertile, was easily accessible to European settlers and is today the most densely populated and industrialized part of Canada.(3)Almost half of Canada is covered by the Canadian Shield.(4)The Prairie Provinces lie west of Ontario. They are Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. This region is the Canadian section of the Great Plains of North America. Much of the southern part of these provinces is made up of great stretches of level and fertile grasslands. It is ideal for growing wheat. The area also contains important deposits of oil, gas, coal and potash.Winnipeg is the chief city of the wheat region. All east-west rail traffic passes through Winnipeg. This important collection and shipping point for the products of the prairie is sometimes called the Chicago ofCanada.(5)The province of British Columbia lies on the Pacific coast of Canada. Vancouver is British Columbia's largest city and the third largest city in Canada. It is an important ice-free harbour and the major canadian outlet to the Pacific Ocean and the largest cargo port on the Pacific.(6)The bare, thinly settled region of northern Canada takes up four fifth of the country.15.the Canadian Shield 加拿大大地盾The Canadian Shield is a semicircular band of rocky highlands and plateaus around Hudson Bay from the northern shores of Quebec to the Arctic shores of the Northwest Territories. It is a region of rounded hills and tens of thousands of lakes and swamps.16.The European discovery 欧洲人的发现The name "Canada" is believed to have come from the native people, the Indians, who used the word "kanata" to describe a settlement. The word was misheard and understood to be the name of the country.The European discovery of Canada can be traced back to the end of the 15th century. Two men are important in the early discovery of Canada. They were John Cabot, an Italian sea captain, and Jacques Cattier, a French navigator from St. Malo, France.John Cabot discovered and claimed Newfoundland and the east coast of Canada in the name of King Henry VII of England in 1497. However, it was Jacques Cartier who in 1535 sailed up the St. Lawrence River as far as what it is today the site of Montreal. While he failed to find the passage to Asia he was seeking, he opened the interior of Canada to French fur traders and later colonizers.Four years later in 1608, Samuel de Champlain, the French explorer established his" habitation"in what now is Quebec City, to lay the roots of French Canada.In 1610, Henry Hudson, the English explorer, gave his name to the huge bay in the centre of Canada and later in 1670 the English Hudson Bay Company was established.Through the seventeenth century the French settled the banks of the St. Lawrence and Nova Scotia or"Arcadia"of Canada's eastern coast, while the English established larger and better settlements in their New England colonies and Virginia.17.the Seven Year s’ War 七年战争By the middle of the 18th century the French in North America realized that they could not avoid a fight to the death with the British and their American colonists. After the Seven Years' War from 1756 to 1763, the French were forced to give up every inch of land in North America and the whole of Canada came under the British rule.18.the Quebec Act of 1774 1774年魁北克法案The British-appointed Governor , Sir Guy Carleton , recongnized the French character of Quebec. This recognition was made official by the Quebec Act of 1774, in which the British Parliament granted the people of Quebec rights as French Canadians. The Act introduced English criminal law but kept French civil law and recognized the right fo Catholic Church.19.Loyalist 忠诚分子The first British settlers in Canada were American refugees who refused to fight against the British army in the War of American Independence ( 1775-1783), because they felt they were more British than American. They called themselves Loyalists.20.British Canada 英国统治下的加拿大By an Act of 1791 Upper Canada (British) and Lower Canada (French)were created. In 1837 a conflict took place between Upper Canada and Lower Canada.So with the Act of Union in 1840, the Upper Canada and Lower Canada were united again, and given internal self-government in 1848.As a result three colonies, already controlling their local affairs, Canada(Quebec and Ontario), New Brunswick and Nova Scotia joined in 1867 in a" Confederaticn", a federal union and was made a dominion in 1867 by the British North America Act.21.Self-government and Confederation 自治政府和联盟制In 1869 Under the first prime minister Sir John Macdonald, Canada bought from the Hudson's Bay Company the vast middle west from which the province of Manitoba ( 1870), and later the other prairie provinces (Saskatchewan and Alberta in 1905) and northern territories were formed.During the years between 1866 and 1896 the country was govened by the Conservative Party, led by Sir John Macdonald except during the years 1873-78. In 1896, the Liberal Party took over and the country was ruled under Sir Wilfrid Laurier, an eminent French Canadian, until 1911.Under Laurier a change also took place in Canada's foreign relations. He founded the Canadian Navy, and tried to increase Canada's control over its foreign relations.22.John Macdonald 约翰·麦克唐纳The first Prime Minister of Canada, John Macdonald let the country buy from the Hudson’s Bay Company the vast middle west ,from which the province of Manitoba and later the other prairie provinces and other territories were formed.23.The Canadian nation 加拿大国By the Statute of Westminster in 1931 the British Dominions, including Canada, were formally declared to be partner nations with Britain and "equal in status, in no way subordinate to each other", and bound together only by their loyalty to a common Crown. Since then Canada became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.In 1949 Newfoundland became Canada's tenth province and in 1959 the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway saw a further growth in Canada's economy.Chapter 27 Australia Land and People 澳大利亚国土与人民24.Introduction 导言Australia is in the southern hemisphere. In other words it lies south of the equator. To the Europeans it is at the other end of the world. That is why Australia is popularly known in the West as "the Land Down Under". Australia is the world's smallest continent with an area of 7.7 million square km.It is the world's sixth largest country after Russia, Canada, China, Brazil and the USA. With a geological history of more than 3 billion years Australia is one of the oldest land masses in the world. Australia is the only continent that contains one country. The highest point is Mount Kosciusko at 2,255 metres above sea level.25.The Geographical Structure 地理结构It is generally divided into three topographical regions—the Great Western Plateau, the Eastern Highlands and the great lowland belt known as the Central Eastern Lowlands.The Outback usually refers to the interior and the centre of the Western Plateau and its northern plains. The Red Centre refers to an area with red-brown and tan soils in the heart of the country.1. The Western Plateau is a vast upland made of ancient rock. It covers almost two thirds of the continent.2. The Eastern Highlands, better known as the Great Dividing Range, follow the eastern coast south from northern Queensland to southern T asmania. The Australian Alps, the highest plateau in Australia, and the Snowy Mountains lie in the southern part. Mount Kosciusko, the highest peak in Australia, is also located there.The Great Dividing Range is Australia's main watershed. Short, swift rivers flow from the Eastern Highlands eastwards into the Pacific Ocean, while long inland rivers that supply water for the fertile lands flow slowly away from the coast. Off the north-eastern coast is a 2,000 km line of coral islands and reefs known as the Great Barrier Reef. The Murray, Australia's longest river(2, 520 km),.forms the major part of the boundary between the states of New South Wales and Victoria before it enters the sea in South Australia.3. The land between the Western Plateau and the Eastern Highlands is a great lowland known as the Central Eastern Lowlands. Lake Eyre is regarded as Australia's largest lake, but it is known as a part-time lake. In 1974 it was filled with water, making the lake 5.7 m deep at its deepest point.This lowland area has the country's richest farmland and best grazing land26.Climate 气候39 % of Australia lies in the tropics and the rest of the continent also has a warm climate. Australia is a dry land. More than half of Australia receives less than 350 mm of rainfall each year. Drought is a fact of life in Australia. There have been nine major droughts since European colonization in 1788. The worst one, which was between 1885 and 1903, affected the whole of Australia.Australia is hot and dry because of the following factors: First, most of Australia ties 20°and 35° south. This is a hot, dry area of the world. Secondly, Australia has few mountains. Mountain areas have cool, wet climates but Australia has few areas like this. Thirdly, the air masses that affect Australia for most of the year are dry, sunny, high pressure cells. Finally, distance from the ocean also affects the weather.27.Plants and Animals 动植物Eucalypts and wattles are drought and fire resistant and grow in poor soils.Kangaroos and emus, the largest native desert animals, can survive in hot conditions, need little moisture arid can travel over long distances in search of food and water. The budgerigar, which is kept as a pet all over the world, can live in desert areas for up to 30 days without water.In Australia about half of the native animals are marsupials. Apart from kangaroos marsupials include koalas, wombats, and possums. Echidnas (spiny ant-eater) and platypus are monotremes.28.Multicultural society 多文化社会Among Australian people , the overwhelming majority are immigrants from over 30 countries, or their descendants. These people have come from other countries with a different way of life, often with different languages, religions, dress, customs, food and sports. In recent years, Australian government have encouraged people with different ethnic backgrounds to keep their own culture, thus, Austalia is known as a multicultural society (multiculturalism).29.People 人民Although Australians are the descendants of many nations, Great Britain has had the greatest influence because Australia was settled as a British colony. The Australian population is still mainly of British descent. There are many aspects of Australian way of life that are British: their language, system of government, the Australian flag, legal system, sports, family and place names and even school system (including school uniforms). Two hundred years after the arrival of the First Fleet, the head of the Australian government is not their Prime Minister, but the Queen of England.Australia is one of the most urbanized countries in the world. 80 % of Australians live in the suburbs of coastal cities and towns, with most of these in the narrow coastal strip between Brisbane and Adelaide. hy are there so few people in Australia? Why do so many people prefer to live in a coastal city or town? The main reason is an envi-ronmental one. The hot, dry environment has also had a great influence on population distributiOn. Since the north and centre of the continent are generally hot and/or dry, 80 % of Australians live in the cooler, wetter south and east. Lack of water, poor soils, heat and distance from the coast discourage people from living there.30.Australia’s Built Environment 澳大利亚的人造环境The environment can be divided into two types—the natural and the built. The natural environment consists of living and non-living features. The built environment refers to those parts of the environment built by people or changed by people.The term "urban sprawl" is used to describe a city that has grown over a large area of land. Urban sprawl occurs because most Australians prefer to live as small family units in their own homes on their own blocks of land, rather than share buildings or land in the form of flats, home units, townhouses or villas.Among the five cities with a population of more than one million, four of them (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide) are located on the eastern coast while one of them (Perth) is on the western coast.About 60 % of the land is used for sheep and cattle grazing on large properties called stations. In the thinlypopulated outback, they have been so successful that Australia has ranked first in the world export of wool. Children learn their lessons through a radio educational system called School of the Air. Lessons are transmitted by radio. Homework is now exchanged by fax. People can also use radio to call doctors who will come by plane. They are called flying doctors.31.Political Divisions 政治区划分Australia is politically divided into six states and two territories.1. New South Wales is located in the south-east of Australia. As the first colony established by Britain in 1788 it is the oldest of the Australian states. That is why it is called the premier state. Sydney, its capital, is the largest city in Australia with a population of 3. 6 million. It is one of the world's great seaports.2. Victoria is in the south-eastern corner of the mainland Australia. It became a colony in 1851. It grew rapidly during the goidrushes of the 1850s. Though the smallest mainland state, Victoria has an importance in the country's economy far greater than its size might indicate. Its economy is based on agricultural and pastoral industries. It produces about a quarter of Australia's rural output. It has a broadly based manufacturing industry and highly developed service industries. Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, is Australia's second largest city - It has a population of3. 1 million. It is also regarded as the cultural and sports centre of Australia. It is also known as the garden state.3.The second largest and youngest state, Queensland, occupies the tropical north-eastern corner of Australia. More than one million live in Brisbane, the capital. Queensland accounts for a fifth of Australia's agricultural and mining production and about a quarter of the value of its exports. Queensland is also called the sunshine state because it has 7. 5 hours of sunshine daily. The sunniest in Australia is Darwin, with 8.4 hours of sunshine daily. Brisbane is the gateway to two of Australia' s major tourist playgrounds, the Gold Coast and the Great Barrier Reef.4. South Australia is the third largest state in Australia. Half of the world's opals are found there. South Australia is also a leader in shipbuilding and lumbering. Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, is internationally known for its arts festival. Every other year, leaders in music, drama, and dance from many parts of the world join Australian artists for a fortnight of cultural events, including jazz, ballet and art exhibitions.5. Western Australia is the biggest Australian state, accounting for one third of the total area of the country, but its population ( about 1.5 million) is only 9% of the country's population. Western Australia is also known as the state of excitement. Perth, the capital city of Western Australia, has more than half the population in the state. Situated on the estuary of the Swan River, Perth is a beautiful city with a perfect climate.6. T asmania is the smallest of the Australian states. It is an island lying south of the south-eastern corner of the Australian mainland. It is the second oldest of the Australian states with a population of about half a million. T asmania is often called the holiday isle. The T asmanian Wilderness which consists of the Cradle Mountain-Lake, St Clair National Park, the Franklin-Lower Gordon Wild Rivers National Pak and the Southwest National Park is on the World Heritage List. Hobart is the capital city of T asmania. It has a deep harbour and a big casino.7. The Northern Territory covers nearly a fifth of the continent. The southern area of the Northern Territory is the famous Red Centre of Australia. It consists of miles and miles of red-sand desert and mountain ranges. Uluru (it used to be called Ayers Rock) has probably Australia's best known national park and the rock itself probably attracts more overseas visitors than any other national scenic feature in Australia. Darwin is the only large city on the entire northern coast of Australia. The city is like a frontier town and often serves as the place of entrance and exit for people who come to visit the area.8. Australian Capital Territory: Shortly after the Australian colonies joined together to form a federation in 1901, it was decided that the new nation should have a new seat of government. So the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), an area of 2, 333 square km, was mapped out of the state of New South Wales to be the site of the national capital. "Canburry" is an Aboriginal word for "meeting place" and from it came the name of the capital, Canberra. Canberra is also called the garden city because of its beautiful layout.32.Flying Doctors 会飞的医生。

chapter11.language acquisition

The one-word or holophrastic stage
Characterized by speech in which single terms are uttered for everyday objects. Already extending their use Most verbs and nouns, infrequent function words
Pre-language stages
Cooing:3months old the first recognizalble sounds with velar consonants such as [k] [g] as well as high vowels such as [i] [u] Babbling:6months old fricatives, nasals, syllable type sounds 9months old recognizable intonation patterns,combination 10-11months old use vocalizations to express emotions and emphasis
Imitation and practice alone cannot explain some of the forms created by children.

Children appear to pick out patterns and then generalize or overgeneralize them to new contexts. They create new forms or new uses of words.
Chapter 11 Language Acquisition

98--商务英语写作-chapter 11-Meeting_Agenda_and_Minutes总结-最终版

A business meeting agenda is a ____ for a business meeting. It ______ elements such as the time, place, and _____ of the meeting, people who ______ the meeting, and the order of the ______ to occur in the meeting.

The structure of a meeting agenda
Reference Name of the sponsor Time of the meeting Title of the meeting Place of the meeting People who will attend the meeting Events in time sequence: Event 1. Event 2. Event N.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Situation: A secretary prepares a meeting agenda for the members of the Board of Directors of Far East Textiles Enterprise Ltd. In the meeting, a report, a price list, recent company progress will be discussed.

Structure analysis:
1. Reference of the agenda 2, 3, 4, 5 Title, people, place, time of the meeting etc. 6. Issues to be discussed in the meeting.

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Victorian Prose: rich and varied
• Thomas Carlyle(1797-1881): a dominant force in Victorian poetry and prose. • All his life he fretted, fumed, lamented, and self-tortured. • He had a sense of mission. He would like to help make his country a morally and spiritually higher and nobler place for man to live.
Thomas Carlyle(1797-1881））
Thomas Carlyle’s most famous works: Sarter Resartus? (tailor retailored) Past and Present The French Revolution On Hero and Hero Worship
A reaction against utilitarianism
As the utilitarianism dominated popular thinking, it provoked a reaction from the major authors of the period such as Carlyle, Tennyson, and Dickens. Carlyle caricatures it as “pig philosophy” in his Latter-Day Pamphlets. p219para2
The Victorian period was on the whole one of transition from the past to the modern times, and one of radical change in values, institutions, and doctrines. p221
The aesthetic Movement against the conservative morality
• When the trend became general and extreme, a reaction, which was the aesthetic movement, set in in the latter part of the century. • Its object was to fight for beauty, beginning with John Ruskin, involving Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Morris, Algernon Charles Swinburne and Walter Pater, and ending with Oscar Wilde. p219para1
Chapter 11 The Victorian Period (1837-1901)
The 2 phases? of the Victorian Period
• 1st phase, from 1832 through mid-19th century: social upheavals such as the passing of the first Reform Bill in 1832 and the Chartist Movement when the workers demanded better chances of survival. • 2nd phase, in 1859 the publication of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution kicked off the whole never-ending argument between science and religion and about the basic nature of man and society and all the related institutions. p216
The wide currency of utilitarianism
• A hedonistic kind of philosophy embraced utility, or “the greatest happiness for the greatest number” as the sanction of morality, and spread the belief that everyone was the best judge of his own interest. • Jeremy Bentham and James Mill set the tone, and John Stuart Mill humanized it sufficiently to ensure its dissemination in the co development of a very conservative kind of morality
• People became prudish (excessively well-behaved，pretending to be ， respectable) and squeamish (easy to be nervous) about life in general and about sex and love in particular. p217para3 • The predominance of the moral aesthetic that proved binding to most Victorian writers required that all write first to moralize and edify. p218para2
The advent of Evolution
The theory of evolution caused a bit moral anxiety, and most of the major writers of the age exhibited some response to it. The Victorians had a very deep faith in progress and a sense of moral earnestness. p220
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873））
Mill’s mostsignificant work: Utilitarianism. Cardinal John Henry Newman(1801-90) became one of the important leaders of the Oxford Movement(1833-45), which reflected the desire of the perplexed Victorians to cling to the old faith in face of doubt and emotional stress.