法律英语翻译
法律英语翻译
若本协议签署之后，中国国家、省、市或地
方政府通过任何新的法律、法规、法令或条例，修 改或废除任何法律、法规、法令或条例的任何条款， 或对任何法律、法规、法令或条例给予不同的解释 或采取不同的实施方法，导致与本协议相冲突，或 对一方在本协议项下的经济利益造成实质性的不利 影响，受到影响的一方经书面通知另一方后，对方 应立即协商并决定是否
as per the relevant provisions of the Contract Law of the People’s Republic of China；
or (ii) to effectuate necessary adjustments in order to preserve each Party’s economic benefit under this Agreement on a basis no less favorable than the economic benefit it would have received if such law, regulation, decree or rule had not been adopted, amended, repealed or so interpreted or implemented.
立法文件（legislative documentation）；
司法文件（judicial documentation）；
律师文书（documents prepared by lawyers）；
法律、法规、条例、规章； 判决、裁定；
合同、协议、律师意见、案例等 等。
“庄重的” (solemn)； “刻板的” (rigid)；
1.结构复杂的长句
If, after the signing of this Agreement, the Chinese government either at the State, provincial, municipal or local level adopts any new law, regulation, decree or rule, amends or repeals any provision of any law, regulation, decree or rule, or adopts any different interpretation or method or implementation of any law, regulation, decree or rule,
法律英语翻译常用词汇及注释
法律词汇:法律翻译常用词汇注释（A-W）AAb initioAb initio是拉丁文，其意思是“自开始之时”或“从头开始”，可以直接翻译为“自始”。
在法律英语中，ab initio的使用频率较高，比较常见。
如：ab initio mundi （有史以来），void ad initio（自始无效）等。
Accordaccord在普通英语中的含义是符合，一致，在法律英语中则表示和解或和解协议，指指债务人和一个债权人达成的、以偿还部分债务免除全部债务责任的协议。
如reach an accord达成和解协议，accord and satisfaction和解与清偿等。
Accused被告Accused通常指刑事案件的被告，民事诉讼的被告称为Defendant；而申索案件中的被索偿的一方称为Respondent（答辩人）。
Acquireacquire在普通英语中的含义是获得，获取，而且通常指通过后天的努力获得。
在法律英语中通常指对公司的购买，收购，我们通常所说的M&A，即是acquire的名词acquisition和merger的缩写。
如The foreign investor has acquired more than 10 PRC domestic enterprises engaging in related industries within a year. 外国投资者一年内并购中国境内关联行业的企业超过10个。
Acquittal罪名不成立。
刑事案件经审讯后，被告罪名不成立被释放，称为“The accused is acquitted”。
Acquittal是名词。
详见民法中和刑法中表达不同意思的“acquit”一文。
Actact在普通英语中的含义是行动，行为，在法律英语中通常理解为作为，与不作为forbear相对应。
如：Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, the Minister may, on the recommendation of the Commission, direct the Commission to act or forbear from。
法律英语翻译-4
•There are two fundamental aspects of the U.S.criminal justice system: the presumption that the defendant is innocent and theburden on the prosecution to prove guilt beyond a reasonabledoubt.•But criminal defendants have other rights：the defendant's right to remain silent, to confront witnesses, to a jury trial, to berepresented by an attorney, to adequate representation, to a speedy trial, not to be placed in double jeopardy.•Give the corresponding translation of each of the following terms:•Guilty verdict•刑事诉讼程序•Double jeopardy•排除合理怀疑•Arraignment•沉默权•V oir dire•快速审判权•Death sentence with a reprieve/ death sentence with a say of execution•诉讼终结•Hearing•无罪推定•Guilty plea•反诉•inquisitorial/accusatorial system •上诉人•bill of prosecution•逮捕令•adversary system•预（初）审•information•证据开示•Put the following terms into Chinese •dismissing an appeal•appeal against conviction•effect of appeal•principal action/ action in chief •private prosecution/oneself action •counter-charge/protest •protestant•complaint/ caption•custody/ detention•defendant•plaintiff•appeal for mercy •instituting prosecution •brief•major case •pending case •defeat suit•hot criminal •evidentiary presumption •release on bail•first appearance •formal charges•pre-sentencing report•Translate the following sentences into Chinese• 1.The prosecution at trial has the duty to prove each and every element of the offense against the defendant beyond a reasonable doubt and that burden may not be shifted to the defendant.• 2. Although the defendant can obtain discovery of any exculpatory evidence, there is generally no right to discover the prosecution's evidence against the defendant. Because of the defendant'sconstitutional right against self-incrimination, the prosecutor has only limited rights of discovery from the defendant.• 3. In United States criminal law, probable cause is the standard by which a police officer has the authority to make an arrest, conducta personal or property search, or to obtain a warrent for arrest. It isalso used to refer to the standard to which a grand jury believes that a crime has been committed.• 4. The person making the statement is swearing that its contents are truthful. It may be in an oral or a written form. This type of statement may be used in various kinds of legal proceedings. The persons making the statement understand that they are doing so under penalty of perjury.•Translate the following articles• 1. 中华人民共和国刑事诉讼法的任务，是保证准确、及时地查明犯罪事实，正确应用法律，惩罚犯罪分子，保障无罪的人不受刑事追究，教育公民自觉遵守法律，积极同犯罪行为作斗争，以维护社会主义法制，保护公民的人身权利、财产权利、民主权利和其他权利，保障社会主义建设事业的顺利进行。
法律英语的词汇特征与相对应的翻译要求
法律英语的词汇特征与相对应的翻译要求
法律英语是一种特殊的语言，具有其独特的词汇特征。
在法律文件中，经常出现一些特定的词汇和短语，这些词汇往往具有严格的法律含义和规范用法。
对法律英语词汇的翻译要求也更为严格和准确。
下面将介绍一些法律英语的词汇特征，并分析相对应的翻译要求。
法律英语的词汇特征还包括频繁使用的法律术语和短语。
在法律文件中，经常出现大量的法律术语和短语，这些术语和短语通常具有特定的规范用法，对翻译人员的专业水平和语言功底提出了较高的要求。
“tort”（侵权行为）、“attorney at law”（执业律师）、“pro bono”（无偿服务）等术语和短语都具有较强的专业性和规范性，翻译时需要准确理解其含义和用法，确保翻译的准确性和规范性。
法律英语的词汇特征还表现为具有复杂的法律逻辑和推理性。
在法律文件中，经常存在大量的复杂、抽象的法律逻辑和推理，需要翻译人员具有较强的逻辑思维能力和分析能力，准确理解和表达法律文本中的逻辑关系和推理过程。
法律判决书中的理由部分、法律条款中的解释部分等都需要翻译人员具有较强的逻辑推理能力和准确的语言表达能力，确保翻译的严谨和准确。
法律英语翻译-3
Criminal LawCriminal Law, branch of law that defines crimes, establishes punishments, and regulates the investigation and prosecution of people accused of committing crimes. Criminal Law includes both substantive law, and criminal procedure, which regulates the implementation and enforcement of substantive criminal law.Give the corresponding translation of each of the following terms.•司法权•writ of certiorari•开庭•Circuit court•求偿法院•petition•仲裁者•felony•上诉法院•conviction•轻罪•legal consequence •严格责任•mistake of fact •未成年人•crime of negligence •民事损害赔偿•material matter •动机•specific intent •犯意•Put the following terms into Chinese:•grading systems•first degree murder•retributive sentence•aggravated assault•peremptory challenges•presumption of innocence•case at bar•case of first impression•verdict of acquittal•verdict of guilty•Translate the following sentences into Chinese• 1. Under Model Penal Code, intent has the meaning as follows: a person acts with intent with respect to a material element when (1)if the element involves the nature of his conduc or a result thereof, it is his conscious object to engage in conduct of that nature or to cause such a result; and (2) if the element involves the attendant circumstances, he is aware of the existence of such circumstances or he believes or hopes that they exist.•根据《标准刑法典》的规定，故意的意思是：当（1）若一个要件含有行为人行为的性质或结果，他的主观目的则是从事该性质的行为或造成该结果；以及（2）若一个要件含有若干伴随情形，他则意识到该等情形的存在并且相信或希望该等情形存在时，一个人的行为构成针对一重要要件的行为意图。
常用法律英语词汇翻译大全：民事法律.doc
常用法律英语词汇翻译大全：民事法律法律渊源source of law 制定法statute 判例法case law; precedent 普通法common law 特别法special law 固有法native law; indigenous law 继受法adopted law 实体法substantial law 程序法procedural law 原则法fundamental law 例外法exception law 司法解释judicial interpretation 习公序良俗public order and moral 自然法natural law 罗马法Roman Law 私法private law 公法public law 民法法系civil law system 英美法系system of Anglo-American law 大陆法系civil law system 普通法common law 大陆法continental law 罗马法系Roman law system 英吉利法English law 衡平法equity; law of equity 教会法ecclesiastical law 寺院法canon law 伊斯兰法Islamic law 民法法律规范norm of civil law 授权规范authorization norm 禁止规范forbidding norm 义务性规范obligatory norm 命令性规范commanding norm 民法基本原则fundamental principles of civil law 平等原则principle of equality 自愿原则principle of free will 公平原则principle of justice 等价有偿原则principle of equal value exchange 诚实信用原则principle of good faith 行为act 作为act 不作为omission 合法行为lawful act 违法行为unlawful act 民事权利权利能力civil right 绝对权absolute right 相对权relative right 优先权right of priority 先买权preemption 原权antecedent right 救济权right of relief 支配权right of dominion 请求权right of claim 物上请求权right of claim for real thing 形成权right of formation 撤销权right of claiming cancellation 否认权right of claimingcancellation 解除权right of renouncement 代位权subrogated right 选择权right of choice 承认权right of admission 终止权right of termination 抗辩权right of defense 一时性抗辩权momentary right of defense 永久性抗辩权permanent counter-argument right 不安抗辩权unstable counter-argument right 同时履行抗辩权defense right of simultaneous performance 既得权tested right 期待权expectant right 专属权exclusive right 非专属权non-exclusive right 人身权利personal right 人权human right 人格权right of personality 生命健康权right of life and health 姓名权right of name 名称权right of name 肖像权right of portraiture 自由权right of freedom 名誉权right reputation 隐私权right of privacy 私生活秘密权right of privacy 贞操权virginity right 身份权right of status 亲权parental power; pa。
法律英语翻译
法律英语翻译-法律英语特点法律英语（Legal English）措辞严谨，句式冗长，结构复杂，甚至一句话能长达一篇文章。
在做好法律英语（Legal English）翻译（translation）之前，清楚认识法律英语（Legal English）的特点（characteristics）至关重要。
同样汉语中的法律用语也同样严谨，结构复杂，清楚的掌握两种语言的法律用语特点（characteristics）在翻译（translation）中会更加有章可循。
法律英语（Legal English）是以英语共同语为基础,在立法和司法等活动中形成和使用的具有法律专业特点（characteristics）的语言。
因此，在法律英语（Legal English）中不仅有众多的具有法律专门意义的特殊词汇（words）,而且由于规定人们权利和义务的法律、法令或契约等法律文书所表述的内容必须准确、严密、客观和规范，不容许丝毫的引伸、推理或抒发和表达感情，因而在法律英语（Legal English）中又形成了许多其特有的句法特点（characteristics），这些词法和句法特点（characteristics）在翻译（translation）过程中必须受到充分重视。
下面我们从词汇（words）、词类使用和句型结构三方面来考察法律英语（Legal English）的文体（style）特点（characteristics）：一、法律英语（Legal English）的文体（style）特点（characteristics）之一：法律英语（Legal English）词汇（words）1.1法律英语（Legal English）用词特点（characteristics）：庄重、规范、书面语较多法律是掌握国家政权的阶级、集团的意志体现,它有鲜明的政策性,权威性。
为了维护法律的严肃性,法律、法规遣词造句力求准确,用词正式,语意严谨。
法律英语 词汇翻译
法律英语词汇翻译案件受理费court acceptance fee案情重大、复杂important and complicated case案由cause of action案子case包揽诉讼monopolize lawsuits被告defendant(用于民事、行政案件); the accused (用于刑事案件)被上诉人appellee被诉人respondent; defendant本案律师councel pro hac vice本地律师local counsel毕业证diploma; graduation certificate辩护词defense; pleadings辩护律师defense lawyer辩护要点point of defense辩护意见submission财产租赁property tenancy裁定书order; ruling; determination（指终审裁定）裁决书award（用于仲裁）裁决书verdict（用于陪审团）采信的证据admitted evidence; established evidence草拟股权转让协议drafting agreement of assignment of equity interests查阅法条source legal provisions产权转让conveyancing出差go on errand; go on a business trip出国深造further study abroad出具律师意见书providing legal opinion出示的证据exhibit出庭appear in court传票summons; subpoena答辩状answer; reply代理词representation代理房地产买卖与转让agency for sale and transfer of real estate代理公证、商标、专利、版权、房地产、工商登记agency for notarization, trademark, patent, copyright, and registration of real estate and incorporations代理仲裁agency for arbitration代写文书drafting of legal instruments待决案件pending case当事人陈述statement of the parties第三人third party吊销执业证revocation of lawyer license调查笔录investigative record调查取证investigation and gathering for evidence调解mediation调解书mediation二审案件case of trial of second instance 发送电子邮件send e-mail法律顾问legal consultants法律意见书legal opinions法律援助legal aid法律咨询legal counseling法庭division; tribunal法学博士学位LL.D (Doctor of Laws)法学会law society法学课程legal courses法学硕士学位LL.M (Master of Laws)法学系faculty of law; department of law 法学学士学位LL.B (Bachelor of Laws) J.D ( juris doctor缩写，美国法学学士)法学院law school法院公告court announcement反诉状counterclaim二审案件case of trial of second instance 发送电子邮件send e-mail法律顾问legal consultants法律意见书legal opinions法律援助legal aid法律咨询legal counseling法庭division; tribunal法学博士学位LL.D (Doctor of Laws)法学会law society法学课程legal courses法学硕士学位LL.M (Master of Laws)法学系faculty of law; department of law法学学士学位LL.B (Bachelor of Laws)J.D ( juris doctor缩写，美国法学学士)法学院law school法院公告court announcement反诉状counterclaim合同审查、草拟、修改contract review, drafting and revision 会见当事人interview a client会见犯罪嫌疑人interview a criminal suspect兼职律师part-time lawyer监狱prison; jail鉴定结论expert conclusion缴纳会费membership dues举证责任burden of proof; onus probandi决定书decision勘验笔录record of request看守所detention house抗诉书protest控告人accuser; complainant跨国诉讼transnational litigation劳动争议labor disputes劳动争议仲裁委员会arbitration committee for labor disputes 劳改场reform-through-labor farm; prison farm利害关系人interested party; party in interest律管处处长director of lawyer control department律师lawyer attorney; attorney at law律师惩戒lawyer discipline律师法Lawyer Law律师费lawyer fee律师函lawyer’s letter律师见证lawyer attestation/authentication律师见证书lawyer certification/authentication/witness律师卷宗lawyer’s docile; file律师刊物lawyer’s journal律师联系电话contact phone number of a lawyer律师事务所law office; law firm律师收费billing by lawyer律师网站lawyer website律师协会National Bar (Lawyer) Association律师协会会员member of Lawyer Association律师协会秘书长secretary general of Bar (Lawyer) Association 律师协会章程Articles of Lawyer Assocition律师业务室lawyer’s office律师执业证lawyer license律师助理assistant lawyer律师资格考试bar exam; lawyer qualification exam律师资格证lawyer qualification certificate民事案件civil case民事调解civil mediation民事诉讼civil litigation派出所local police station; police substation判决judgement(用于民事、行政案件);determination(用于终审);sentence(用于刑事案);verdict(由陪审团作出)旁证circumstantial evidence企业章程articles of association; articles of incorporation; bylaw 企业重组corporate restructure起诉状information; indictment取消律师资格disbar全国律师代表大会National Lawyer Congress缺席宣判pronounce judgement or determination by default人民法院People’s Court人民检察院People’s Procuratorate认定事实determine facts上诉案件case of trial of second instance; appellate case上诉人appellant上诉状petition for appeal涉外律师lawyers specially handling foreign-related matters申请复议administrative reconsideration petition申请加入律师协会application for admission to Law Association 申请人petitioner; claimant申诉案件appeal case申诉人（仲裁）claimant; plaintiff申诉书appeal for revision, petition for revision实习律师apprentice lawyer; lawyer in probation period实习律师证certificate of apprentice lawyer视听证据audio-visual reference material适用法律apply law to facts受害人victim书证documentary evidence司法部Ministry of Justice司法建议书judicial advise司法局Judicial Bureau司法局副局长deputy director of Judicial Bureau司法局局长director of Judicial Bureau司法统一考试uniform judicial exam送达service of process诉讼litigation; action; lawsuit诉讼当事人litigation party; litigious party诉讼业务litigation practice诉状complaint; bill of complaint; statement of claim 推销法律服务promote/market legal service外国律师事务所foreign law office委托代理合同authorized representation contract委托代理人agent ad litem; entrusted agent委托授权书power of attorney物证material evidence嫌疑人criminal suspect项目融资project financing项目谈判project negotiating刑事案件criminal case刑事诉讼criminal litigation行政诉讼administrative litigation休庭adjourn the court; recess宣判pronounce judgement; determination宣誓书affidavit业务进修attendance in advanced studies一审案件case of trial of first instance与国外律师事务所交流communicate with foreign law firms 原告plaintiff证券律师securities lawyer证人证言testimony of witness; affidavit执行笔录execution record执业登记registration for practice执业范围scope of practice; sphere of practice; practice area 执业申请practice application执业证年检annual inspection of lawyer license仲裁arbitration仲裁案件arbitration case仲裁机构arbitration agency专门律师specialized lawyer专职律师professional lawyer; full-time lawyer撰写法律文章write legal thesis资信调查credit standing investigation 自诉案件private prosecuting case。
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Legal English (revised version for the students)Ch.1 The Main Features of Legal English一、法律英语的英译：David Mellinkoff（加州大学洛杉矶分校法学院教授）：《The Language of the Law》19631.legal English---Lawful EnglishLegal parlance（说法、用语）/legal lingo（行话、隐语）/legal jargon（行话、黑话）/legalese( 法律八股文)/language of jurisprudence(法理语言)2. the English Language of the Law or shortened as “the language of the law”3. 法律英语与法学英语二、法律英语的范围：是否凡是涉及法律的英语（词汇、表达方法、句子结构……）都是法律英语？英美法学界所公认的法律英语主要是指普通法国家（common-law countries）的法律人所用的习惯语言（customary language），包括某些词汇、短语，或具有特色的一些表达方法(mode of expressions)。
三、法律英语的主要特点：I. precise or exact (准确)正常情况下，起草法律文件时，用词造句务必十分精准（with great exactness），因为一旦笔者的思想、观点、企图落实成文字，即成为法庭判断是非的重要依据，因为按严格解释原则(principle of strict construction)或唯名论原则(principle of nominalism)，尽管实践中还存在推测意图原则(principle of presumed intent)，但其不占主导地位，书面文字仍然是法官解释法律文件的唯一依据。
实务中鉴于对法律文件中文字的理解不一，也是常有纠纷出现：e.g. The Charter required that directors “shall be elected on a vote of the stockholders representing not less than two-thirds of outstanding capital st ock of the corporation.”甲方理解成：被选上董事的人需三分之二的股东投票赞成(a candidate to be elected needs the votes of two-thirds of the stockholders )乙方则认为：选董事时须有三分之二的股东出席(two-thirds of the stockholders must be present at the meeting at which the election is held)What’s the judge’s opinion?e.g. 一个阿肯色州的美国人临终前写了一个遗嘱，遗嘱写道：The remainder of the testator’s property should be “divided equally between all of our nephews and nieces on my wife’s side and my niece.”问题出在对“between”一词的理解上。
立遗嘱人妻子一边的外甥和外甥女加在一起共有22个。
这句话是指立遗嘱人的遗产的一半归其妻子方的22个外甥和外甥女，另一半归其本人一方的外甥女？还是指将遗产在双方的外甥外甥女中平均分配呢？为达准确之目的，常使用下列招法：1. 使用专门术语（下文有述）2. 重复使用具有绝对含义的词汇，如all , none, perpetuity, never, unavoidable;3. 使用具有绝对限制含义的短语：“and no more”（仅此而已），“shall not constitute a waiver” (不构成对权利的放弃)，“shall not be deemed a consent” （不应视为同意）等此类表达方式；4. 使用含义宽泛的短语，如：“including but not limited to” （包括但不限于），“or other similar or dissimilar cause” （或其他类似或非类似的原因），“shall not be deemed to limit”（不应视为限制），“without prejudice”（不得损害）等。
5. 使用详细的告知条款，如：“on deposit in the United States mail registered and postage prepaid” ( 在美国邮寄挂号函件，邮资预付)。
6. 使用特别定义条款，如：“words in the singular include the plural and vice versa” (单数形式的词汇包括复数，反之亦然) 等表达方式。
7. 反复详细定义法律文件、事实情况、限制性条件、适用条件、例外情形、权利要求，以及表达不满（grievances）等。
如：“To all to whom these presents shall come or may come-Greeting: Know ye that I, _________, of______, for and in consideration of ______ Dollars, to me in hand paid by _____, do by these presents for myself, my heirs, executors, and administrators, remise, release and forever discharge _______ of ____, his heirs, executors, and administrators, of and from any and all manner of action or actions, cause and causes of action, suit, debts, dues, sums of money, accounts, reckonings, bonds, bills, specialties, covenants, contracts, controversies, agreements, promises, trespasses, damages, judgments, claims, and demands whatsoever, in law or equity, which against him I have had, now have, or which my heirs, executors, or administrators, hereafter can , shall, or may have, for or by reason of any matter, cause, or thing whatsoever, from the beginning of the world to the day of the date of these presents, excepting a claim as to_______. In witness whereof, etc.”II. formal (拘谨)造成法律英语的拘谨而非大众化，原因多多，或出于传统的职业习惯，或出于显示自己与众不同的才华，或出于维护自己的职业尊严和职业利益圈等等，常常使用与众不同的词或表达方法。
如：通常情况下我们说“come here!” 而律师往往就用“approach the bench!”；我们说“He has become a judge.” 而法律界常用“He is on the bench”；我们说“trust each other” 法学工作者常用“repose in one another”。
凡此等等，请看下面的对照表：通常人们用：法学界常用：Law teacher law donRefer advertTell adviseInform appriseBegin or start commenceShow demonstrateBuilding edificeBring about effectuateUse employUnfriendly inimicalWork employmentFollow ensueFor the same reason by the same token律师的此种做法招来各个方面的批评。
美国诸多有关学者著书立说，在报刊上撰文要求法律界进行文字改革，呼吁他们“能用小字时不用大字”、“能用短字时不用长字”、“尽量用平实语言（plain English）”III. tough（费解）造成法律英语难学、难懂的原因，还有以下几个方面的原因：（一）经常使用常用词汇的不常用的含义：常用词汇不常用含义1. action a lawsuit (either civil or criminal)2. alien to transfer property to another3. assigns person to whom a right or property is assigned4. avoid to make void5. bill a draft law6. brief a written statement submitted to a court7. charge a form of security8. clean hands without dishonest motives ( as in , “to have clean hands”)9. color apparent legal right (as in, “under color of law”)10. consideration the main cause for a contract11. counterpart a duplicate of a document12. covenant to make a binding promise13. cover to purchase goods to replace those not delivered because of abreach of contract14. damages the compensation sought for a loss15. demise to lease16. depose to state under oath17. demur not to agree18. discovery disclosure of information by the opposing party in a law suit19. distress the seizure of goods as security for an obligation20. draft an order for payment of money21. draw to sign a draft22. endorsement the signing of one’s name on the back of a document23. equitable relating to equity as opposed to law24. finding determination25. garnish to obtain satisfaction of a debt from a third party rather thanfrom the debtor directly26. hand signature27. honor to pay or accept28. instrument a formal legal document29. interest a right or claim to property30. issue living descendants31. majority legal age (as in, “to reach majority”)32. master an employer33. motion a formal request to a court to seek an order or rule34. note a written promise to pay a debt35. of course as a matter of right ( as in, “as a matter of course”)36. paper an instrument evidencing a financial obligation37. party a person engaged in a transaction ; a litigant in a lawsuit38. plead to file pleadings39. pray request for relief addressed to a court40. prejudice a detriment to legal rights (as in, “without prejudice”)41. prescription the acquisition of a right over a long period42. presents this formal legal documents (as in, “by these presents”)43. provided upon condition (word used to create a proviso)44. purchase to acquire title to land by means other than descent45. remove to transfer to another court46. said mentioned above47. save to except48. security collateral49. serve to deliver legal papers50. show to make clear by evidence51. specialty a contract under seal52. tender an offer of money53. tenement estate in land54. utter to put something counterfeit into circulation55. virtue authority or reason (as in, “by virtue of”)56. waive to relinquish(二) 经常使用古英语和中世纪英语词汇：古英语（old English）指公元450—1100年所流行的英语；中古英语（middle English）指公元1100—1500年之间常用的英语。