语言学2
语言学教程02Chapter 2_sound(2)
If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation先期协同发音. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation后滞协同 发音, as is the case of map.
In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the „broad‟ transcriptions.
3.3 Allophones 音位变体
Allophones---- the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.
Velarization: clear l and dark l // [] / _____ V [] / V _____
Think about tell and telling!
Phonetic similarity发音近似性: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.
The word „phoneme‟音位 simply refers to a „unit of explicit sound contrast‟: the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.
语言学常识第二章
2.语言学的学科分类和研究取向。 语言是一种社会现象，也是一种自然现象。 （1）语言学的各个分支学科 从语言本身的各种现象来看： 语音学、语义学、语法学、词汇学、语用学 从与语言密切相关的现象来看： 文字学、方言学、获得（习得）语言学 从各种语言的联系和发展看： 历史语言学、对比语言学、语言类型学（形态、孤 立）
构》《句法理论要略》。
60年代“转换语法”
70年代“生成语法”
80年代“管辖与约束理论”
90年代“最简方案”
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（1）生成语言学研究的目标“普遍语法” 假设人的语法知识包括两个部分，一是各语言特有 的“个别语法”；另一部分是人类语言共有的“普 遍语法”。 （2）生成语言学的核心内容“句法自治” 在语言各要素中，只有句法形式才可以从人脑全部 认知系统中抽象出来作为一个独立系统，或者说只 有句法形式才是一个可以穷尽推导和通过有限手段 重复使用而实现的系统。 基础部分：我看书——我/看书； 转换部分：我看书——书我看
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从研究语言的不同观察角度： 生成语言学（从语言形式角度研究语言的结构生成机 制） 功能语言学（从交际功能的角度解释语言现象） 认知语言学（从心理认知的角度来探究人脑中的语言 表达和理解机制） 文化语言学（联系民族文化来研究语言文字并探求语 言文字中蕴含的文化因素） 从语言研究的应用领域看： 应用语言学、实验语音学、心理语言学、神经语言 学、病理语言学。 法律语言学、新闻语言学、广告语言学 写作学、修辞学、语文教育学 社会语言学、计算语言学 7
2、语言研究中的语文传统 全世界语言研究有四个传统： 古印度语言学传统、古希腊古罗马语言学传统、古代 中国语言学传统、古代阿拉伯语言学传统 （1）古印度语言学传统： 公元前10世纪，梵语《吠陀》 研究梵语的语音、语法、语义，公元前4世纪出版《梵 语语法》 （2）古希腊古罗马语言学传统： 公元前3世纪《希腊语法》 公元前2世纪《论句法》 古罗马《拉丁语》、《语法学》 12 文艺复兴时期《普遍唯理语法》
语言学第二章
• 二、征候及其与符号的异同 • 1.征候：事情发生的预兆或迹象。 • 2.符号与征候的相同之处：符号与征候都有 代替性，即符号或征候都可代替它们标志 的那个事物。 • 3.符号与征候的不同之处：征候是事物本身 的特征，与事物之间有自然、必然的联系。 而符号与所代表的事物之间则没有必然的 联系。
• 三、语言符号的性质 • 1、语言符号的形式：表达一定内容的声音， 即语音，也称语音形式 。 • 2、语言符号的内容：依靠一定的语音形式 表现出来的语义。 • 3、语言符号的性质：音义结合的统一体。
• 3、强制性：即语言符号一旦进入使用阶段， 它的声音和意义的关系，任何个人必须遵守， 不能随意改变。 4. 约定性：语言符号的音义结合是由社会约 定俗成的。 （约定） （反映）
音 义 符号 现实现象 代表
五、语言和说话（言语） （一）语言和说话（言语）的区别 说话（言语）是使用语言工具的行为 和结果，指的是说话的行为和说出来的 话。 语言则是从言语中提炼出来的可以分 析的结构系统，是从无限的句子里反复 使用的材料和规则抽象出来的工具系统。
任意性
区别特征 结构的 二层性 开放性
人类语言 两层结构：音位层和 符号层。
动物“语言” 不能分解成单位，没有结 构。
运用有限的语言手段， 一种封闭的系统，所传递 通过替换和组合，造 的信息固定，受刺激限定。 出无限的句子。 通过后天的学习和现 实的语言环境，掌握 一种语言。 其“语言”是一种本能， 与生俱来。
• 三、语言符号的系统性表现在： • 语言是由各种语言单位构成的一种 层级装置，这种装置靠组合和替换来 运转，各语言单位都处在组合关系和 聚合关系的体系之中。
第三节 语言系统是人类特有的
一、语言能力 1. 指掌握语言的先天潜能。 2. 指人们掌握、运用语言的能力。 二、语言能力是其他动物和人类之间无 法逾越的一条鸿沟
语言学chapter2课后练习答案
Chapter 2Revision exercises reference1.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one isprimary and why?Refer to section 2.1The two major media of communication are speech and writing. Of the two, speech is considered primary for the following reasons: 1) from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always a later invention. 2) In everyday communication, speech conveys a greater amount of information than writing. 3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later as part of formal education.2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Refer to section 2.2.2 (1)V oicing is a phonetic feature of some speech sounds. It is caused by the vibration of the speaker's vocal cords when he produces a certain sound. If a sound bears this feature, it is voiced. If such a feature is absent in the pronunciation of a sound, it is voiceless. All vowels in English are voiced; and some consonants in English are voiced such as [d] and [v] while others are voiceless such as [p] and [s].3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcriptiondiffer.Both broad and narrow transcriptions are ways to transcribe speech sounds, i.e.ways of using written symbols to represent speech sounds. In broad transcription, only the letter symbols are used, and the principle is to use one letter for onesound, such as [P] and [I]. In narrow transcription, a set of symbols calleddiacritics are added to the letter symbols to show the finer differences between similar sounds, such as[P h] and [ɫ].4.How are the English consonants classified?As in the pronunciation of consonants the air stream coming from the lungs is somehow obstructed, it is possible and also necessary to classify them in terms of manner of articulation and place of articulation. In terms of manner of obstruction, the consonants are classified into the following groups: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of obstruction, the consonants are classified into the following groups: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, and glottal.5.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?To classify the English vowels, the following criteria can be applied: position of the tongue, openness of the mouth, length of the vowels, and the shape of the lips.According to the position of the tongue, the vowels are classified into front, central and back vowels; according to the openness of the mouth, the vowels are classified into close, semi-close, semi-open, and open vowels; and according to the length of the vowels, they are classified into long vowels and short vowels;and according to the shape of the lips, and the vowels are classified into rounded and unrounded vowels.6.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)voiced palatal affricate--- [dʒ]2)voiceless labiodental fricative---[f]3)voiced alveolar stop---[d]4)front, close, short---[i]5)back ,semi-open, long ---[ɔ:]6)voiceless bilabial stop---[p]Given the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1)[d]---voiced alveolar stop2)[l]---voiced alveolar liquid3)[tʃ]---voiceless palatal/alveolar affricate4)[w]---voiced bilabial glide5)[u]---back,close,short(rounded)6)[æ]---front,short,open(unrounded)7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do youthink will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l]and[ɫ], [pʰ]and[P],a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Refer to section 2.3.1Though both dealing with speech sounds, phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study in that the former focuses on the speech sounds themselves, their ways of pronunciation, their differences, their classifications, etc., while the latter focuses on the sound system of particular languages and the role sounds play in conveying meaning. Therefore, a phonetician will be more interested in the difference between two sounds.8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophonesrelated to a phoneme?Refer to section 2.3.2A phone is simply a speech sound, every actual sound we use or hear inmeaningful linguistic communication. For example, in pronouncing the two words “feel” and “leaf”, we actually use or hear four phones:[f][i:][l]and[~l].A phone differs from a phoneme in that the former is an actual sound we hear andit is the unit of study in phonetics, and the latter is not an audible sound, but an abstract entity, a collection of phonetic features, used as a unit of study in phonology. Take the “feel” and “leaf” example again. While four phones are used or heard in the pronunciation of these two words, only three phonemes are involved, i.e. /f/ /i: / and /l/.A phoneme, though as an abstract entity, is realized as different phones indifferent phonetic contexts. All these different phones are called the allophones of the same one phoneme. For example, the aspirated [pʰ] and the unaspirated [p] are allophones of the same phoneme/p/.9.Explain with examples the sequential rules, the assimilation rule, and thedeletion rule.Sequential rules are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. For exam ple, why “klib” is a permissible combination of the four sounds in English and why “kbli” is not can only be accounted for by a sequential rule.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. For example, the actual pronunciation of the letter “n” in the word “ incorrect” is not the alveolar [n] but the velar nasal [ŋ] is a manifestation of the assimilation rule at work.The deletion tells us when a sound is deleted although it is orthographically represented. For example, in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letterg. But in their corresponding noun forms signature, designation and paradigmatic,the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced.10.What are Suprasegmental features? How do the major Suprasegmentalfeatures of English function in conveying meaning?Suprasegmental features refer to those phonological features occurring above the sound segment level. The major Suprasegmental features in English are stress and intonation. The shift of word stress may change the part of speech of words of the same spelling, such as “'progress n.” and “pro'gress v.” , and different stress may cause difference in the meaning of some compound nouns and noun phrases with the same components, such as “'hotdog” and “hot 'dog”. Stressing words that are normally unstressed in a sentence may convey some extra meaning by the speaker.For exam ple, by stressing the pronoun “my” in the sentence “He is driving 'my car” the speaker is emphasizing the fact that the car he is driving is no one else`s but the speaker`s.The three often-used intonations in English are the falling tone, the rising tone, and the fall-rise tone. The basic role they each play is that the falling tone states a fact, the rising tone raises a question, and the fall-raise tone implies some meaning not literally expressed. For example, the same sentence “That`s not the book he w ants” said in the three different intonations convey three different meanings.Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguishmeaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.2. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.3.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.4.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.5.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amountof information conveyed.6.Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds whicha speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.7.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat,the mouth and the chest.8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.9.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of thetongue that is raised the highest.10.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can beclassified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.11.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.12.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or morephonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:13. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.14.The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b_______sounds.15.S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.16.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____rules.17.P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language andhow sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.18.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: wordstress and s_________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:19.Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords20.__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/21.Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they candistinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair22. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highestposition.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle23.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemicsegments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. Suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features24.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection ofdistinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme。
语言学概论(2)
（4）语法层面 ） 语法因素对语言信息的影响， 语法因素对语言信息的影响，就是语 言的语法层面。 言的语法层面。语法因素对语言信息的影 主要表现为以下两种情况： 响，主要表现为以下两种情况： 1、结构关系不同对语言信息的影响。如： 、结构关系不同对语言信息的影响。 我要烤红薯 烤红薯。 动宾） 我要烤红薯。 （动宾） 我要烤红薯 烤红薯。 偏正） 我要烤红薯。 （偏正） 2、结构层次不同对语言信息的影响。如： 、结构层次不同对语言信息的影响。 哥哥和姐姐的同学都走了 都走了。 哥哥和姐姐的同学都走了。 哥哥和姐姐的同学都走了 同学都走了。 哥哥和姐姐的同学都走了。
语言的上层是符号层。 语言的上层是符号层。属于上 层的语言单位既有语音形式， 层的语言单位既有语音形式，又有 语义容。 语义容。符号层包括三级基本的语 言单位：语素、词和句子。 言单位：语素、词和句子。语素是 最小的有意义的语言单位， 最小的有意义的语言单位，是构词 的材料。词是语素的上级单位， 的材料。词是语素的上级单位，是 造句的材料。 造句的材料。句子又是词的上级单 也是语言交际的最小单位。 位，也是语言交际的最小单位。语 素是最基本的符号， 素是最基本的符号，词一般是复合 符号，句子一般是若干符号的组合。 符号，句子一般是若干符号的组合
第二节 语言符号的系统性
(The Systematic of Linguistic Signs)
一、语言的层级及其特点 语言是一种分层装置， 语言是一种分层装置，这种装置靠 组合和替换来运转。 组合和替换来运转。根据语言单位性质 的不同， 的不同，语言系统首先可以分成两个大 的层次——下层和上层。下层和上层内 下层和上层。 的层次 下层和上层 部又可分为若干不同的级别。 部又可分为若干不同的级别。
语言学lesson2 (戴炜栋版)
9) ________ vowels are made by raising the back of the tongue towards the soft palate.
10) ________ are produced by moving from one vowel position to another.
2.2. The Speech Organs
The articulatory apparatus of human beings are contained in the important areas or cavities: the pharyngeal cavity — the throat the oral cavity —the mouth the nasal cavity —the nose
p pill d desk m member f feel z zoo ʃ/š shy ǰ Jill w wait
b ball t till k kiss g gap n name ŋ ring v veal s so θ thigh ð thy ʒ/ž measure č chain l letter r reef ʍ which ϳ yard
2.5.1. Vowels vs. consonants vowels (with no obstruction through the speech organs) consonants (with obstruction through the speech organs)
2.5.2. Classification of English consonants
tense and lax: short vowels are lax
语言学2章测试题及答案
语言学2章测试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学的主要研究对象是什么？A. 语言的起源B. 语言的结构C. 语言的演变D. 语言的使用答案：B2. 下列哪项不是语言学的分支学科？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 心理学D. 语义学答案：C3. 索绪尔认为语言符号是由哪两部分组成的？A. 语音和语义B. 符号和意义C. 能指和所指D. 形式和内容答案：C4. 语言的最小意义单位是什么？A. 音素B. 词C. 语素D. 句子5. 语言的交际功能不包括以下哪一项？A. 信息传递B. 情感表达C. 思维工具D. 艺术创作答案：C6. 语言的规范性主要体现在哪个方面？A. 发音B. 语法C. 词汇D. 所有选项答案：D7. 语言的多样性主要体现在哪些方面？A. 语言结构B. 语言使用C. 语言发展D. 所有选项答案：D8. 语言的演变不包括以下哪一项？A. 语音变化B. 词汇变化C. 语法变化D. 语言消亡答案：D9. 以下哪种现象不属于语言接触？B. 融合C. 分化D. 同化答案：C10. 语言的标准化通常不涉及以下哪一项？A. 发音规范B. 词汇规范C. 语法规范D. 语言的起源答案：D二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学研究的两个主要对象是______和______。
答案：语言；言语2. 索绪尔将语言符号分为______和______。
答案：能指；所指3. 语言的三个基本功能包括______、______和______。
答案：表达功能；交际功能；思维功能4. 语音学研究的是______和______。
答案：语音的产生；语音的感知5. 语用学研究的是______和______。
答案：语境；意义6. 语言的演变包括______、______和______。
答案：语音变化；词汇变化；语法变化7. 语言的接触现象包括______、______和______。
答案：借用；融合；同化8. 语言的多样性表现在______、______和______。
新编简明英语语言学教程中文版2
新编简明英语语言学教程中文版2简介《新编简明英语语言学教程中文版2》是一本系统介绍英语语言学的教材。
本教材由专业的语言学家和教育学家编写，旨在帮助学习者深入了解英语语言学的基本概念和原理。
本文档将简要介绍本教材的内容，并对其中重要概念进行概述。
第一章：语言学导论第一章主要介绍了语言学的基本概念和研究对象。
在本章中，学习者将了解什么是语言学，以及语言学的研究范围和方法论。
同时，还提供了一些语言学研究的历史背景和经典理论。
本章的目的是给学习者提供一个全面的语言学导论，为后续章节的学习做好铺垫。
第二章：语音学第二章主要介绍了语音学的基本概念和方法。
学习者将了解语音学的研究对象——音素以及音素的分类和描述方法。
在本章中，还将介绍音系和音位的概念，并讨论语音的产生和感知。
此外，还将讨论音位对语言的重要性以及音系和音位在不同语言间的差异。
通过学习本章内容，学习者将对语音学的基本理论和方法有一个初步了解。
第三章：音系学第三章主要介绍了音系学的研究内容和方法。
在本章中，学习者将学习语音学中的重要概念：音位、语音环境和音变规律。
此外，还将介绍音系学的研究方法，如音位的调查和描述。
通过学习本章内容，学习者将了解音系学在语言研究中的重要性，以及如何通过音系学方法来分析和描述不同语言的音系。
第四章：词汇学第四章主要介绍了词汇学的研究内容和方法。
在本章中，学习者将学习词汇学的基本概念，如词汇的定义和分类。
同时，还将介绍词汇的形态结构和词性。
本章还将介绍词汇的意义和语义关系，并讨论词汇的产生和变化。
通过学习本章内容，学习者将了解词汇学在语言研究中的重要性，以及如何进行词汇的分析和研究。
第五章：句法学第五章主要介绍了句法学的研究内容和方法。
在本章中，学习者将学习句法学的基本概念，如句子的组成和句子的结构。
同时，还将介绍句法分析的方法和理论，如短语结构文法和依存句法。
本章还将讨论句法的意义和句法的变化。
通过学习本章内容，学习者将了解句法学在语言研究中的重要性，以及如何进行句法的分析和研究。
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Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules
Learning as another route, refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules
Register
The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register
Stops p b t d k g
Fricatives f v s z
Bilabial p b
Labio-dental F v
Alveolar t d s z
Velar k g
Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the hearer and the speaker
Knowledge of what language use
Knowledge of what have been said before
Knowledge about the world in general
Knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place Knowledge about each other
The naming theory
The conceptualist view
contextualism Time and place hearer and speaker actions they are performing
objectives exist in the situation
behaviorism
synonymy Dialectal synonym
stylistic synonym
synonym differ in emotive and evaluative meaning
collocational synonym
semantically different synonym
polysemy
Homonymy homophones 同音异议
Homographs
Hyponymy 上下意关系
Superordinate 坐标词
Hyponymy 下意词
X entails Y X 是小范围等同于Y is the entailment of X
X presupposes Y X 是以Y为前提的Y为条件等同于Y is the prerequisite of X
Interlanguage is defined as an abstract system of the learner’s target language and it has now been widely refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones。