Global Cost and Availability of Capital
生态学专业英语词汇
absolute reproductive value 绝对生殖值abundance 多度abyssal zone 深海带acclimation 驯化accumulation horizon 淀积层aestivation 夏眠age structure 年龄结构age-specific life table 特定年龄生命表agroecosystem 农业生态系统alleles 等位基因allelochemic 异种信息素/种间外激素Allen’s rule 阿伦法则allogenic succession 异发演替allopatric speciation 异域性物种altruism 利他行为asexual reproduction 无性生殖association group 群丛组association table 群丛表association unit theory 群丛单位理论associations 群丛Autecology 个体生态学autogenic succession 自发演替autotrophs 自养生物Acid precipitation 酸沉降Acid rain 酸雨Agricultural eco-engineering 农业生态工程Agricultural ecology, agroecology 农业生态学Agricultural economical zoning 农业经济区位Agricultural resources 农业资源Agroecosystem 农业生态系统Agroforestry 农林业系统Allee’s principle 阿利氏群聚原则Allelochemicals 化感物质Allelopathy 化感作用Artificial auxiliary energy 人工辅助能Artificial direct regulation 人工直接调控Artificial information flow 人工信息流Auxiliary energy 辅助能balancing selection hypothesize 平衡说basal area 底面积Bergman’s rule 贝格曼规律bethal zone 半深海带biocoenosis 生物群落bioconcentration 生物浓缩biological enrichment 生物富集biomagnification 生物放大biomass 生物量biome 生物带bionomic strategy 生态对策biosphere 生物圈Biodynamic agriculture 生物动力农业Biogecochemical cycle 生物地球化学循环Biological agriculture 生物农业Biological control 生物防治Biological energy subsidies 生物辅助能Biological oxygen demand BOD 生化需氧量生化耗氧量Biomass 生物量Bionomic strategies 生态对策Biological micro-cycle 生物小循环bottle neck 瓶颈C3 plant C3植物C4 plant C4植物CAM plant CAM植物Capital flow 资金流Carrying capacity 环境容纳量Chemical ecology 化学生态学Chemical oxygen demand COD 化学耗氧量Chinese Ecological Agriculture 中国生态农业Climax 顶极群落Coase’s theory 高斯理论Coevolution 协同进化Commensalisms 偏利作用Community 群落Competition 竞争Competition exclusion principle 竞争排斥原理Components structure 组分结构Controlled availability fertilizers, CAFs 控效肥料Crop productivity potential 作物生产潜力cannibalism 同种相食carnivores 食肉动物carring capacity 负荷量catastrophic 灾难性因素chamaephytesCh 地上芽植物character displacement 特征替代cheliophytes 阴性植物climate climax 气候顶级climate school 气候学派climax community 顶级群落climax 顶级群落cline 渐变群closed community 封闭群落clumped 集群分布coadapted system 协同适应系统coarse grained 粗粒性分布co-dynamics 相互动态co-evolution 协同进化cohort 同生群cold desert 冷荒漠colonization 定居, 建群coloration 色泽communities in littoral zone 沿岸生物群落communities in the limnetic zone 湖沼带生物群落communities in the profundal zone 深水带生物群落Community ecology 群落生态学community matrix 群落矩阵community organization 群落组织community 群落companion species 伴生种compen-satory predation 补偿性捕食competition coefficient 竞争系数competition hypothesis 竞争假说competitive exclusion 竞争排除competive lottery 抽彩式竞争conservation 保守主义者conspicuousness 显著度constancy 恒有度contest competition 干扰竞争contest type of competition 争夺型竞争continental rise 大陆隆continental shelf 大陆架continental slope 大陆坡convergent adaptation 趋同适应convergent oscillation 趋同波动cost of gene recombination 基因重组价cost of mating 交配价cost of meiosis 减数分裂价courtship behavior 求偶行为coverage 盖度crude density 原始密度cryptophytesCr 隐芽植物Decomposer 分解者Desertification 土地沙漠化Detritus food chain 腐食食物链decomposition 分解作用delayed density dependence 延后密度制约density effect 密度效应density ratio 密度比density-dependent 密度制约density-independent 非密度制约deterministic model 决定模型detrial food chain 碎食物链detritus feeder 食碎生物development 发育differential species 区别种diffuse competition 分散竞争diominant-submissive 支配—从属directional selection 定向选择discrete generation 离散世代disruptive selection 分裂选择disturbance climax/disclimax 偏途顶级divergent oscillation 趋异波动dominance 优势度dominant species 建群种dominant species 优势种dominant-submissive 支配—从属关系dry desert 干荒漠dynamic classification 动态分类系统dynamic life table 动态生命表dynamic-composite life table 动态混合生命表earth nucleus 地幔earth’s crust 地核Ecological amplitude 生态幅ecological density 生态密度ecological dominance 生态优势ecological environment 生态环境ecological equivalent 生态等值种ecological factor 生态因子ecological force 生态力ecological invasion 生态入侵ecological natality 生态出生率ecological release 生态释放Ecology 生态学ecosystem development 生态系统的发育Ecosystem ecology 生态系统生态学ecosystem 生态系统acetone hypothesis 生态交错带假说ecotype 生态型ectoderm 外温动物edge effect 边缘效应etiolating phenomenon 黄化现象emergy 能值emigration 迁出endogenous migration 内因性迁移endoderm 内温动物environment hormone 环境激素environment 环境equilibrium theory 平衡理论euphonic zone 透光带euryecious 广栖的euryhaline 广盐性的euryhydric 广水性的euryphagic 广食性的eurythermal 广温性的eurytopic species 广适种eutrophication 富营养化evergreen hardwood forest 常绿硬材林Evolution ecology 进化生态学evolution force 进化力exogenous migration 外因性迁移exploitive competition 利用竞争exponetial growth 指数增长Eco-economical zoning 生态经济区位Ecological agriculture 生态农业Ecological agriculture model pattern 生态农业模式Ecological density 生态密度Ecological effect 生态效益Ecological efficiency 生态效率Ecological factor 生态因子Ecological engineering 生态工程Ecological pyramid 生态金字塔生态锥体Ecological succession 演替Ecological sustainability 生态持续性Ecology 生态学Economic effect 经济效益Economic externality 经济外部性Ecosystem 生态系统Ecotone 群落交错区生态交错区Ecotope 景观元素生态点Ecotype 生态型Edge effect 边缘效应Embodied energy 内含能Emergent property of system 系统的整合特性Energy analysis 能流分析Energy flow chart 能流图Energy flow path 能流路径Energy flow structure 能流结构Energy flowing 能量流Entropy 熵Eutrophication 富营养化Exponential growth form 种群指数增长模式External benefit 收益外泄External cost 成本外摊Feed back 反馈作用First law of thermodynamics 热力学第一定律Fish pond-dike system 基塘系统Flow 流Food chain 食物链Food chain structure 食物链结构Food web 食物网Free energy 自由能First law of resources economic 资源经济学第一定律Functional component adundence 功能组分冗余facultative parthenogenesis 孤雌生殖facultative parthenogenesis 兼性孤雌生殖facultative 兼性因素family selection 家庭选择farmland ecosystem 农田生态系统fecundity schedule 生育力表fecundity 生育力feedback 反馈feeding niches 取食生态位filter food 滤食性生物fine grained 细粒性分布finite rate of increase 周限增长率fitness 合适度floristic-structural classification 植物区系—结构分类系统fluctuation 波动food chain 食物链formation group 群系组formation 群系formation 植物群系foundational niche 基础生态龛freshwater ecology 淡水生态学freshwater ecosystem 淡水生态系统function response 功能反应gamete selection 配子选择gaps 缺口gaseous cycle 气体循环geng pool 基因库geographic variation 地理变异geographical theory of speciation 物种形成geometric growth 几何级数增长geophytesG 地下芽植物global ecology 全球生态gradient hypothesis 梯度假说grain 粒性grazer 牧食生物grazing food chain 捕食食物链greenhouse effect 温室效应gregarization pheromone 聚集信息素gross primary production 总初级生产力group selection 群体选择growth form 生长型guild 同资源团habal zone 深渊带habitat 生境heath 石楠群丛height 高度hemicryptophytesHe 地面芽植物herbivore 植食herbivores 植食动物heterotrophic succession 异养演替heterotrophs 异养生物hibernation 冬眠homeostasis 内稳态homeostasis 自调节稳态homeostatic organism 内稳态生物homeostatic process 内稳定过程human demography 人口统计学Human ecology 人类生态学humus 腐殖质hydrarch succession 水生演替hydrosere 水生演替系列immigration 迁入importance value 重要值individual converse rate 个体转化率industrial melanism 工业黑化现象inner capacity increase 内禀增长力inner-environment 内环境instantaneous rate of increase 瞬间增长率intensity 强度interference competition 干扰竞争interference competition 干扰竞争intermediate disturbance hypothesis 中度干扰假说internal distribution pattern 内分布型interspecfic relationship 种间关系intertidal zone 潮间带intraspecific relationship 种内关系inversely density dependent 反密度制约Island ecology 岛屿生态学iteroparity 多次繁殖生物iteroparous 多次生殖Jordan’s rule 约丹定律keystone species 关键种kin selection 亲属选择kin selection 亲属选择k-strategists k-策略者land cover 土地覆盖land use 土地利用Landscape ecology 景观生态学law of constant final yield 最后产量衡值法则law of the minimum 最小因子法则law of tolerance 耐受性法则layer 层leached layer 淋溶层leaf area index 叶面积指数leaf area indexLAS 叶面积指数lentic ecosystem 静水生态系统life cycle 生活周期life expectancy 生命期望life form spectrum 生活型谱life form 生活型life history strategy 生活史对策life history 生活史lifespan 生活年限lifetime 寿命limit of tolerance 忍受性限度littoral zone 沿岸带lotic ecosystem 流水生态系统macroclimate 大气候macrofauna 大型生物Marine ecology 海洋生态学marine ecosystem 海洋生态系统maximum natality 最大出生率maximum sustained yield 最大持续生产量megafauna 巨型生物mexofauna 中型生物microclimate 小气候microcolony 微菌落microcommunities 小群落micro-ecosystem 微生态系统micro-environment 微环境microfauna 小型生物microplankton 小型浮游生物migration 迁徙modular organism 构件生物modules 构件Molecular ecology 分子生态学monoclimax theory 单元演替顶级monocultute 单种养殖monogamy 单配偶制monpohagous 单食性monsoon forest 季风林mortality curve 死亡曲线mortality 死亡率mosaic 镶嵌性natality 出生率n-dimensional niche n 维生态龛negative feedback 负反馈net primary productionGP 净初级生产力neutrality controversy 中性说论战niche compression 生态位压缩niche separation 生态位分离niche shift 生态位分离niche 生态位non-equilibrium theory 非平衡理论non-homeostatic organism 非内稳态生物obiotic component 非生物成分ocean-current 洋流ohort life table 同群生命表omnivores 杂食动物open community 开放群落open shrublands 稀疏灌丛opportunist 机会主义者ordination 排序ornamentation 修饰panclimax 泛顶级pantropical 泛热带区parabiosphere 副生物圈parasites 寄生生物parasitoidism 拟寄生parent material 母质层parental care 亲代关怀parental investment 亲本投资patchiness 斑块性per capita growth rate 每员增长率perclimax 前顶级peritrophic mycorrhizae 周边营养性菌根phanerophytesPh 厄尔尼诺El Nino photoperiodism 光周期现象phyplankton 浮游植物physiognomy 外貌Physiological ecology 生理生态学physiological natality 生理出生率phytochrom 色素pioneer community 先锋群落pjarapatric speciation 邻域性物种plankon 浮游生物Poission distribution 泊松分布polyandry 一雌多雄制polyclimax theory 多元顶级理论polygamy 多配偶制polygyny 一雄多雌制polymorphism 多型现象polyphagous 多食性的Population ecology 种群生态学population 种群porosity 粒间空隙positive feedback 正反馈postclimax 超顶级predation 捕食者predator 捕食者present reproductive value 当年繁殖价值prevail climax 优势顶级prey 猎物prezygotic mechanism 合子前隔离primary production 初级生产primary succession 初级演替primary succession 原生演替principle of allocation 分配原理principle of competitive exclusion 竞争互斥原理production rate 生产率production 生产量productivity 生产力progressive succession 进展演替protogynous hermaphriodism 雌雄同体pyramid of energy 能量金字塔radiation adaptation 趋异适应random 随机分布rare species 偶见种reaction time lag 反应滞时reactive species 反映性物种realized natality 实际出生率realized nick 实际生态龛regressive succession 逆行演替relative frequency 相对频度relative reproductive value 相对生殖值reproduction effect 生殖成效reproductive cost 繁殖成本reproductive pattern 生殖格局reproductive time lag 生殖滞时reproductive value 生殖值residual reproductive value 剩余繁殖价值resilient stability 恢复稳定性resistant stability 抵抗稳定性Restoration ecology 恢复生态学richness 丰度r-k continuum of strategies r-k略连续系统r-strategists r-策略者saprovores 食腐者savanna woodland 热带稀树草原林地scavenger 食腐者sciophytes 阳性植物scramble competition 利用竞争scramble type of competition 分摊型竞争secondary metabolites 次生代谢物质secondary production 次级生产力secondary succession 次生演替secondary 次级演替sedimentary cycle 沉积循环selective fertilization 选择受精self-destructive 自我破坏semelparity 一次繁殖生物semelparous 一次生殖sex ratio 性比sexual dimorphism 雌雄二形现象sexual reproduction 有性生殖sexual selection 性选择shade plants 耐阴性植物Shannon-Weiner index 香农—威纳指数sieve selection hypothesis 筛选说similarity 相似度Simpson’s diversity index 辛普森多样性指数social group 社群social hierarchy 社会等级social-economic-natural complex ecosystem 社会--经济--自然复合系统solar emergy 太阳能值solar emjoules 太阳能焦耳solar transformity 太阳能值转换率spatial pattern 空间格局special heterogeneity 空间异质性speciation 物种形成species area curve 物种面积曲线species diversity 物种多样性species evenness or equitability 种的均匀度species heterogeneity 种的不齐性species turnover rate 种的周转率spore reproduction 孢子生殖stability-resilience 稳定恢复力stabilizing selection 稳定选择standing crop 现存量static life table 静态生命表stenoecious 窄栖性的stenohaline 窄盐性的stenohydric 窄水性的stenophagic 窄食性的stenothermal 窄温性的steppe and semideserty 干草原和半荒漠stochastic model 随机模型stratification 成层现象subassociation 亚群丛组subdominant 亚优势种subformation 亚群系succession 演替succulent 肉质植物succulent 肉质植物summed dominance ratio SDR综合优势比summer-green deciduous forest 夏绿落叶林survivorship curve 存活曲线sympatric speciation 同域性物种Synecology 群落生态学synusia 层片Terrestrial ecology 陆地生态学territorial behavior 领域行为territoriality 领域性the –2/3 thinning law –2/3自疏法则the effect of neighbours 邻接效应therophytes Th 一年生植物thertnoperiodism 温周期现象thorn forest and scrub 多刺森林和密灌丛time-specific life table 特定时间生命表torpor 蛰伏total neutrality hypothesis 中性说trophic level 营养级trophic relationship 营养的联系trophic relationship 营养联系tundra and cold forest 苔原和冷森林uniform 均匀分布unitary organism 单体生物univoltine insects 一化性的昆虫upper horizon 覆盖层Urban ecology 城市生态学vegetation subtype 植被亚型vegetation type group 植被型组vegetation type 植被型vegetative propagation 营养生殖volume 体积water cycle 水循环weight 重量xerarch succession 旱生演替xerophytes 旱生植物zero net growth isoline ZNGI零增长线zone of emergent vegetation 挺水植物带zooplankton 浮游动物El Nino 厄尔尼诺feedback 反馈reflex 反射generalist 泛化种defennce behavior 防卫行为flower visitor 访花昆虫non-hierarchical 非等级的non-spatial model 非空间模型non-homeostatic organism 非内稳态生物nonequilibrium metapopulation 非平衡态复合种群nonequilibrium habitat-tracking metapopulation 非平衡态跟踪生境复合种群nonequilibrium declining metapopulation 非平衡态下降复合种群non—niche 非生态位physical environment 非生物环境nonlinear 非线性关系dispersion 分布decomposer 分解者branching process 分支过程molecular taxonomy 分子分类学the neutral theory of molecular evolution 分子进化的中性理论molecular ecology 分子生态学molecular systematics 分子系统学plankton 浮游动物negative feedback 负反馈carrying capacity 负荷量negative interaction 负相互作用negative selection 负选择epifauna 附底动物metapopulation 复合种群eutrohication 富营养化现象relamation 改良coverage 盖度cover ratio 盖度比disturbance 干扰disturbance patch 干扰斑块disturbance corridor 干扰廊道interference 干扰作用height 高度Coarse's hypothesis 高斯假说Coarse's theory 高斯理论phanerophytes 高位芽植物Grenville Orogenesis 格林威尔造山运动individual 个体individualistic concept 个体论概念renewal 更新functional niche 功能生态位aggressive behavior 攻击行为modules 构件modular organism 构件生物keystone species 关键种association coefficients 关联系数light saturation point 光饱和点light compensation point 光补偿点photoperiod 光周期filter 过滤器Hardy-Weinberg principle 哈德-温伯格原理Ocean ecosytem 海洋生态系统Cambrian period 寒武纪siccocolous 旱生植物river corridor 河流廊道contancy 恒有度mangrove 红树林respiration 呼吸量mutualism 互利synomone 互利素synomonal 互利作用allelopathy 化感作用chemical defence 化学防御chemical ecology 化学生态学allelochemicals 化学物质chemocryptic 化学隐藏divisive 划分的environment 环境environmental ethics 环境伦理学environmental carryin capacity 环境容纳量environmental resource patch 环境资源斑块environmental resource corridor 环境资源廊道desert 荒漠desertification 荒漠化desert ecosystem 荒漠生态系统eitiolation phenomenon 黄化现象restoration ecology 恢复生态学chaos 混沌学mixed type 混合型exchange pool 活动库acquired behavior 获得性行为organismic school 机体论学派Fundamental niche 基础生态位Ecology is the scientific study of interactions among organisms and their environment, such as the interactions organisms have with each other and with their abiotic environment. Topics of interest to ecologists include thediversity, distribution, amount biomass, number population of organisms, as well as competition between them within and amongecosystems. Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as primary production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, and various niche construction activities, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits, and the variety of organisms is calledbiodiversity. Biodiversity, which refers to the varieties of species,genes, and ecosystems, enhances certain ecosystem services.生态是生物和环境之间的相互作用,如生物相互之间以及与他们的非生物环境的相互作用的科学的研究;生态学家感兴趣的话题包括的thediversity,分布量生物量,数量人口的生物,以及他们之间的竞争和amongecosystems内;包括生物体的动态相互作用的部分组成的生态系统,他们的社区做起来,他们的环境和非生物成分;生态过程,如初级生产,成土作用,养分循环,各种小生建设活动的环境,通过调节能量和物质通量;这些过程持续生物体特定的生活史,各种生物calledbiodiversity;生物多样性是指物种,基因和生态系统的品种,提高一定的生态系统服务;Ecology is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology and Earth science. The word "ecology" "Ökologie" was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel 1834–1919. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their studies on natural history. Modern ecology transformed into a more rigorous science in the late 19th century. Evolutionary concepts on adaptation and natural selection became cornerstones of modernecological theory. Ecology is not synonymous with environment,environmentalism, natural history, or environmental science. It is closely related to evolutionary biology, genetics, and ethology. An understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function is an important focus area in ecological studies. Ecologists seek to explain:生态学是一个跨学科领域,包括生物学和地球科学; “生态学”的“Ökologie”,是由德国科学家恩斯特·海克尔1834-1919于1866年创造的;如古希腊哲学家希波克拉底和亚里士多德在他们的研究奠定了基础,生态,自然历史;现代生态转化为更严格的科学在19世纪后期;适应和自然选择的进化概念成为了基石modernecological理论;生态环境,环保,自然历史,或环境科学的代名词;它是密切相关,进化生物学,遗传学和行为学;理解生物多样性如何影响生态功能是生态研究的一个重点领域;生态学家寻求解释：Life processes, interactions and adaptationsThe movement of materials and energy through living communitiesThe successional development of ecosystems, andThe abundance and distribution of organisms and biodiversity in the context of the environment.生命过程,相互作用和适应通过物质和能量的运动生活社区生态系统的演替发展,上下文环境中的生物和生物多样性的丰度和分布;Ecology is a human science as well. There are many practical applications of ecology in conservation biology, wetland management,natural resource management agroecology, agriculture, forestry,agroforestry, fisheries, city planning urban ecology, community health, economics, basic and applied science, and human social interaction human ecology. Organisms and resources compose ecosystems which, in turn, maintain biophysical feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living biotic and nonliving abiotic components of the planet. Ecosystems sustain life-supporting functions and produce natural capital like biomass production food, fuel, fiber and medicine, the regulationof climate, global biogeochemical cycles, water filtration, soil formation, erosion control, flood protection and many other natural features of scientific, historical, economic, or intrinsic value.生态是人类科学;有很多实际应用中的生态保护生物学,湿地管理,自然资源管理农业生态学,农业,林业,农林业,渔业,城市规划城市生态,社区卫生,经济,基础科学和应用科学,人类社会的互动人类生态学;生物和资源组成的生态系统,反过来,保持生物物理反馈机制,适度的过程,作用于生活生物和无生命的星球生物的组件;生态系统维持生命支持功能和生产生物质生产食品,燃料,纤维和医药,调节气候等自然资本,全球生物地球化学循环,过滤水,土壤的形成,控制水土流失,防洪和许多其他科学的自然特征,历史,经济,或内在价值;Hierarchical ecologyThe scale of ecological dynamics can operate like a closed system, such as aphids migrating on a single tree, while at the same time remain open with regard to broader scale influences, such as atmosphere or climate. Hence, ecologists classify ecosystems hierarchically by analyzing data collected from finer scale units, such as vegetation associations, climate, and soil types, and integrate this information to identify emergent patterns of uniform organization and processes that operate on local to regional, landscape, and chronological scales.生态动力学的规模可以象一个封闭的系统,如在一个单一的树进行迁移的蚜虫操作,而在同一时间保持打开状态,关于更广泛的范围的影响,如大气或气候;因此,生态学家生态系统分类较细规模的单位,如植被协会,气候和土壤类型,通过分析收集的数据分层,整合此信息来确定突发模式统一组织和流程上操作的地方到区域,景观,实足鳞片;To structure the study of ecology into a conceptually manageable framework, the biological world is organized into a nested hierarchy, ranging in scale from genes, to cells, to tissues, to organs, to organisms, to species, topopulations, to communities, to ecosystems, to biomes, and up to the level of the biosphere.6 This framework forms a panarchy7 and exhibits non-linearbehaviors; this means that "effect and cause are disproportionate, so that small changes to critical variables, such as the number of nitrogen fixers, can lead to disproportionate, perhaps irreversible, changes in the system properties.组织生态学研究的一个概念管理的框架,组织成一个嵌套层次的生物世界,规模不等,从基因,细胞,组织,器官,生物体,以品种,群体,社区,生态系统,生物群落,最多对生物圈的水平;6该框架形成一panarchy7和展品的非线性行为,这意味着“效应而引起不成比例,从而使小的变化的关键变量,如固氮细菌的数量,可导致不相称的,或许是不可逆转的,在系统属性的变化;BiodiversityBiodiversity an abbreviation of "biological diversity" describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. The term has several interpretations, and there are many ways to index, measure, characterize, and represent its complex organization.101112 Biodiversity includes species diversity, ecosystem diversity, and genetic diversity and scientists are interested in the way that this diversity affects the complex ecological processes operating at and among these respective levels.111314 Biodiversity plays an important role inecosystem services which by definition maintain and improve human quality of life.151612 Preventing species extinctions is one way to preserve biodiversity and that goal rests on techniques that preserve genetic diversity, habitat and the ability for species to migrate.citation needed Conservation priorities and management techniques require different approaches and considerations to address the full ecological scope of biodiversity.Natural capital that supports populations is critical for maintaining ecosystem services1718 and speciesmigration e.g., riverine fish runs and avian insect control has been implicated as one mechanism by which those service losses are experienced.19 An understanding of biodiversity has practical applications for species and ecosystem-level conservation planners as they make management recommendations to consulting firms, governments, and industry从基因到生态系统的生物多样性“生物多样性”的缩写描述生命的多样性,跨越各个层次的生物组织;这个词有几种解释,指数,衡量的方法有很多,检定和代表其复杂的组织;10 1112生物多样性包括物种多样性,生态系统多样性,遗传多样性和科学家感兴趣的是这种多样性影响的复杂的生态过程,在各自水平和经营方式;111314生物多样性生态系统服务的定义保持和提高人类的生活质量起着重要的作用;1516 12防止物种灭绝,是保护生物多样性的方式之一,目标在于技术,保持遗传多样性,栖息地和物种迁移的能力;引证需要优先保护和管理技术需要不同的方法和注意事项,以解决全生态生物多样性的范围;支持人口的自然资本是至关重要的维持生态系统服务17 18和物种迁移例如,运行河流鱼类和昆虫控制禽流感已牵连作为一个机制,这些服务亏损经历;19理解生物多样性,物种和生态系统一级保护规划具有实际应用,因为他们提出管理建议,咨询公司,政府和行业•。
Unit6 carrying capacity 课文加翻译
Unit6 carrying capacity：earth’s bottom lineIt takes no stretch of the imagination to see that thehuman species is now an agent of change of geologicproportions. We literally move mountains to mine theearth’s minerals, redirect rivers to build cities in thedesert, torch forests to make way for crops and cattle,and alter the chemistry of the atmosphere in disposing of our wastes. At humanity’s hand, the earth isundergoing a profound transformation-one withconsequences we cannot fully grasp.没有一点点想象明白人类带来地理比例的变化,我们移山开采地球的矿物质,重定向的河流在沙漠中建造城市,为了农作物和畜牧烧森林来让路,并改变大气的化学处理的废物。
对于人类,地球正在经历一个深远的改变-这一结果我们不能完全控制.It may be the ultimate irony that, in our efforts tomake the earth yield more for ourselves, we arediminishing its ability to sustain lifeof all kinds,humans included. Signs of environmental constraintsare now pervasive. Cropland is scarcely expandingany more, and a good portion of existing agriculturalland is losing fertility. Grasslands have been overgrazed and fisheries overharvested, limiting theamount of additional food from these sources. Waterbodies have suffered extensive depletion and pollution, severely restricting future food production andurban expansion. And natural forests-which helpstabilize the climate, moderate water supplies, and harbor a majority of the planet’s terrestrial biodiversity-continue to recede.它可能是最终的讽刺,在我们努力使地球产量更多,我们正在消弱其维持生命的能力。
薪酬管理外文文献翻译
薪酬管理外文文献翻译The existence of an agency problem in a corporation due to the separation of ownership and control has been widely studied in literatures. This paper examines the effects of management compensation schemes on corporate investment decisions. This paper is significant because it helps to understand the relationship between them. This understandings allow the design of an optimal management compensation scheme to induce the manager to act towards the goals and best interests of the company. Grossman and Hart (1983) investigate the principal agency problem. Since the actions of the agent are unobservable and the first best course of actions can not be achieved, Grossman and Hart show that optimal management compensation scheme should be adopted to induce the manager to choose the second best course of actions. Besides management compensation schemes, other means to alleviate the agency problems are also explored. Fama and Jensen (1983) suggest two ways for reducing the agency problem: competitive market mechanisms and direct contractual provisions. Manne (1965) argues that a market mechanism such as the threat of a takeover provided by the market can be used for corporate control. "Ex-post settling up" by the managerial labour market can also discipline managers and induce them to pursue the interests of shareholders. Fama (1980) shows that if managerial labour markets function properly, and if the deviation of the firm's actual performancefrom stockholders' optimum is settled up in managers' compensation, then the agency cost will be fully borne by the agent (manager).The theoretical arguments of Jensen and Meckling (1976) and Haugen and Senbet (1981), and empirical evidence of Amihud andLev (1981), Walking and Long (1984), Agrawal and Mandelker (1985), andBenston (1985), among others, suggest that managers' holding of common stock and stock options have an important effect on managerial incentives. For example, Benston finds that changes in the value of managers' stock holdings are larger than their annual employment income. Agrawal and Mandelker find that executive security holdings have a role in reducing agency problems. This implies that the share holdings and stock options of the managers are likely to affect the corporate investment decisions. A typical management scheme consists of flat salary, bonus payment and stock options. However, the studies, so far, only provide links between the stock options and corporate investment decisions. There are few evidences that the compensation schemes may have impacts on thecorporate investment decisions. This paper aims to provide a theoretical framework to study the effects of management compensation schemes on the corporate investment decisions. Assuming that the compensation schemes consist of flat salary, bonus payment, and stock options, I first examine the effects of alternative compensation schemes on corporate investment decisions under all-equity financing. Secondly, I examine the issue in a setting where a firm relies on debt financing. Briefly speaking, the findings are consistent with Amihud and Lev's results.Managers who have high shareholdings and rewarded by intensive profit sharing ratio tend to underinvest.However, the underinvestment problem can be mitigated by increasing the financial leverage. The remainder of this paper is organised as follows. Section II presents the model. Section HI discusses the managerial incentives under all-equity financing. Section IV examines the managerial incentives under debt financing. Section V discusses the empirical implications and presents the conclusions of the study.I consider a three-date two-period model. At time t0, a firm is established and goes public. There are now two kinds of owners in the firm, namely, the controlling shareholder and the atomistic shareholders. The proceeds from initial public offering are invested in some risky assets which generate an intermediate earnings, I, at t,. At the beginning, the firm also decides its financial structure. A manager is also hired to operate the firm at this time. The manager is entitled to hold a fraction of the firm's common stocks and stock options, a (where0<a<l), at the beginning of the first period. At time t,, the firm receives intermediate earnings, denoted by I, from the initial asset. At the same time, a new project investment is available to the firm. For simplicity, the model assumes that the firm needs all the intermediate earnings, I, to invest in the new project. If the project is accepted at t,, it produces a stochastic earnings Y in t2, such that Y={I+X, I-X}, with Prob[Y=I+X] = p and Prob[Y=I-X] = 1-p, respectively. The probability, p, is a uniform density function with an interval rangedfrom 0 to 1. Initially, the model also assumes that the net earnings, X, is less than initial investment, I. This assumption is reasonable since most of the investment can not earn a more than 100% rate of return. Later, this assumption is relaxed to investigate the effect of the extraordinarily profitable investment on the results. For simplicity, It is also assumed that there is no time value for the money and no dividend will be paid before t2. If the project is rejected at t,, the intermediate earnings, I, will be kept in the firm and its value at t2 will be equal to I. Effects of Management Compensation Schemes on Corporate Investment Decision Overinvestment versus UnderinvestmentA risk neutral investor should invest in a new project if it generates a positiexpected payoff. If the payoff is normally or symmetrically distributed, tinvestor should invest whenever the probability of making a positive earninggreater than 0.5. The minimum level of probability for making an investment the neutral investor is known as the cut-off probability. The project will generzero expected payoff at a cut-off probability. If the investor invests only in tprojects with the cut-off probability greater than 0.5, then the investor tendsinvest in the less risky projects and this is known as the underinvestment. Ifinvestor invests the projects with a cut-off probability less than 0.5, then tinvestor tends to invest in more risky projects and this is known as thoverinvestment. In the paper, it is assumed that the atomistic shareholders risk neutral, the manager and controlling shareholder are risk averse.It has been argued that risk-reduction activities are considered as managerial perquisites in the context of the agency cost model. Managers tend to engage in these risk-reduction activities to decrease their largely undiversifiable "employment risk" (Amihud and Lev 1981). The finding in this paper is consistent with Amihud and Lev's empirical result. Managers tend to underinvest when they have higher shareholdings and larger profit sharing percentage. This result is independent of the level of debt financing. Although the paper can not predict themanager's action when he has a large profit sharing percentage and the profit cashflow has high variance (X > I), it shows that the manager with high shareholding will underinvest in the project. This is inconsistent with the best interests of the atomistic shareholders. However, the underinvestment problem can be mitigated by increasing the financial leverage.The results and findings in this paper provides several testable hypotheses forfuture research. If the managers underinvest in the projects, the company willunderperform in long run. Thus the earnings can be used as a proxy forunderinvestment, and a negative relationship between earningsandmanagement shareholdings, stock options or profit sharing ratiois expected.As theunderinvestment problem can be alleviated by increasing the financialleverage, a positiverelationship between earnings and financial leverage isexpected.在一个公司由于所有权和控制权的分离的代理问题存在的文献中得到了广泛的研究。
民航英语作文
When writing an essay on civil aviation in English,it is important to consider various aspects such as the history,development,importance,and future of the industry. Here is a detailed outline and content for a comprehensive essay on the topic:Title:The Evolution and Significance of Civil AviationIntroduction:Briefly introduce the concept of civil aviation.Mention the impact of civil aviation on global connectivity and economic development.The Dawn of Civil Aviation:Discuss the early days of aviation,focusing on the Wright brothers first powered flight in 1903.Highlight the initial challenges faced in the development of commercial aviation.PostWorld War II Expansion:Describe the rapid growth of civil aviation following World War II.Discuss the role of technological advancements in making air travel more accessible and safer.The Jet Age:Explain the transition from propellerdriven aircraft to jet engines.Discuss the impact of jet travel on longdistance travel and the opening of new international routes.The Era of Deregulation:Describe the deregulation of the airline industry in the late20th century.Analyze the effects of deregulation on competition,ticket prices,and service quality.The Impact of Globalization:Discuss how civil aviation has facilitated globalization.Explore the role of airlines in connecting economies and promoting international trade.Innovations in Modern Aviation:Highlight recent technological innovations such as the Boeing787Dreamliner and Airbus A350.Discuss the environmental impact of aviation and the industrys efforts towards sustainability.Challenges and the Future of Civil Aviation:Address current challenges such as climate change,security concerns,and the economic viability of air travel.Speculate on the future of civil aviation,including the potential of electric and hybrid aircraft,as well as the role of drones in cargo and passenger transport.Conclusion:Summarize the key points discussed in the essay.Emphasize the enduring significance of civil aviation in the modern world and its potential for future growth and innovation.Bibliography:List the sources used for research,including books,academic articles,and reputable websites.Remember to use clear and concise language,provide specific examples to support your arguments,and maintain a logical flow throughout the essay.Additionally,ensure proper citation of sources to avoid plagiarism and to lend credibility to your work.。
雅思小作文模板用水量
雅思小作文模板用水量Water Usage。
Introduction。
Water is an essential resource for all living organisms, including humans. It is used for various purposes such as drinking, cooking, bathing, cleaning, and agricultural activities. However, with the increasing global population and industrialization, the demand for water has been rising significantly. This has led to concerns about water scarcity and the need for sustainable water usage practices.Current Water Usage。
The current water usage patterns vary across different regions and countries. In developed countries, the average per capita water usage is much higher compared to developing countries. This is mainly due to the availability of modern amenities such as indoor plumbing, washing machines, and dishwashers. In contrast, in developing countries, access to clean and safe water is limited, and people often have to rely on natural water sources such as rivers and wells.Domestic Water Usage。
2022年中国发展成就英语作文素材摘抄及感悟
2022年中国发展成就英语作文素材摘抄及感悟全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Excerpts and Reflections on China's Developmental Achievements in 2022As a student deeply interested in my nation's progress, I have closely followed the remarkable developmental strides taken by China over the past year. The achievements in 2022 were truly awe-inspiring, further solidifying China's position as a global powerhouse driving positive change. In this essay, I will present excerpts from authoritative sources detailing some of the key successes, while also offering my personal reflections on their significance.Economic Resilience and Innovation:"China's economy expanded 3 percent year-on-year to a record high of 121 trillion yuan in 2022, as the country achieved its annual growth target despite COVID-19 disruptions and external uncertainties." (Xinhua News Agency)Despite facing multifaceted challenges such as sporadic COVID-19 outbreaks and global economic headwinds, Chinaexhibited remarkable resilience in maintaining steady economic growth. The ability to navigate turbulent waters while continuing to expand truly highlights the nation's robust policies and adaptability. As a Chinese student, I take immense pride in our economic prowess."China's research and development spending intensity reached a new high of 2.55 percent in 2022, ranking second globally after Israel." (Ministry of Science and Technology)This statistic encapsulates China's unwavering commitment to fostering a culture of innovation. By consistently investing in research and development, we are paving the way for groundbreaking discoveries and technological advancements that will shape the future. The world looks to China as an innovation powerhouse, a sentiment that fills me with hope for the boundless potential of our nation's youth.Poverty Alleviation and Rural Revitalization:"By the end of 2022, all of China's rural areas had access to optical fiber and 4G networks, underscoring the nation's success in eliminating digital divides." (Ministry of Industry and Information Technology)Bridging the digital gap between urban and rural areas is a remarkable achievement that resonates deeply with me as a student from a small village. The widespread availability of high-speed internet and modern communication technologies empowers rural communities, providing equal access to information, education, and economic opportunities. This digital inclusion initiative is a testament to China's commitment to leaving no one behind on the path to prosperity."The per capita disposable income of rural residents reached 19,548 yuan in 2022, up 6.8 percent year-on-year in real terms." (National Bureau of Statistics)These figures offer tangible evidence of the tangible improvements in rural livelihoods and the narrowing urban-rural income gap. As someone who witnessed firsthand the hardships faced by rural families, I am elated to see the fruits of targeted poverty alleviation efforts. This rise in rural incomes not only enhances living standards but also instills a sense of dignity and hope for a better future.Environmental Sustainability and Green Development:"China's installed capacity of renewable energy reached 1.29 billion kilowatts in 2022, accounting for 46.9 percent of thecountry's total installed power generation capacity." (National Energy Administration)As a young person deeply concerned about the well-being of our planet, I am immensely heartened by China's steadfast pursuit of renewable energy sources. The staggering installed capacity of clean energy showcases our nation's unwavering commitment to environmental sustainability and combating climate change. This achievement serves as a shining example for other nations to follow, inspiring collective action towards a greener, healthier world."China's carbon emissions per unit of GDP in 2022 dropped by 0.8 percent compared to the previous year, marking the eighth consecutive year of decline." (Ministry of Ecology and Environment)The consistent reduction in carbon intensity is a remarkable accomplishment that deserves widespread recognition. China's ability to decouple economic growth from excessive carbon emissions demonstrates the feasibility of pursuing development while prioritizing environmental protection. As a young Chinese citizen, I am heartened by our nation's responsible approach to balancing progress with ecological well-being.Looking Ahead with Optimism and Determination:These excerpts merely scratch the surface of China's extraordinary developmental achievements in 2022. From economic resilience and innovation to poverty alleviation, rural revitalization, and environmental sustainability, our nation has made remarkable strides across multiple fronts. As a Chinese student, I am filled with an immense sense of pride and optimism for the future.However, our journey towards comprehensive development is far from over. We must remain vigilant and determined, continuously striving to overcome challenges and seize new opportunities. It is our collective responsibility to build upon these successes, fostering a more prosperous, equitable, and sustainable China for generations to come.I am confident that through unwavering dedication, boundless creativity, and a shared vision for progress, we will continue to scale new heights and inspire the world with our remarkable achievements. As students, we must embrace our role as torchbearers, armed with knowledge and passion, to carry forward the legacy of our great nation into an even brighter future.篇22022: A Year of Milestone Achievements for China's DevelopmentAs a student keen on understanding the rapidly evolving world around me, 2022 was a year that caught my attention like few others. China, the world's most populous nation and an increasingly influential global power, made remarkable strides across various sectors. From technological breakthroughs to economic resilience, environmental initiatives to social welfare programs, China's developmental achievements in 2022 were both impressive and inspiring.One of the most significant highlights was China's continued leadership in cutting-edge technologies. The country solidified its position as a frontrunner in fields like artificial intelligence, quantum computing, and renewable energy. The unveiling of the exascale supercomputer 'Frontier' was a testament to China's prowess in high-performance computing, capable of performing a quintillion calculations per second. Additionally, China's burgeoning private space industry achieved new milestones, with companies like Galactic Energy sending reusable rockets into orbit, igniting hopes for more cost-effective space exploration.China's economic resilience in the face of global uncertainties was another remarkable feat. Despite the lingering impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical tensions, the country's GDP grew by an impressive 3.2% in 2022. This growth was fueled by robust domestic consumption, strategic investments in infrastructure, and the government's adept policy maneuvering. The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), China's ambitious global development strategy, continued to gain traction, fostering closer economic ties with partner nations and laying the groundwork for future trade opportunities.Environmental sustainability emerged as a top priority for China in 2022. The country doubled down on its efforts to combat climate change and reduce its carbon footprint. The commissioning of the world's largest offshore wind farm in the East China Sea and the rapid expansion of solar power installations were significant milestones in China's transition towards clean energy. Furthermore, the nation's reforestation efforts and investment in eco-friendly technologies, such as electric vehicles and green buildings, demonstrated its commitment to a greener future.China's social welfare initiatives in 2022 were equally praiseworthy. The country made remarkable strides in povertyalleviation, lifting millions of citizens out of destitution through targeted policies and investment in rural infrastructure. Access to quality healthcare and education also improved, with the government allocating substantial funds towards building new hospitals, training medical professionals, and modernizing educational facilities in underdeveloped regions.As a student, I was particularly inspired by China's emphasis on fostering innovation and nurturing young talent. The nation's investments in research and development, coupled with initiatives like the "Thousand Talents Program," aimed to attract and retain the brightest minds in cutting-edge fields. Moreover, the government's support for entrepreneurship and startups created an ecosystem that encouraged risk-taking and innovative thinking among the youth.While China's achievements in 2022 were undoubtedly remarkable, the country also faced its share of challenges. The lingering effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, coupled with global supply chain disruptions and trade tensions, posed obstacles to economic growth. Additionally, concerns over human rights issues, censorship, and environmental degradation in certain regions remained areas of contention for international observers.Nevertheless, from my perspective as a student, China's developmental trajectory in 2022 was nothing short ofawe-inspiring. The country's ability to navigate complex challenges while simultaneously pushing the boundaries of innovation and progress was a testament to its resilience and determination.As I look towards the future, I am filled with a sense of optimism and curiosity. China's ambitious goals, such as achieving carbon neutrality by 2060 and becoming a global leader in frontier technologies, offer promising opportunities for personal and professional growth. As a student of this rapidly evolving world, I am eager to witness and potentially contribute to China's continued development in the years to come.In conclusion, 2022 was a year that showcased China's unwavering commitment to progress and its ability to overcome obstacles. From technological breakthroughs to environmental initiatives, economic resilience to social welfare programs, the nation's achievements were both diverse and impactful. As a student, I am inspired by China's dedication to innovation, sustainability, and the betterment of its people's lives. The experiences and lessons learned from 2022 will undoubtedlyshape my perspectives and aspirations as I navigate theever-changing global landscape.篇3China's Remarkable Development Achievements in 2022As a student deeply interested in my country's progress, I have been following China's development milestones in 2022 with great admiration. This past year has witnessed remarkable accomplishments across various domains, further solidifying China's position as a global powerhouse. Through this essay, I aim to encapsulate the essence of these achievements by citing relevant excerpts and sharing my heartfelt reflections.Economic Growth and Innovation:China's economic resilience has been a subject of global attention, as evidenced by the following excerpt from the National Bureau of Statistics: "In 2022, China's GDP grew by 3.0%, outperforming major economies and maintaining its status as a key engine for global economic recovery." This steady growth amidst global uncertainties is a testament to China's robust economic foundations and pragmatic policymaking.Furthermore, China's prowess in innovation has been propelling its technological advancement. As stated in the"China Science and Technology Innovation Development Report 2022," "China's R&D expenditure intensity reached 2.55% in 2022, surpassing major economies and demonstrating its commitment to becoming a global innovation leader." This commitment has yielded breakthroughs in cutting-edge fields like artificial intelligence, quantum computing, and renewable energy, positioning China at the forefront of scientific progress.Poverty Alleviation and Rural Revitalization:One of China's most remarkable achievements has been its unwavering commitment to eradicating poverty and revitalizing rural areas. The "No.1 Central Document" for 2022 highlighted, "China has achieved the ambitious goal of eliminating absolute poverty, benefiting nearly 100 million rural residents." This monumental feat has not only improved the lives of countless individuals but has also showcased China's determination to create a more equitable society.Moreover, the report emphasized, "Rural revitalization efforts have gained momentum, with increased investment in infrastructure, education, and healthcare, empowering rural communities to thrive." These initiatives have bridged the urban-rural divide and fostered sustainable development in remote regions, ensuring that no one is left behind.Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development:China's commitment to environmental protection and sustainable development has been unwavering, as demonstrated by the following excerpt from the "China's Efforts to Peak Carbon Dioxide Emissions" report: "In 2022, China's carbon intensity (carbon emissions per unit of GDP) decreased by 3.8%, reflecting its steadfast pursuit of green and low-carbon development." This progress showcases China's resolute efforts to combat climate change and transition towards a more sustainable future.Moreover, the report highlights, "Renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, accounted for 29.5% of China's total energy consumption in 2022, solidifying its position as a global leader in clean energy." This transition not only benefits the environment but also fosters technological innovation and creates new economic opportunities.Social Development and Public Welfare:China's development achievements extend beyond economic and environmental realms, encompassing social progress and public welfare. The "National Human Development Report 2022" states, "China's Human Development Index (HDI) reached 0.822 in 2022, ranking among the highest in developing countries, reflecting improvements in education, healthcare, andliving standards." This holistic approach to development ensures that the benefits of progress are shared equitably among all segments of society.Furthermore, the report highlights, "Social security coverage has expanded, with over 1.3 billion people covered by basic medical insurance and nearly 500 million benefiting from the subsistence allowance system." These initiatives have strengthened the social safety net, providing a crucial lifeline for vulnerable populations and promoting social harmony.Cultural Renaissance and International Exchanges:China's development achievements have also encompassed a cultural renaissance and increased international exchanges. The "China Cultural Development Report 2022" notes, "China's cultural industries have flourished, contributing significantly to the national economy and promoting cultural diversity." This resurgence of traditional arts, literature, and media has enriched China's vibrant cultural tapestry while fostering a deeper appreciation for its rich heritage globally.Additionally, the report highlights, "International cultural exchanges have deepened, with China hosting numeroushigh-profile events, such as the Beijing Winter Olympics, and participating in global cultural initiatives." These efforts havefacilitated cross-cultural understanding, fostered global dialogue, and showcased China's commitment to promoting peace and cooperation.Personal Reflections:As a student witnessing these remarkable achievements, I am filled with immense pride and optimism for my country's future. China's development in 2022 has been a testament to its unwavering determination, pragmatic policies, and innovative spirit. The excerpts cited above underscore China's multifaceted progress, encompassing economic growth, poverty alleviation, environmental sustainability, social development, and cultural renaissance.What strikes me most profoundly is China's holistic approach to development, balancing economic prosperity with environmental protection, social equity, and cultural preservation. This comprehensive vision ensures that progress is not merely measured by GDP figures but by the overallwell-being of its people and the harmony of its natural and cultural ecosystems.Furthermore, China's willingness to share its development experiences and engage in international cooperation iscommendable. By fostering global dialogue and cultural exchanges, China has。
核心和非核心结构【外文翻译】
外文翻译原文Core vs.Non-Core FrameworkMaterialSource:/articles/2009/01/core-vs-noncore-fra mework,2004.02 Author: Neil Mac Allister, Richard Evans, and Katherine WallaceAcross the pharmaceutical industry,dramatic and durable changes to the operating environment are calling for modifications to companies’strategies and structures. The industry is facing a period of eroding pricing power, falling growth in the consumption of branded drugs, and tighter regulatory standards.As a consequence, companies are finding that revenue growth is becoming both slower and more volatile, and that returns on R&D spending are pushing below the cost of capital. We recommend changes to the current business model that include smaller, more efficient and more flexible cost structures, as well as the increase of efforts to mitigate revenue volatility.Our aim in this article is to apply an analytical framework for how to think about an evolving business model for pharmaceutical companies.The pharmaceutical industry is operating within an increasingly unfavorable political,economic,and regulatory environment,largely as a result of negative public opinion,rising healthcare costs,and increasing involvement from governments in the purchase,reimbursement and market approval of pharmaceuticals.These pressures are being brought to bear on an industry whose structures reflect past rather than present and future conditions,particularly with costs that are both too high and too inflexible.To estimate profitability over long time cycles,we compared year one R&D spending to year 10 net income, a rate of return that has been falling for as long as we can measure. Apparent returns are no longer higher than the industry’s cost of capital.Profits must exceed costs of capital for a business to remain viable.Inpharma, this gap can be widened by either increasing the revenue return generated by each dollar spent on R&D or by reducing the cost of commercializing the industry’s innovationsWe also see revenue growth slowing and becoming more volatile, consisting of interspersed periods of growth and contraction. As real pricing power and per-capita branded volume effects fade,revenue growth slows.Historically,real pricing power and per-capita volume growth made steady, predictable contributions to total revenue growth and more pricing power could be applied when needed to stabilize growth;as they fade,revenue growth defaults to —or at least toward —the remaining variables: population growth and product mix. Population growth is too small to matter,leaving mix as the dominant variable.Product mix is extremely volatile from period to period, consisting of significant gains (i.e. new products) and significant losses (i.e. patent expiry) interspersed at uneven intervals. Absent the buffers of real pricing and per-capita volume gains,it follows that future revenue patterns contain both ups and downs; unless cost structures become more flexible, periods of revenue contraction will result in outright earnings losses.Competitive differentiation must consider whether ownership or control of the activity is important for competitive and/or strategic reasons,and whether or not the company is able to perform the activities at such a level that it provides them with a point of differentiation against their competitors. The availability of sourcing options needs to examine whether or not there are ample vendors performing the activity that can deliver world-class quality at a cost-effective price.Core activities•Enable the overarching business strategy•Are key components of the company’s value proposition•Are a major source of durable competitive advantage (e.g.intellectual capital)•Protect intellectual property•Have internal capabilities that cannot be matched or exceeded by outside vendors or other partnersNon-core activities•Can be pushed outside of pharma to improve flexibility within cost structure •Are general “supportive” activities to the pharma value proposition•Can be conducted by third parties and match or exceed internal quality/economicsDetermining core and non-core activities for your company will depend upon the benefits of outsourcing or partnerships versus keeping the function in-house and the strategic importance of the function relative to your company. The importance and value of these two dimensions will differ depending upon the product stage. For example, elements of screening in discovery that have low risk of IP exposure may be considered non-core,while aspects of lead optimization in development involving high risks of IP exposure are likely to be considered core activities.We have broken R&D down into four phases:basic research,discovery, preclinical, and development. By examining the key activities within each of these phases, a core or non-core determination can be made based on the strategic context underlying each element.In some cases the activity may be “on the fence”–this simply means that the determination will vary for each company depending on their internal capabilities, capacity, and strategic direction.Basic research functions are core only if they provide a point of differentiation for the company. For example, in therapeutic areas in which very few companies are working on a limited number of mechanisms, target identification and validation activities may be a point of differentiation. Beyond this, the activities are thought to be non-core. In therapeutic areas with multiple mechanisms and multiple companies competing,it is likely in the best interest for the company to change their orientation to search for and evaluate targets rather than to generate IP.Basic research around different mechanisms may be found within academia,but increasingly commercial organizations are developing platforms necessary to conduct these activities – providing a variety of capable vendors and partners.Discovery efforts should be considered for outsourcing because they are easily systematized and — in some instances — are automated. For companies that have already built discovery capabilities in-house — e.g. high through-put screening —the cost effectiveness and quality standards must be evaluated against outsourcing options.Preclinical activities are increasingly being outsourced in order to take advantage of specialist modeling capabilities. Assembly of the information gathered in preclinical development will remain in-house,while the actual generation of perspectives will move to outsourcing. The vendor environment for preclinical work,particularly in specialty areas,is maturing quickly,allowing pharmaceutical companies to tap into new efficiencies by outsourcing in these areas.In clinical development,strategy,development plans, and management functions should always be kept in-house. In all development activities, consideration should be given to two rules: the protection of critical relationships and the active management of the outsourcing.Another factor that influences outsourcing in development is the philosophy of the company.This should be considered when examining “on the fence” activities; some companies may view certain activities as generic skills where others see a core strategic advantage.Once the core vs.non-core determination has been made,companies must assess the optimal outsourcing approach for non-core activities.We have divided outsourcing approaches into two categories, functional and integrated, based on the degree of integration necessary between the sponsor and the vendor. As a general rule, if a core activity must be outsourced for some reason, integration with vendors is essential. For non-core activities, a functional approach is usually best.Integrated outsourcing arrangements would focus on accelerated decision making and minimizing time to proof of concept.Vendors would work with integrated workflows and pre-established standard operating procedures (SOPs), with IT decision support. In many cases,integrated outsourcing calls for a component of risk sharing in the compound’s success,and an economic model should be established in which there is an emphasis on quality, not quantity, and it is in the interest of the vendor to “kill” compounds as soon as they begin showing unfavorable results.Clinical data management has been one area of development activity that is routinely outsourced and has been increasingly off-shored. As a very basic example of the application of the core/non-core decision process, we have used the example of the partnership between Accenture and Wyeth to illustrate the use of our framework.To begin,from the company perspective,data management is not a differentiating activity. It does not provide a point of competitive advantage over a competitor, and it is unlikely that any one company possesses a leadership position in this area.As a result,in outsourcing there is very little executional or IP risk associated with outsourcing data management.In terms of capacity,many companies have been moving away from holding data management capabilities in-house over the last decade,so many may not even have internal resources.Additionally,there are no key relationships associated with the data management function.From a company situation standpoint,all variables point toward data management being a non-core activity.The vendor situation for data management points toward the same conclusion. Sophisticated vendor environments already exist for conducting data management, particularly in off-shore communities. Because of the ample supply of vendors, quality standards are high and generally well trusted, and competition has lowered prices to a very attractive level.With both situations pointing toward outsourcing, there is very little by way of company situation that would compel a pharmaceutical company to keep data management activities in-house. Below we have profiled an example of Wyeth’s shifting of data management to an outsource partner and the impact the relationship has had.Wyeth and Accenture formed a deal in which Wyeth gave its entire data management operation to Accenture over a 10-year contact.In doing so,half of Wyeth’s 300 data management positions were eliminated,and the remaining employees were transferred to Accenture for employment. The more mundane data management tasks, such as data entry, would be sent offshore to India to make use of Accenture’s specialized facilities. In order to get the contract, Accenture had to accept a risk-sharing arrangement and meet highly specific performance criteria all while cutting Wyeth’s data management costs by 50%.The result was a deal that provides significant cost savings for Wyeth, shifting fixed costs to variable costs while also tapping into new capabilities through Accenture’s service delivery center in India. New efficiencies can also be reached; functions that would have taken Wyeth more than 100 days must be reduced to about 20 days under the deal, or Accenture will have to pay Wyeth.In contrast to the data management example, program management activities can be examined as an extreme illustration of an activity that is core and must be kept in-house.As a result,we do not have a case studied to apply to this framework because we are not aware of outsourced program management arrangements.While specific company situations will vary,all companies will find a very high executional and IP risk associated with outsourcing the program management function. Program management is one of the remaining areas where companies can hold a significant leadership advantage over competitors and continue to buildinternal know-how (intellectual capital).Additionally, it is critical that internal program management teams develop and leverage key relationships along the value chain.The vendor situation further reinforces that program management remains in-house.While program management functions may be a portion of outsourcing specific activities, vendors solely dedicated to program management do not readily exist. Even if an extreme company situation dictated that program management activity be outsourced, a fully integrated outsourcing approach would be necessary. This arrangement would require oversight from the pharma company and would therefore result in significant overlap of responsibilities.Across the industry’s R&D functions,significant un-tapped degrees of freedom exist for making the cost base more variable. Opportunities for flexibility gains have to be balanced against IP and organizational know-how risks; in general the economic value of flexibility gains increases toward the sell end of the continuum while IP concerns lessen. Means for reducing revenue volatility clearly exist, including co-development of products and/or sharing of commercial rights/returns with commercial partners, and expansion of effective portfolio size in partnership with passive investors.Whether such volatility gains are worth the associated costs can and should be analyzed.Determining a company's degrees of freedom and how they may be leveraged is a two-step process. First, this general framework of core vs. non-core needs to be fine-tuned by persons having greater proximity to each component of the value chain (in general),and to the company’s business circumstances and organizational status (in particular).Second,available degrees of freedom (i.e. owned non-core functions)should be prioritized according to likely gains, associated risks,and the extent to which well-developed external platforms for performing these functions exist.译文核心和非核心结构资料来源：/articles/2009/01/ core-vs-noncore-framework作者：尼尔·麦克利斯特，理查德·埃文斯，凯瑟琳·沃利斯在整个制药行业，戏剧性和持续性的对于经营环境的改变，正在呼吁对公司的战略和结构的修改。
全球粮食和农业信息及预警系统(GIEWS)联合国粮农组织
2007年10月 山东省巨野县
食品（粮食）安全
食品（粮食）安全指的是所有人在所有时间都 可以从具体的物质角度以及社会经济角度得到足够 的、安全的且有营养的食品来满足他们的饮食需要 以及选择偏好去维持健康而有活力的生活。 —— (FAO).
MoA MWR MoP
国家机构
WFP-VAM 地区ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้公室
粮食作物供给评估项目 (CFSAMs)
此项目每年选取20-25个典型国家。这些国家大多数在非洲但最近的一些 例子包括了北朝鲜、阿富汗和伊拉克。
作物生产粮食供需评估 (FAO)
宏观经济环境对于粮食供需的影响(FAO)
脆弱性及粮食需求评估(WFP)
预期的贸易进口量
预期的世界粮食计划署援助 预期的 NFC 粮食援助 不足
105.7
4.9
110.6
81.8 20.0 12.6
家庭粮食安全与营养
• • • • 健康与营养状况 需要粮食安全帮助的人口估计量 粮食安全援助需求合计 不同群体的HH粮食安全
COMPOSITE VULNERABILITY STATUS NEPAL
PARSA SINDHULI BARA RAUTAHAT KHOTANG BHOJPUR TEHRATHUM PANCHTHAR
SARLAHI UDAYAPUR MAHOTTARI DHANUSA SIRAHA SAPTARI
DHANKUTA ILAM
SUNSARI
MORANG
JHAPA
0
100
200
2004年5月面临粮食短缺的国家
2004年5月前景不容乐观的国家
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14-2
Exhibit 14.1 Dimensions of the Cost and Availability of Capital Strategy
14-3
Global Cost and Availability of Capital
• A firm that must source its long-term debt and equity in a highly illiquid domestic securities market will probably have a relatively high cost of capital and will face limited availability of such capital which will, in turn, damage the overall competitiveness of the firm. • Firms resident in industrial countries with small capital markets may enjoy an improved availability of funds at a lower cost, but would also benefit from access to highly liquid global markets.
ke = krf + β(km – krf)
14-8
Weighted Average Cost of Capital
ke = expected (required) rate of return on equity
krf = rate of interest on risk-free bonds (Treasury bonds, for example)
14-14
The Demand for Foreign Securities: The Role of International Portfolio Investors
• Both domestic and international portfolio managers are asset allocators whose objective is to maximize a portfolio’s rate of return for a given level of risk, or to minimize risk for a given rate of return.
14-11
Weighted Average Cost of Capital
• In practice, calculating a firm’s equity risk premium is quite controversial. • While the CAPM is widely accepted as the preferred method of calculating the cost of equity for a firm, there is rising debate over what numerical values should be used in its application (especially the equity risk premium). • This risk premium is the average annual return of the market expected by investors over and above riskless debt, the term (km – krf).
• The current debate begins with a debate over what actually happened in the past.
14-13
The Demand for Foreign Securities: The Role of International Portfolio Investors
• On the other hand, a project-specific required rate of return should be used as the discount rate if a new project differs from existing projects in business or financial risk.
• Gradual deregulation of equity markets during the past three decades not only elicited increased competition from domestic players but also opened up markets to foreign competitors.
14-5
Weighted Average Cost of Capital
• A firm normally finds its weighted average cost of capital (WACC) by combining the cost of equity with the cost of debt in proportion to the relative weight of each in the firm’s optimal long-term financial structure:
• If a firm is located in a country with illiquid, small, and/or segmented capital markets, it can achieve this lower global cost and greater availability of capital by a properly designed and implemented strategy.
14-12
Weighted Average Cost of Capital
• While the field of finance does agree that a cost of equity calculation should be forward-looking, practitioners typically use historical evidence as a basis for their forward-looking projections.
βj = coefficient of systematic risk for the firm
km = expected (required) rate of return on the market portfolio of stocks
14-9
Weighted Average Cost of Capital
kWACC = keE + kd(1-t)D V V
14-6
Weighted Average Cost of Capital
kWACC = weighted average after-tax cost of capital ke = risk-adjusted cost of equity kd = before-tax cost of debt t = marginal tax rate E = market value of the firm’s equity
Global Cost and Availability of Capital
Global Cost and Availability of Capital
• Global integration of capital markets has given many firms access to new and cheaper sources of funds beyond those available in their home markets.
• To understand the motivation of portfolio investors to purchase and hold foreign securities requires an understanding of the principals of: – portfolio risk reduction; – portfolio rate of return, and – foreign currency risk.
D = market value of the firm’s debt
V = total market value of the firm’s securities (D+E)