Chapter 7 Literature Review[43页]
Literature-Review-范例
A Literature Review of An Empirical Study ofMultimodal Teaching Model inMiddle School English Listening Teaching in a Multimedia ContextIn recent years, the theories of multimodal discourse and multimodality have gained many scholars’attention。
Many researchers study them and try to apply multimodal teaching to middle school s’ teaching。
And nowadays，many famous language scholars are trying their best to do the empirical study on the multimodal teaching。
As a matter of fact, many noted researchers have made a brief definition of multimodality. “M ultimodality means the combination of different semiotic modes—--for example, language and music—-—in a communicative artifact or event” (Kress ＆Leeuwen 1996：281)。
“M ultimodality refers to the diverse ways in which a number of distinct semiotic resource system are both codeployed and cocontextualized in the making of a text—specific meaning”(Baldry ＆Thibault 2006：21).Since the 1990s of last century, the multimodal teaching approach has drawn the researchers’and the teachers' attention in abroad。
Chapt07
A dedicated effort to determine the complete nucleotide se-quence of the haploid genome in a variety of organisms has been underway since 1990. With this sequence information in hand, geneticists can consult the universal dictionary equating nu-cleotide sequence with amino acid sequence to decide what parts of a genome are likely to be genes. They can also identify genes through matches with nucleotide sequences already known to en-code proteins in other organisms. As a result, they can predict the total number of genes in an organism from the complete nu-cleotide sequence of its genome, and by extension, identify the number and amino acid sequences of all the polypeptides that de-termine phenotype. Knowledge of DNA sequence thus opens up powerful new possibilities for understanding an organism’s growth and development at the molecular level.Studies of the tiny nematode Caenorhabditis elegans illustrate the kind of insights researchers can gain from this DNA-sequence-based approach. C. elegans is a roundworm 1 mm in length that lives in soils throughout the world (Fig. 7.1a). Feeding on bacteria,it grows from fertilized egg to adult—either hermaphrodite or male—in just three days. At the end of this time, each hermaph-rodite produces between 250 and 1000 progeny. Because of its small size, short life cycle, and capacity for prolific reproduction, C. elegans is an ideal subject for genetic analysis.The haploid genome of C.elegans contains110million base pairs distributed among six chromosomes(Fig.7.1b).In the mid-1990s,a group of investigators reported the sequencing and pre-liminary analysis of2.2million base pairs on chromosome ing their knowledge of the concepts explored in this chapter,they found that this2%of the nematode genome carries about480 genes.Interestingly,at least20%of the genes recognized as hav-ing a known function encode molecules that play some role in gene expression: the process by which cells convert DNA se-quence information to RNA and then decode the RNA information to the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide(Fig.7.2).The fact that20%of the genes in this sequenced region encode compo-nents of gene expression suggests the importance of the processCHAPTER7Gene Expression: The Flowof Genetic Information from DNA via RNA to ProteinThe ability of an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (red) to couple a particular tRNA (blue)to its corresponding amino acid is central to the molecular machinery that convertsthe language of nucleic acids into the language of proteins.The Genetic Code: How Precise Groupings of the 4 Nucleotides Specify 20 Amino Acids223Figure 7.1 C. elegans:An ideal subject for genetic analysis.(a)Micrograph of several adult worms. (b)Six chromosomes form the haploid genome of C. elegans.The highlighted region depicts a 2.2million base pair portion of chromosome III that has been analyzed and found to encode about 480 genes.(a)T ranslationPolypeptideFigure 7.2Gene expression: The flow of geneticinformation from DNA via RNA to protein.Transcription and translation convert the information encoded in DNA into the order of amino acids in a polypeptide. In transcription, an enzyme known as RNA polymerase catalyzes production of an RNA transcript. In translation, the cellular machinery uses instructions in mRNA to synthesize a polypeptide, following the rules of the genetic code.to the life of the organism.If this ratio holds for the rest of the worm’s genome,about 3600of its estimated 18,000genes gener-ate the machinery that enables genes to be interpreted as proteins.In this chapter, we describe the cellular mechanisms that carry out gene expression. As intricate as some of the details may ap-pear, the general scheme of gene expression is elegant and straightforward: Within each cell, genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein.In 1957 Francis Crick proposed that genetic information flows in only one direction, and named his concept of a one-way molecular flow the “Central Dogma” of molecular biol-ogy. As Crick explained, “once ‘information’ has passed into pro-tein, it cannot get out again.”Inside most cells, as the Central Dogma suggests, genetic in-formation flows from one class of molecule to another in two dis-tinct stages (see Fig. 7.2). If you think of genes as instructions written in the language of nucleic acids, the cellular machinery first transcribes a set of instructions written in the DNA dialect to the same instructions written in the RNA dialect. The conversion ofDNA-encoded information to its RNA-encoded equivalent is known as transcription . The product of transcription is a tran-script : a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA) in prokaryotes;a molecule of RNA that undergoes processing to become an mRNA in eukaryotes. In the second stage of gene expression, the cellular machinery translates the mRNA to its polypeptide equiva-lent in the language of amino acids. This decoding of nucleotide information to a sequence of amino acids is known as transla-tion . It takes place on molecular workbenches called ribosomes,which are composed of proteins and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs); and it depends on the universal dictionary known as the genetic code , which defines each amino acid in terms of a specific se-quence of three nucleotides. It also depends on transfer RNAs (tRNAs), small RNA adaptor molecules that place specific amino acids at the correct position in a growing polypeptide chain. The tRNAs can bring amino acids to the right place on the translational machinery because tRNAs and mRNAs have complementary nu-cleotides that can base pair with each other.Four general themes emerge from our discussion of gene ex-pression. First, the pairing of complementary bases figures promi-nently in the precise transfer of information from DNA to RNA and from RNA to polypeptide. Second, the polarities of DNA, RNA, and protein molecules help guide the mechanisms of gene expression:the 3′-to-5′transcription of a template DNA strand yields a polar mRNA that grows from its 5′to its 3′end; the 5′-to-3′translation of this mRNA yields a polar protein running from amino terminal to carboxyl terminal. Third, like DNA replication and recombina-tion (discussed in Chapter 5), gene expression requires an input of energy and the participation of several specific proteins at differ-ent points in the process. Fourth, since the accurate one-way flow of genetic information determines protein structure, mutations224CHAPTER 7GENE EXPRESSION: THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION FROM DNA VIA RNA TO PROTEINthat change this information or obstruct its flow can have dramatic effects on phenotype.As we examine how cells use the sequence information con-tained in DNA to construct proteins, we presentI The genetic code: How triplets of the 4 nucleotidesunambiguously specify 20 amino acids, making it possibleto translate information from a nucleotide chain to asequence of amino acids.I Transcription: How RNA polymerase, guided by basepairing, synthesizes a single-stranded mRNA copy of agene’s DNA template.I Translation: How base pairing between mRNA and tRNAsdirects the assembly of a polypeptide on the ribosome.I A comprehensive example of gene expression in C. elegans.I How mutations affect gene information and expression.THE GENETIC CODE:HOW PRECISE GROUPINGS OF THE4NUCLEOTIDES SPECIFY20AMINO ACIDSA code is a system of symbols that equates information in one language with information in another. A useful analogy for the genetic code is the Morse code, which uses dots and dashes or short and long sounds to transmit messages over radio or tele-graph wires. Various groupings of the dot-dash/short-long symbols represent the 26 letters of the English alphabet. Be-cause there are many more letters than the two dot or dash symbols, groups of up to four dots, four dashes, and varying combinations of the two represent some letters. And because anywhere from one to four symbols specify each letter, the Morse code requires a symbol for “pause” to signify where one letter ends and the next begins.In the Genetic Code, a Triplet Codon Represents Each Amino AcidThe language of nucleic acids is written in four nucleotides—A,G,C,and T in the DNA dialect;A,G,C,and U in the RNA dialect—while the language of proteins is written in amino acids.To understand how the sequence of bases in DNA or RNA encodes the order of amino acids in a polypeptide chain,it is essential to know how many distinct amino acids there are.Watson and Crick produced the now accepted list of the20amino acids that are genetically encoded by DNA or RNA sequence over lunch one day at a local pub.They cre-ated the list by analyzing the amino acid sequence of a vari-ety of naturally occurring polypeptides.Amino acids that are present in only a small number of proteins or in only certain tissues or organisms did not qualify as standard building blocks;Crick and Watson correctly assumed that such amino acids arise when proteins undergo modification after their synthesis.By contrast,amino acids that are present in most, though not necessarily all,proteins made the list.The ques-tion then became:How can4nucleotides encode20amino acids?Just as the Morse code conveys information through dif-ferent groupings of dots and dashes, the 4 nucleotides encode 20 amino acids through specific groupings of A, G, C, and T or A, G, C, and U. Researchers initially arrived at the number of letters per grouping by deductive reasoning, and later con-firmed it by experiment. They reasoned that if only one nu-cleotide represented an amino acid, there would be informa-tion for only four amino acids: A would encode one aminoacid; G, a second amino acid; C, a third; and T, a fourth. If twonucleotides represented each amino acid, there would be 42ϭ16 possible combinations of couplets.Of course, if the code consisted of groups containing oneor two nucleotides, it would have 4 ϩ16 ϭ20 groups and could account for all the amino acids, but there would be noth-ing left over for the pause denoting where one group ends and the next begins. Groups of three nucleotides in a row would provide 43ϭ64 different triplet combinations, more than enough to code for all the amino acids. If the code consisted of doublets and triplets, a signal denoting pause would once again be necessary. But a triplets-only code would require no symbol for “pause” if the mechanism for counting to three and distinguishing among successive triplets were very reliable.Although this kind of reasoning—explaining the un-known in terms of the known by looking for the simplest pos-sibility—generates a theory, it does not prove it. As it turnedout, however, the experiments described later did indeeddemonstrate that groups of three nucleotides represent all 20amino acids. Each nucleotide triplet is called a codon.Eachcodon, designated by the bases defining its three nucleotides,specifies one amino acid. For example, GAA is a codon forglutamic acid (Glu), and GUU is a codon for valine (Val). Be-cause the code comes into play only during the translation partof gene expression, that is, during the decoding of messengerRNA to polypeptide, geneticists usually present the code in theRNA dialect of A, G, C, and U, as depicted in Fig. 7.3. How-ever, when speaking of genes, they can substitute T for U toshow the same code in the DNA dialect.If you knew the sequence of nucleotides in a gene or itstranscript as well as the sequence of amino acids in the corre-sponding polypeptide, you could deduce the genetic codewithout understanding how the cellular machinery uses thecode to translate from nucleotides to amino acids. Althoughtechniques for determining both nucleotide and amino-acidsequence are available today, this was not true when re-searchers cracked the genetic code in the 1950s and 1960s. Atthat time, they could establish a polypeptide’s amino-acid se-quence, but not the nucleotide sequence of DNA or RNA. Be-cause of their inability to read nucleotide sequence, they usedAThe Genetic Code: How Precise Groupings of the 4 Nucleotides Specify 20 Amino Acids225Figure 7.3The genetic code: 61 codons represent the 20 amino acids, while 3 codons signify stop.To read the code, find the first letter in the left column, the second letter along the top, and the third letter in the right column; this reading corresponds to the 5′-to-3′direction along the mRNA. Although most amino acids are encoded by two or more codons, the genetic code is unambiguous because each codon specifies only one amino acid.an assortment of genetic and biochemical techniques to fathom the code. They began by examining how different mu-tations in a single gene affected the amino-acid sequence of the gene’s polypeptide product, using the abnormal (specific mutations) to understand the normal (the general relationship between genes and polypeptides).Mapping Studies Confirmed That a Gene’s Nucleotide Sequence Is Colinear with a Polypeptide’s Amino-Acid SequenceWe have seen that DNA is a linear molecule with base pairs following one another down the intertwined chains. Proteins, by contrast, have complicated three-dimensional structures. Even so, if unfolded and stretched out from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus, proteins have a one-dimensional, linear structure—a specific sequence of amino acids. If the informa-tion in a gene and its corresponding protein are colinear, the consecutive order of bases in the DNA from the beginning to the end of the gene would stipulate the consecutive order of amino acids from one end to the other of the outstretched pro-tein. Note that this hypothesized relationship implies that both a gene and its protein product have definite polarities with an invariant relation to each other.Charles Yanofsky, in studying the Escherichia coli gene for a subunit of the enzyme tryptophan synthetase, was the first to compare maps of mutations within a gene to the par-ticular amino-acid substitutions that resulted. He began by generating a large number of trpϪauxotrophic mutants that carried mutations in the trpA gene for the tryptophan syn-thetase subunit. He next made a fine structure recombinational map of these mutations; and then he purified and determined the amino acid sequence of the mutant tryptophan synthetase subunits. As Fig. 7.4a illustrates, Yanofsky’s data showed that the order of mutations mapped within the DNA of the gene by recombination was colinear with the positions of the amino-acid substitutions occurring in the resulting mutant proteins. Genetic Analysis Revealed That Nonoverlapping Codons Are Set in a Reading FrameBy carefully examining the results of his analysis,Yanofsky, in addition to confirming the existence of colinearity,de-duced key features of codons and helped establish many pa-rameters of the genetic code relating nucleotides to amino acids.A Codon Is Composed of More Than One Nucleotide Yanofsky observed that different point mutations(changes in only one nucleotide pair)may affect the same amino acid.In one example shown in Fig.7.4a,mutation#23changed the glycine(Gly)at position211of the wildtype polypeptide chain to arginine(Arg),while mutation#46yielded glutamic acid(Glu) at the same position.In another example,mutation #78changed the glycine at position234to cysteine(Cys), while mutation#58produced aspartic acid(Asp)at the same position.In both cases,Yanofsky also found that recombina-tion could occasionally occur between two mutations that changed the identity of the same amino acid,and such re-combination would produce a wildtype tryptophan syn-thetase gene(Fig.7.4b).Because the smallest unit of recombination is the base pair,two mutations capable of re-combination—in this case,in the same codon because they affect the same amino acid—must be in different(although nearby)nucleotides.Thus,a codon contains more than one nucleotide.Each Nucleotide Is Part of Only a Single CodonAs Fig. 7.4a illustrates, each of the point mutations in the tryp-tophan synthetase gene characterized by Yanofsky alters the identity of only a single amino acid. This is also true of the point mutations examined in many other genes, such as the hu-man genes for rhodopsin and hemoglobin (see Chapter 6). Since point mutations change only a single nucleotide pair and most point mutations affect only a single amino acid in a polypeptide, each nucleotide in a gene must influence the identity of only a single amino acid. If, on the contrary, a nu-cleotide were part of more than one codon, a mutation in that nucleotide would affect more than one amino acid.226CHAPTER 7GENE EXPRESSION: THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION FROM DNA VIA RNA TO PROTEIN1 m.u.N C2114926822151234Figure 7.4Experiments analyzing the E. coli gene for a subunit of tryptophan synthetase confirm colinearity and reveal significant features of the genetic code.(a)A genetic map of the trpA gene of E. coli,identifying the amino-acid substitutions that characterize several of Yanofsky’s mutant strains. The positions of the mutations and amino-acid substitutions are colinear. These mutations change only a single amino acid, suggesting that each nucleotide is part of only a single codon. (b)Confirmation that codons must include two or more base pairs came from crosses between two strains that carried an altered amino acid at the same position. Since wildtype progeny occasionally appeared, each strain had a point mutation at a slightly different site. Crossing-over between the mutant sites could produce a wildtype allele.A Codon Is Composed of Three Nucleotides,and the Designated Starting Point for Each Gene Establishes the Reading Frame for These Triplets Although the most efficient code that would allow 4 nu-cleotides to specify 20 amino acids requires 3 nucleotides per codon, more complicated scenarios are possible. Francis Crick and Sydney Brenner obtained convincing evidence for the triplet nature of the genetic code in studies of mutations in the bacteriophage T4 rIIB gene (Fig. 7.5). They induced the mu-tations with proflavin, an intercalating mutagen that can insert itself between the paired bases stacked in the center of the DNA molecule (Fig. 7.5a). Their assumption was that proflavin would act like other mutagens, causing single-base substitutions. If this were true, it would be possible to gener-ate revertants through treatment with any mutagen. Surpris-ingly, genes with proflavin-induced mutations did not revert to wildtype upon treatment with other mutagens known to cause nucleotide substitutions. Only further exposure to proflavin caused proflavin-induced mutations to revert to wildtype (Fig.7.5b). Crick and Brenner had to explain this observation be-fore they could proceed with their phage experiments. With keen insight, they correctly guessed that proflavin does not cause base substitutions; instead, it causes insertions or dele-tions. This hypothesis explained why base-substituting muta-gens could not revert proflavin-induced mutations; it was also consistent with the structure of proflavin. By intercalating be-tween base pairs, proflavin would distort the double helix and thus interfere with the action of enzymes that function in the repair, replication, or recombination of DNA, eventually caus-ing the deletion or addition of one or more nucleotide pairs to the DNA molecule.Crick and Brenner began their experiments with a partic-ular proflavin-induced rIIBϪmutation. They next treated this mutant strain with more proflavin to isolate an rIIBϩrevertant (see Fig. 7.5b), and showed that the revertant’s chromosome actually contained two different rIIBϪmutations: One was the original mutation (FC0 in the figure); the other was newly in-duced (FC7). Either mutation by itself yields a mutant pheno-type, but their simultaneous occurrence in the same gene yielded an rIIBϩphenotype. Crick and Brenner reasoned that if the first mutation was the deletion of a single base pair, rep-resented by the symbol (Ϫ), then the counteracting mutation must be the insertion of a base pair, represented as (ϩ). The restoration of gene function by one mutation canceling an-other in the same gene is known as intragenic suppression. On the basis of this reasoning, they went on to establish T4 strains with different numbers of (ϩ) and (Ϫ) mutations in the same chromosome. Figure 7.5c tabulates the phenotypes asso-ciated with each combination of proflavin-induced mutations.I n analyzing the data, Crick and Brenner assumed that each codon is a trio of nucleotides, and for each gene there is a single starting point. This starting point establishes a read-Three single base insertions ( + + + )Single base insertion (+)Single base deletion (–)ATG AAC AA GCG C G G G GAA GCG GACATG AAC AA T GCG C C G G A G GAA GCG GAC ATG AAC AAT GCG CCG GAG GAA GCG GAC ATG AAC AAT G G CGC T CGG C AG GAA GCG GACATG AAC AAT GCG CCG GAG GAA GCG GAC ATG AAC AAT G G CGCCG GAG GAA GCG GACATG AAC AA T GCG CCG GAG GAA GCG GAC ATG AAC AA GCG CCG GAG GAA GCG GACG GT CFigure 7.5Studies of frameshift mutations in thebacteriophage T4 rIIB gene show that codons consist of (e)228CHAPTER 7GENE EXPRESSION: THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION FROM DNA VIA RNA TO PROTEINing frame: the partitioning of groups of three nucleotides such that the sequential interpretation of each succeeding tripletgenerates the correct order of amino acids in the resultingpolypeptide chain. If codons are read in order from a fixedstarting point, one mutation will counteract another if the twoare equivalent mutations of opposite signs; in such a case, eachinsertion compensates for each deletion, and this counterbal-ancing restores the reading frame. The gene would only regainits wildtype activity, however, if the portion of the polypeptideencoded between the two mutations of opposite sign is not re-quired for protein function, because in the double mutant, thisregion would have an improper amino-acid sequence. Simi-larly, if a gene sustains three or multiples of three changes ofthe same sign, the encoded polypeptide can still function, be-cause the mutations do not alter the reading frame for the ma-jority of amino acids (Fig. 7.5d). The resulting polypeptidewill, however, have one extra or one fewer amino acid thannormal (designated by three plus signs or three minus signs,respectively), and the region encoded by the part of the genebetween the first and the last mutations will not contain thecorrect amino acids.By contrast, a single nucleotide inserted into or deletedfrom a gene alters the reading frame and thereby affects theidentity of not only one amino acid, but of all other aminoacids beyond the point of alteration (Fig. 7.5e). Changes thatalter the grouping of nucleotides into codons are calledframe shift mutations: they shift the reading frame for all codons beyond the point of insertion or deletion, almost al-ways abolishing the function of the polypeptide product.A review of the evidence tabulated in Fig. 7.5c supportsall these points. A single (Ϫ) or a single (ϩ) mutation de-stroyed the function of the rIIB gene and produced an rIIBϪphage. Similarly, any gene with two base changes of the samesign (ϪϪor ϩϩ), or with four or five insertions or deletionsof the same sign (for example, ϩϩϩϩ) also generated a mu-tant phenotype. However, genes containing three or multiplesof three mutations of the same sign (for example, ϩϩϩor ϪϪϪϪϪϪ) as well as genes containing a (ϩϪ) pair of mutations generated rIIBϩwildtype individuals. In these lastexamples, intragenic suppression allowed restitution of thereading frame and thereby restored the lost or aberrant geneticfunction produced by other frameshift mutations in the gene. Most Amino Acids are Specified by More Than One Codon As Fig.7.5illustrates,intragenic suppression occurs only if in the region between two frameshift mutations of opposite sign, a gene still dictates the appearance of amino acids,even if these amino acids are not the same as those appearing in the normal protein.If the frameshifted part of the gene encodes instructions to stop protein synthesis,for example,by introducing a triplet of nucleotides that does not correspond to any amino acid,then wildtype polypeptide production would not continue.This is because polypeptide synthesis would stop before the compen-sating mutation could reestablish the correct reading frame.The fact that intragenic suppression occurs as often as itdoes suggests that the code includes more than one codon for some amino acids. Recall that there are 20 common amino acids but 43ϭ64 different combinations of three nucleotides. If each amino acid corresponded to only a single codon, there would be 64 Ϫ20 ϭ44 possible triplets not encoding an amino acid. These noncoding triplets would act as “stop” sig-nals and prevent further polypeptide synthesis. I f this hap-pened, more than half of all frameshift mutations (44/64) would cause protein synthesis to stop at the first codon after the mutation, and the chances of extending the protein each amino acid farther down the chain would diminish exponen-tially. As a result, intragenic suppression would rarely occur. However, we have seen that many frameshift mutations of one sign can be offset by mutations of the other sign. The distances between these mutations, estimated by recombination fre-quencies, are in some cases large enough to code for more than 50 amino acids, which would be possible only if most of the 64 possible triplet codons specified amino acids. Thus, the data of Crick and Brenner provide strong support for the idea that the genetic code is degenerate:Two or more nucleotide triplets specify most of the 20 amino acids (see Fig. 7.3). Cracking the Code: Biochemical Manipulations Revealed Which Codons Represent Which Amino AcidsAlthough the genetic experiments just described enabled re-markably prescient insights about the nature of the genetic code,they did not make it possible to assign particular codons to their corresponding amino acids.This awaited the discovery of messenger RNA and the development of techniques for syn-thesizing simple messenger RNA molecules that researchers could use to manufacture simple proteins in the test tube. The Discovery of Messenger RNAs, Moleculesfor Transporting Genetic InformationIn the1950s researchers exposed eukaryotic cells to amino acids tagged with radioactivity and observed that protein syn-thesis incorporating the radioactive amino acids into polypep-tides takes place in the cytoplasm,even though the genes for those polypeptides are sequestered in the cell nucleus.From this discovery,they deduced the existence of an intermediate molecule,made in the nucleus and capable of transporting DNA sequence information to the cytoplasm where it can di-rect protein synthesis.RNA was a prime candidate for this in-termediary information-carrying molecule.Because of RNA’s potential for base pairing with a strand of DNA,one could imagine the cellular machinery copying a strand of DNA into a complementary strand of RNA in a manner analogous to the DNA-to-DNA copying of DNA replication.Subsequent stud-ies in eukaryotes on the incorporation of radioactive uracil(a base found only in RNA)into molecules of RNA showed that although the molecules are synthesized in the nucleus,at least some of them migrate to the cytoplasm.Among those RNA molecules that migrate to the cytoplasm are the messenger RNAs,or mRNAs,depicted in Fig.7.2.They arise in the nu-cleus from the transcription of DNA sequence information through base pairing and then move,after processing,to the。
英文读写literature review范文
The influence of mining exploitation on environment and the solution of the disposal of solid waste residue By the year of 2012, China has 8557 State-owned mining enterprises and over 200 thousands individually owned enterprises. The area of destroyed land in mining area adds up to 29 thousand km^2 and grows at the rate of 2% each year (Liao L-P, Gao.H and Yu X-J, 2012). The mining industry has scored tremendous achievements, but meanwhile it threatens the environment. Some individually owned enterprises lack the awareness of environmental protection and take no preventive measure to lower their cost. Furthermore, out-of-date equipment and poor technology cause huge waste in production, which cause serious environmental pollution.The destruction on land resourcesStrip mining and the piling of tailings and waste residue occupies and destroys large land. In china, the waste-occupied land in mining area adds up to 59 thousand km^2 and the resulting deforestation area adds up to 11 thousand km^2 (Ma X-Q, Huang B-L, 2010). Strip mining can result in the destruction of land surface and Land Subsidence and accelerate the water and soil losses. According to official statistics, by the year of 2011, in the mining area of western China, the Soil erosion area annually increases 20 km^2.The increase of the risk of geological disasterThe construction of mining engineering can significantly change the landform in mining area. Digging to a certain depth will threaten the stability of hillside and easily induce some geological disasters, such as landslip, collapse, debris flow, surface subsidence and even earthquake (Cao F-G, 2007). For example, 4 tons of water will be drained off when 1 ton of coal is mined. The loss of groundwater exerts huge pressure on earthcrust (Gibowicz, 1999). In China, there are nearly 2000 sinkholes and the collapse area adds up to 1150 km^2. Almost 40 of the mining cities in China have Cave-in accident, which threatens the life of mine operators and cause heavy property loss, about 120 million dollars on average each year.The influence on water resourceDeep mining engineering will influence the surface water resources and groundwater resources. Excessive groundwater extraction can cause the drop of water level, some problems on water supply and land subsidence (Auclair AD, 2008). The quality surface water will decrease and the course of river might be changed. In some drought region，the drop of groundwater level can lead to the death of land vegetation (Becker M, 2005). More seriously, huge amounts of industrial water are required tosupport over exploitation in mineral-abundant region and most of the water is drawn from agricultural water, which interferes the agricultural production (Shi X-H, 2009). The loss of biodiversitySoil degradation, environmental pollution, the emission of waste and vegetation clearing are fatal to the biodiversity in mining area. After the loss of biodiversity, some high-resistant species can still inhabit the abandoned land in mining area, but because of the barren soil and the deficiency of microorganism activity, the recovery of ecosystem usually need 10-50 years (Xiao H-L, 2011). The loss of biodiversity in some damaged ecosystems is even irreversible.The solution of the disposal of solid waste residueSolid waste residue is the biggest polluter in mining area and the disposal of it still plagues the government and mining enterprises, so it deserves a separate discussion. The heavy metal ion in solid waste is the most harmful substance. Once contacting water source, these ions will dissolve, making the water corrosive and toxic, and it is very difficult to extract them from the water (FAO, 2004).High technology offers two new methods to solve this problem. One is microorganism technology. The removal of heavy metal ions by microorganism is a new applicable technique. Various types of biomass, including bacteria, fungi, yeast and algae have been evaluated for their heavy metal uptake properties. The most prominent features of biosorption are the use of low cost biomass material and the high efficiency of some biomass to uptake heavy metals in very low concentration (Jose T.Matheickal, 2001).Another one is new corrosion-resisting clay. This kind of clay is toughened, innocuous and environmental-friendly. In the process of disposing the waste residue, the clay will be first made into mud. The clay mud covers the surface of waste residue and after it dries out, the clay will become a waterproof layer and can resist the corrosion of any substance in the soil. Then the waste residue can be sequestered underground safely (Moore, 2005).However, Zhu.J.J has pointed out the possible resistance of the implementation of these methods. There is a lack of related Professional Staff. Disposing the waste residue in high-tech methods will increase the cost of enterprises (Zhu J-J, 2009). What’s more, some individually-owned enterprises are even ignorant of the importance of environmental protection, so they may be completely uninterested in these handling methods .Summary and TipsAlong with the enhancing of the people's awareness of the environment，the environmental management has become indispensable in the development of mining industry. Some relative rules, regulations, and standards show be put on to establish a more rational Working mechanism. If the development condition of the mining industry improves, the mining enterprises will no longer pursue profit at the cost of environment.ReferencesAuclair AD. (2008). A case stury of forest decline in western Canada and the adjacent United States. Water, Air and Soil pollution 53(2): 23-31.Becker M. (2005). Silver fir decline in the V osges mountains: Role of climate and natural culture. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 48: 77-80Cao F-G. (2007). Hunan Geology Science & Technology 21(2): 29-31(in Chinese) FAO. (2004). State of the World’s Chemical Industry, 2009. Journal of Applied Chemistry, 15(10): 195-196Gibowicz. (1999). Magnitude and energy of subterranean shocks in Upper Silesia.The Earth's Interior Structure 32(7): 14-15Jose T.Matheickal. (2001). Removal of Heavy Metal Ion from Wastewater by Using Biosorbents from Marine Algae. Chinese Journal of Chemistry 9(2): 133-136 Liao L-P, Gao H, Yu X-J (2012). Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 11(2): 61-64 (in Chinese)Ma X-Q, Huang B-L. (2010). A study on self-poisoning effects of Chinese fir plantation. Journal of Nanjing Forestry University 24(1): 12-16Moore.(2005). Changes in structure and composition of modern Industrial raw materials.Modern Industry Management 208(1/3): 223-225Shi X-H. (2009). Rain and its influence on environmental ecosystem. Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University 21(1): 109-114(in Chinese)Xiao H-L. (2011). Increased soil temperature and forest decline. Tropical Subtropical Soil Science 4(4): 246-249(in Chinese)Zhu J-J. (2009). A review on fundamental studies of secondary forest management.Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology 13(12): 168-169。
chapter商务英语专业跨文化交际案例理论习题答案
Tom: Don’t feel so bad. Cheer up; you’ve done your job.
Xie Li: But our experiment has turned out to be a failure.
Wuhan
hot and irritable
第6页/共43页
Joke appreciation for cultural diversity
6. The man felt very embarrassed and made a sincere apology to the girl. But the beautiful girl smiled and said: __________________________
politician
第17页/共43页
denotation & co Nhomakorabeanotation
Happy, auspicious, joyous, flourishing (in Chinese)Something undesirable (in English)
red
green
He got a red-eye illness. He is green with envy.
Tom: Relax for a couple of days. I’ll face the music.
第13页/共43页
3. How is language related to culture?
Language is the carrier of culture which in turn is the content of nguage is part of culture. In turn, culture enriches and influences language.
literature review的写作步骤
literature review的写作步骤撰写文献综述（literature review）时，可以按照以下步骤进行：1. 确定研究主题和目标：明确自己所要研究的主题和目标，这将有助于限定文献综述的范围和方向。
2. 收集文献：进行广泛的文献搜索，包括学术期刊、会议论文、书籍、学位论文等来源。
使用学术数据库、图书馆资源和互联网搜索引擎等工具来获取相关文献。
3. 筛选文献：根据研究主题和目标，对收集到的文献进行筛选。
首先，阅读文献的标题和摘要，排除与研究主题不相关的文献。
然后，仔细阅读剩下的文献，确定其质量和可靠性，选择与研究主题密切相关的文献。
4. 阅读和分析文献：仔细阅读选定的文献，并进行分析和批判性思考。
注意文献中的问题、研究方法、实验设计、研究结果等。
可以根据研究目标和主题，将文献进行分类或主题归纳，以便于后续写作。
5. 组织文献综述的结构：根据筛选和分析的文献，组织文献综述的结构。
通常，文献综述应包括引言、主体和结论部分。
引言部分介绍研究主题和目标，主体部分按照一定的逻辑顺序组织相关文献，结论部分总结和评价所述文献。
6. 写作文献综述：根据组织好的结构，开始撰写文献综述。
在写作过程中，要注意文献的引用和引用格式，确保准确引用每个文献的作者、出版日期和出版物信息。
同时，要注意文献综述的逻辑和连贯性，确保各个部分之间的衔接和流畅性。
7. 修订和润色：完成初稿后，对文献综述进行修订和润色。
检查文献引用的准确性和格式，确保信息的一致性和完整性。
同时，注意语言表达的清晰和流畅性，确保文献综述的可读性和易理解性。
8. 反复修改和完善：进行多次的修改和完善，确保文献综述的内容准确、全面，并符合学术要求。
最后，记得在文献综述中引用和参考所使用的文献，遵循适当的引用格式，如APA、MLA等。
这将保证文献综述的学术可信度和完整性。
全版新编英国文学选读(上)chapter7.doc
Chapter 7. The Eighteenth Century[The Age of Reason (1688——1798)]I. Historical backgroundAfter the Glorious Revolution, Whig and Tory were established. The former one represented the interests of the moneyed class, while the latter one represented the royalists.England fought many wars with France, Spain, etc. In those wars England rose as a victor making it the strongest country in navy and economy and considerably stretching its occupied land oversees extending from the west of Canada to the east of India.II. The special features of the cultural life at the timea. Political writings: the rise of the political parties led to the appearance of pamphlet wars of political writings attracting many writers to work for either of the parties or both alternatively.b. The rise of newspapers and magazines: the reason for the rise: ·Both parties had their respective ones to express their opinions. ·The rise of the middle class demanded entertainment and education and they need to express their views too.c. Coffeehouses:where people gathered to exchange ideas and thus they help to determine the literary trend of the timed. The new morality:·The emphasis on reason·The development of tolerance of different opinions in politics and religione. The influence of science and technology:·Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Newton (1642——1727) ·The new epistemology of John Locke (1632——1704)f. French influence——Augustanism——neoclassicism stressing to learn from the classicals*What is classicism?The characteristics in Greek and Roman classical works. They are clarity, logic, form, proportion, balance with each other, parallelism, restraint.III. The characteristics of neoclassicism1.Reason rather than emotion and form rather than content were emphasized.2.Most of the writings at the time were didactic and satirical.3.The closed couplet was the only possible verse form for serious work for elegance, correctness, appropriateness and restraint were preferred.4.It is exclusively a “town”poetry, catering to the interests of the“society”in great cities. The humbler aspect of life are neglected and it showed in most part no love of nature, landscape, or country things and peoplecking romantic elements and being hostile to medieval literature6.An age of prose, especially the latter part the centuryIV. Representative authors of the time1. Daniel Defoe2. Jonathan Swift3. Joseph Addison4. Alexander Pope5. Samuel Johnson6. Henry Fieldding7. Thomas Gray8. Thobias George Smollet9. Richard Brinsley Sheridan10. Robert Burns11. William Blake1.Daniel Defoe(1661—1731)a pioneer novelist of England and also a prolific writer of books and pamphlets on a great variety of subjects.1）his life story:a.from a dissenter’s family: Presbyterian butcherb.having a questionable character in politics, but strong belief in religious freedom2)his literary achievements:·fiction:Robinson , Crusoe , Moll Flanders·contribution to journalism & regulating English trade methods and principles3) characteristics of his fiction:a.Robinson Crusoe:(1)based on real experience of a Scottish sailor but combinedwith his own imagination, it is still a fictional work.(2)using the picaresque frame with a story in the shape of a journal and having strong sense of journalistic truth; containing serious wisdom of life(3)The importance of the hero:i. typical of the rising English bourgeois class, practical and diligent with a restless curiosity to know more about the world and a desire to prove individual power in the face of social and natural challengesIi. a real hero of middle class different from the hero of knights orepic hero(4)moral teaching: sing praise of labour, presenting it as the source of human pride and happiness as well as a means to change man’s living conditions from desperation to prosperity(5)limitations:i. praise colonization overseas through the relationship with Friday ii. his attitude to woman is open to criticismiii. Praise slaveryb. Moll Flanders:(1) its story(2)the significance, one is for the first a woman being the protagonist; artistically more mature than Robinson: better structure and better plot; so it is written in an autobiographical form called a memoir2. Jonathan Swift(1667-1745)a churchman and also a university graduate who viewed human society with contempt and has been called a cynic and even a misanthrope.1)his life story:His father died before he was born, and he had to accept the aid of his relatives and finished his study at Dublin University.2)his literary achievements:a.satirical essays:The Battle of Books(1696-1698), A Tale of the Tub(1696-1698)b.Writings in pamphlets:The Draiper’s Letters, A Modest Proposac.fiction:Gulliver’s Travel(1726)3)characteristics of his pamphlets:·Gulliver’s Travela. criticizing the oppression and exploitation of the Irish people by the absentee landlords and the English government.b. using bitter satire·The battle of Booksa debate happening 18th century. Some people modern people ·The Tale of the Tuba satire on various religious sects: Catholic, Anglican and dissenters’churches: changes done by different churches to the Christian doctrines·The Draiper’s Lettersrevealing the corruption and license, debased·A Modest Proposala satire on the English government’s heavy exploitation4)A Modest Proposala.It is a bitter satire on the policy of the English government towards the Irish people.b.Swift in this article suggested to the Irish people that the best way to end their misery was to produce children and sell them at market as a delicious dish for the rich.3. Joseph Addison(1672-1719)and Richard Steele(1672-1729)1) their life stories: they were born in the same year, attended the same school and later studied at the same university.they had the same political trend——whig2) their literary achievements:Joseph Addison & Richard Steele·Joseph Addisonstarted the periodical essays that were the most characteristic genre of 18thcentury literature.·Richard Steelecontribution to the periodicals:The Tatler, The Spectator, The Guardian3)characteristics of their periodical essays:a.Methods:d, indirect, was admirably adapted to their purpose.2. were full of wit, humor, and satire.b. Themes:dealt with1)light topics-fashions, head-dresses, practical jokes,2)polite conversations, discussed art, philosophy, drama, and poetry, and sought in so doing not only to interest the general reader in such subjects, but also to guide and develop their tastes.3) deeper topics such immoralityOne other characteristic: draw some images of some typical middle class people:C. Style: simple language familiar to the middle men; graceful, poised, well balanced, familiar words and expressions to the readers,4)Aims of their writing:a.to educate the newly risen middle class.b.to bridge the gap between the small circle of London elegance and wit,and the large, serious, rather Puritan middle class.5)two selected pieces written by Addisona. The Royal Exchangeb. Sir Roger at Church4.Alexander Pope(1688-1744)1) his life story:·he was self-educated.·he worked hard against poor health and unfavorable conditions and gained a profound knowledge of both the classics and the craft of writing.2)his literary achievements:·An Essay on Criticism, The Rape of the Lock, An Essay on Man ·Contribution to poetry in heroic couplets3)characteristics of his poems:a. succeeded Chaucer and Dryden in bringing metrical form to its perfection.b. contained a great number of quotable lines that have passed into everyday speech as popular sayings, such as :“To err is human, to forgive divine”, and “For fools rush in where angels fear to tread.”c. limitation: Pope is never profound in thought, so the poems lack original ideas5.Samuel Johnson(1709-1784)the greatest English man of letters between Pope and Wordsworth. 1) his life story:·he was born in a book seller’s family.·he was conservative in his world outlook and was against any kind of reform or innovation.·he upheld tradition and authority. Uphold conventions authority2)his literary achievements:·A Dictionary of the English Language·Contribution to a periodical, The Rambler,·Known for essay; his Preface to his edition of Shakespeare and The Lives of the Poets3)characteristics of his writing:Emphasizing the specification of language6. Henry Fielding(1707-1754)playwright, novelist and district law magistrate, came from an aristocratic background1) his life story:·was born to an upper-class family·began writing plays while at university and took it as his profession after leaving school.2)his literary achievements:novels:The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews,The History of Tom Jones3)characteristics of his novels:a. The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrew( 1) its story and significance(2)in his preface to this novel Fielding proudly announced that he had created a new genre called comic epics in prose and discussed its characteristic feature.(3)the novel turned from a novel of seduction into one of the first exemplars of the great English panoramic tradition, which was to reach new heights later in Thackeray and Dickens.b. The History of Tom Jones(1) its story(2) Its significance:a. the understanding of allegory in the storyb. to Fielding, the countryside represents the basic goodness of human race, whereas the city stands for evil and sin.Tobias George SmollettA general introductionTobias George Smollett (19 March 1721 –17 September 1771) was a Scottish poet and author.He was best known for his picaresque novels, such as·The Adventures of Roderick Random (1748),·The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751), which influenced later novelists such as Charles Dickens.·His last novel, the best novel is The Expedition of Humphry Clinker(1771), published in the year of his death.7. Thomas Gray(1716-1771)one of the representative poets at the time1) his life story:was born in London and educated at Eton and Cambridge, where he, after a grand tour on the continent, spent the rest of his life.2)characteristics of his poems:·more natural and spontaneous in thought·emphasizing emotions and sentiments3)The Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard8. Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816)1) his life story:was born in Dublin, of Irish origin, and was educated at Harrow.2)his literary achievements:drama: The Rivals, A Trip to Sarborough, The School for Scandal3)The School for Scandala. its story and significanceb. it is written in the tradition of Comedy of Manners, and exposes the immorality, hypocrisy, money-hunting, and scandal-mongering of the idle classes in 18th century England.9. Robert Burns(1759-1796)1) his life story:was born in Scotland in a poor peasant family and educated himself through selfstudy.2）his literary achievements:poems and songs3)characteristics of his poems and songsa.written in the Scottish dialect and in the tradition of Scottish folk songs.b.besides love lyrics, most of his poems and songs are about patriotic and political themes.10. William Blake (1757-1827)a poet as well as an engraver.1)his life story:was born in a hosier’s family in London and drew pictures and engraved to illustrate his works and the works of others.2)his literary achievements:·poems:Poetical Sketches, Songs of Innocence,Songs of Experience, Prophetic Books·broke with the neo-classical tradition both in form and in content3)characteristics of his poemsa. Songs of Innocence(1) expressed the poet’s delight in life,even in the face of sorrow and suffering.(2)the world is seen through the eyes of a child’s imagination which can be attained by adults if they cast away the follies and deceits of the hostile world and seek a visionary world through their imagination.b. Songs of Experience(1) the atmosphere is no longer sunny but sad and gloomy, and evil is found everywhere in this world.(2) through the loss of imagination, man has become a slave to the falsehood and hypocrisy of religion and society, and thus has lost the Heaven of Innocence and gained the Hell of Experience.c. the contradiction of these two poem collections。
Literature Review of Studies on Metaphor
校园英语 /Literature Review of Studies on Metaphor新疆师范高等专科学校外语学院/龚腾龙【Abstract】This paper provides an overview of major theories of metaphor and some brief comments.In this paper,the studies of metaphor at home and abroad and some related researches are presented.Four influential metaphor theories( the comparison theory, the substitution theory,the interaction theory as well as the theory of conceptual metaphor.) will be introduced.【Key words】literature review; studies of metaphor; metaphor theory1.IntroductionMetaphor is found in all languages because it is an important part of language and culture of society.Metaphor exists in both literature and everyday language pervasively.Traditionally it is considered as a figure of speech until the early twentieth century with the introduction of the interaction theory,but with the publication of Metaphors We Live By in 1980,George Lakoff and Mark Johnson first developed the view that challenged all aspects of the powerful traditional view and the systematic approach.This view marks the establishment of the cognitive approach to metaphor.Metaphor has become a hot topic at home and abroad since then,not only in linguistics,but also in psychology,philosophy,sociology and many other fields.Metaphor has been studied from different angles,including relevance theory which stands for one of the latest developments of cognitive researches.2.Studies on Metaphor abroadThere are four influential theories in the history of study of metaphor,They are the comparison theory,the substitution theory,the interaction theory and the conceptual metaphor theory. According to Black (1993),these theories can be divided into two types: the traditional theory and the contemporary theory. The comparison theory,the substitution theory and the interaction theory belong to the traditional theory .They consider metaphor as a matter of language,a theatrical device.The conceptual metaphor theory belongs to the contemporary theory,which regards metaphor as a cognitive tool,an important means of understanding the world.At present,conceptual metaphor theory has been widely accepted and used in many fields.And it is supported by more and more empirical evidences.Though the traditional theories are not updated,they are advanced at that time.And without the illumination of the traditional theories,the conceptual metaphor theory will not appear.2.1 Comparison theoryComparison theory gets the inspiration from Aristotle and claims that metaphor involves a comparison or similarity of two or more objects.According to this theory,metaphors are elliptical similes and can be understood in the form of “A is like B”(Black,1962);the function of metaphor is a rhetoric device which is used to achieve vividness or persuasiveness: and it is a kind of “word-metaphor”.The following definition is given to metaphor in Aristotle Poetics: “Metaphor lies in giving the thing a name that belongs to some thing else; the transference being either from genus to species,or from species to genus,or from species to species,or on grounds of analogy”(Aristotle,1457:69). Aristotle (1459:3-8)also pointed out that the greatest thing is to have a command of metaphor,this alone cannot be passed on to another; this is the sign of genius,for to make a good metaphor means an eye for similarities.For example,the metaphor,TIME IS MONEY,is actually equal to the simile,TIME IS AS VALUABLE AS MONEY. In fact,comparison theory plays a crucial role in the process of interpretation of metaphor.It is the first influential metaphor theory in the history of the study of metaphor.Though it is advanced at its age,it has its weaknesses:Firstly,metaphor is based on preexisting similarities.Secondly,metaphor is regarded as something that happens just at the word level.Last,metaphor is considered as a rhetorical device,only genius can seize it.2.2 Substitution TheoryComparison theory is a special case of substitution theory. Roman rhetorician Quintilianus (1 A.D.) is the founder of substitution theory.According to this theory,a metaphorical expression is used in place of some equivalent literal expression. (Black,1962:31) He believes that the interpretation of metaphor involves a literal paraphrase to replace an original metaphor. For instance,in the metaphor “Andrew is a lion”,we have to paraphrase the metaphorical part,“a lion” into its literal equivalent,“a brave man” when we are ready to grasp the true sense of the metaphor.Metaphor is treated as theatrical device in both the comparison theory and the substitution theory.Its major function is secondary along with ornamental.Their views of metaphor are different from each parison theory puts emphasis on the nature of metaphor formulation,while substitution theory focuses on the ways of metaphor formulation (ShuDingfang,1996:17).Copyright©博看网 . All Rights Reserved.- 219 -校园英语 /2.3 Interaction theoryLan Chun (2003:11) points out that the publication of Richards’ The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1936),where the interaction view is proposed is the real breakthrough in the field of metaphor studies.Richards (1936:21)points out that when we use a metaphor,we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word,or phrase,whose meaning is a result of their interaction.In other words,metaphor is “a borrowing between intercourse of thoughts,transaction between contexts”(Riehards,1936:94).However Richards does not explain what the results of interaction are and how the interaction goes on in metaphor.Black(1962,1993) inherits and polishes interaction theory.He claims that an interaction between the primary subject (frame) and the secondary subject (focus) of a sentence creates metaphorical meaning by.He also puts forward that a metaphor is comprised of a focus within a frame,and the focus gets its metaphorical meaning from its interaction with the frame.The primary subject of a sentence (frame) and the interaction of two subjects (focus) between the generation of a metaphorical sense.He also proposed a metaphor is comprised of focus within the framework and focus from the interaction with the frame got its metaphorical significance.Compared with the comparison theory,both of them attach importance to role of similarity on the interpretation of metaphor,but Black’s theory goes a step further and pays more attention to the created similarity rather than the preexisted one.Black’s work brings along significant progress in clarifying the field of metaphor: After him,some other scholars have also made attempts to clarify the interaction theory.Among them,there are Mdc Cormac and Indurkhya.Mdc Cormac (1990［1985］) undertakes to provide a formal explanation for metaphor by using the set theory and Indurkhya(1992) promised to build a new simple framework which can offer a explanation of similarities between its two components created by a metaphor.(Lan Chun,2003:12).Although Black makes progress in the interaction theory,he is still unable to provide a clear explanation about what structures and features metaphors have.2.4 Conceptual metaphor theoryFor the study of metaphor,the 20th century is an important period,because many cognitive linguists,such as Lackoff,Johnso n,Gibbs,Sweester,Koveeses, made their study of metaphor from a new angle--- cognitive linguistic perspective.They believe that metaphor is not only a matter of language,but also away of thinking of human being.They begin to probe deep into the nature of metaphor.The real beginning of cognitive study of metaphor is marked by the publication of Lackoff & Johnson’s famous book Metaphors we live by.the conceptual metaphor theory is proposed and metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain in this book.They believe that metaphor is ubiquitous in every day life,not only in language but also in thought and action,that “in terms of which we both think and act,our ordinary conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorical in essence” and that “our conceptual system is largely metaphorical,then to a greater extent, the way we think,what we do every day and what we experience is a matter of metaphor.”(Lakoff&Johnson,1980:3) Reddy also notes that “the locus of metaphor is thought,not language,that metaphor is a significant and indispensable part of our ordinary,traditional way of conceptualization of the world and that our daily behavior reflects experience of our metaphorical understanding”(Reddy,1979; Lakoff,1994).In the conceptual metaphor theory,metaphor is considered as a cross-domain mapping from target domain to source domain in conceptual system.the target domain is the conceptual domain that we try to understand and the source domain is the conceptual domain that we use for this purpose.Conceptual metaphors typically employ a more specific concept as source and a more abstract concept as target.Constituent conceptual elements of source domain correspond systematically to constituent elements of target domain.These conceptual correspondences are called mappings.To understand a metaphor means to understand the mapping system between a source and a target.(Koveeses,2002) The cognitive linguistic view of metaphor consists of several components: source domain,target domain,experiential basis,neural structures corresponding to source and target in the brain,relationships between the source and the target,metaphorical linguistic expressions,mappings,entailments,blends,nonlinguistic realizations and cultural models.3.Studies on metaphor at homeThe traditional studies of metaphor are important nowadays because they confine themselves to the realm of rhetoric.And the traditional theories of metaphor are put forward by scholars abroad.We will not discuss the traditional views in China. What’s more,the current study focuses on the conceptual metaphor theory in the cognitive linguistics,so the studies of cognitive linguistics in China will mainly introduced.The first type of publication mainly describes the present status and development trend of study on metaphor,and introduces a number of influential books abroad: Liu Ningsheng(1992) makes an introductory account of Lakoff and Johnson’s Metaphors We Live By.Lin Shuwu(1994)gives an introduction to the main ideas in cognition and figurative language through an in-Copyright©博看网 . All Rights Reserved.- 220 -校园英语 /depth analysis on metaphor.Yan Shiqing(1995)makes a literature review on metaphor study,introducing the Substitution Theory as well as the Interaction Theory .ZhaoYanfang(2000)makes an introduction to metaphor in terms of its nature,structure and functions.Pang Jixian& Ding Zhanping(2002)introduce Cameron & Low’s Researching and Applying Metaphor.The second type of publications shows that Chinese researchers try to use their own evidences and explanations to describe metaphor.Ningyu(1995,1998) compares the metaphorical conception of anger,happiness,time,and event structure in English with their counterparts in Chinese.Liang Xiaobo(2002) discusses the cognitive linguistics guides English vocabulary teaching.In this article,as an important concept in cognitive linguistics,metaphor is regarded as an important underlying link between polysemies of terms,and also as an important tool to expand words,metaphorical meanings.He also points out that applying the metaphor theories will bear unexpected results in the teaching of English vocabulary.WangYin(2003) puts forward a Quintuplet-in-One hypothesis through an in-depth comparison between metaphor research at home and abroad.Dong Hongle(2003) assumes that FL leaner’s metaphorical competence both on the lexical level and the syntactic level is the key to Conceptual Fluency according to the analysis of the rule of metaphor in foreign language teaching,Lan Chun(2003)conducts a contrastive study of spatial metaphors in English and Chinese which is carried out within the framework of cognitive linguistics.Hu Zhuanglin (2004) probes deep into the relationship of metaphor,language and cognition, the understanding of metaphor, the application of metaphor and metaphor study in n Chun(2005) not only introduces what is metaphor and what is cognitive linguistics, but also carries out a comparative study of English and Chinese spatial metaphors.This marks the new stage of metaphor study in China from cross-cultural and cross-language perspective.According to the statistic data provided by CNKI, more and more Chinese students are attracted by study of metaphor. From1999 to 2006,161 pieces of thesis are about metaphor. They studies metaphor in different fields,such as translation, semantics,pragmatics,language teaching and learning and so on.The theoretical tools used in the research include Relevance theory,systemic-functional Grammar, Conceptual Metaphor Theory,Conceptual Blending Theory,Dynamic Conceptual Semantic Theories, Speech Act Theory: prototype theory,text evaluation theory,translation strategies,Grammatical Metaphor Theory,etc.The main sources of language material include the following: news,novel, poets and other literature,advertisement,children’s story,and idioms.They not only investigate Chinese or English, but also make some comparative study.The research fields include courtroom argument,economics,light,time,spac e, human body,animal,sadness,love,five senses domain,STUDY concept,color and so on.Though the era for metaphor reaches China much later than western countries,we have made considerable progress in recent years, not only in the number of papers but also from the depth of the research.These are the main works in recent years.From the cognitive perspective,the research productions of metaphor are so voluminous that the list can go endlessly.All these research findings reveal the important role metaphorical conceptualization plays in human life.In the above review,we have introduced studies of metaphor at home and abroad.References：[1]Aristotle.Rhetoric and Poetics.New York: The Modern Library,1459.[2]Black, M.Models and Metaphors.Ithaca, NY: Cornel University Press, 1962.[3]Blackmore, Diane.Relevance and Linguistic Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.[4]Kovecses, Z.Metaphor: A Practical Introduction.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.[5]Lakoff, George & Johnson, Mark.Metaphors We Live By.Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 1980.[6]Richards, I.A.The Philosophy of Rhetoric.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1936.[7]胡壮麟, 认知隐喻学.北京:北京大学出版社, 2004.[8]蓝纯,从认知角度看汉语和英语的空间隐喻.北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2003:23-27.[9]蓝纯.认知语言学与隐喻研究.北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2005:122-124.[10]林书武, 国外隐喻研究综述.外语教学与研究,1997,21(1):l1-19.[11]林书武, 隐喻研究的基本现状、焦点及趋势.外国语, 2002(l).[12]束定芳, 隐喻学研究.上海: 上海外语教育出版社,2000.[13]束定芳,汤本庆.隐喻研究中的若干问题与研究课题.外语研究,2002(2).[14]束定芳, 论隐喻的运作机制.外语教学与研究,2002,34(2).[15]赵艳芳, 认知语言学概论.上海外语教育出版社,2006.作者简介：龚腾龙 (1978-)男，讲师，硕士，主要研究方向：英语语言学，英语教学法。
审计学一种整合方法 课件 Chapter07精品文档43页
7-6
Learning Objective 3
Specify the characteristics that determine the persuasiveness of evidence.
©2008 Prentice Hall Business Publishing, Auditing 12/e, Arens/Beasley/Elder
Sample sizes Items to select Timing of the tests
Most auditors use computers to facilitate the preparation of audit programs.
©2008 Prentice Hall Business Publishing, Auditing 12/e, Arens/Beasley/Elder
©2008 Prentice Hall Business Publishing, Auditing 12/e, Arens/Beasley/Elder
7-5
Audit Program
It includes a list of the audit procedures the auditor considers necessary.
7-7
Persuasiveness of Evidence
Two determinants: Appropriateness Sufficiency
©2008 Prentice Hall Business Publishing, Auditing 12/e, Arens/Beasley/Elder
Audit Evidence
Chapter 7
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
“an extensive review of previous research, right up to their date of examination.” (Paltridage & Starfield, 2007:99)
“One important purpose of a literature review is to contextualize the student’s research.”
“describe and synthesize the major studies related to the topic of the research”
2.Critical appraisal: the ability to apply principles of analysis to identify unbiased and valid studies.
1. being organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are developing
Definitions Theoretical Framework Research Questions
Research Streams 1
Research Streams 2
Research Streams 3
Research Streams 4
Most Related Studies
Study 1 Summary Comments
The literature review accomplishes several purposes.
◦ It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the one being undertaken.
Describing the theoretical framework to a study
Summarizing and critiquing previous research,
Adopting a stance， Using reporting and evaluative verbs
Bad Practice: A l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w i s a p i e c e of discursive prose, not a list describing or summarizing one piece of literature after another. It’s usually a bad sign to see every paragraph beginning with the name of a researcher.
Background to the study: a state-of-the-art review of the field of study, including current developments, controversies and breakthroughs, previous research and relevant background theory;
Focus of the study: what is being researched and why;
Data used in the study: justification for the choice of data;
Contribution of the study: importance of the project for the fies
Study 3 Summary Comments
Research Gaps
Research Purpose Research Methods Research Significance
1. Information seeking: the ability to scan the literature efficiently, using manual or computerized methods, to identify a set of useful articles and books.
2. synthesizing results into a summary of what is and is not known
3. identifying areas of controversy in the literature
4. formulating questions that need further research
◦ It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature, filling in gaps and extending prior studies (Cooper, 1984; Marshall & Rossman, 2006).
Week 7 Literature Review
Zhencong Liu
Definition Purposes Structure Steps Problems Strategies/Guidelines
A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers.