简析18 世纪英国中产阶级文化
18世纪英国文学的特点
18世纪英国文学的特点
18世纪英国文学的特点包括以下几点：
1. 启蒙运动的影响：18世纪是启蒙运动的时期，思想家们强调理性和科学，这种思潮在文学中也得到了体现，作家们开始尝试用理性的方式来描述社会和人性。
2. 社会观察的重要性：18世纪的英国民众逐渐开始关注社会问题，作家们也开始将社会观察和批判融入到文学作品中。
这些作品主题多为社会的不公和阶级的斗争。
3. 个人主义的兴起：18世纪是个人主义的时期，作家们开始强调个人的自主和自由意志，表达了对常规和制度的质疑。
4. 叙事手法的多样化：18世纪英国文学实验了不同的叙事手法，如回忆录式叙述、描写现实生活的小说和历史小说等。
5. 小说的兴起：18世纪是小说的黄金时期，英国文学中出现了许多经典小说，这些作品对英国文学和世界文学产生了深远的影响。
17-18世纪中西方文化
提出牛顿运动 定律，奠定经典 力学体系； 发现万有引力 定律； 在数学方面是 微积分的创始人
曹雪芹的《红 楼梦》代表了明 清小说的最高成 就，它以贾宝玉 和林黛玉的爱情 悲剧为中心，批 判了封建制度的 罪恶，展现了封 建社会日趋没落 的历史命运。
卢梭：主张“天赋人 权”。 狄德罗：主张信教自由，反对苛捐杂税；编 辑《百科全书》，是当时思想界的权威。
中 国 清 代 前 期
清初 崇实 学风 继责”；主张“经世致 用”。 黄宗羲：批判君主专制，认 为君主专制是“天下之大 害”。 王夫之：认为每个朝代都必
明末清初三大 反封建思想家
科学社团的出现 欧洲近 代自然 科学兴 起
英国皇家学会 法兰西科学院
柏林科学院 俄罗斯科学院
欧 洲
法国启 蒙运动
近代物理学（特 别是力学）、化学 理论体系的建立
牛顿奠定经典力学体系， 发现万有引力定律。
拉瓦锡否定燃素说，奠 定近代化学科学的基础。
孟德斯鸠：提出“三权分立”学 说。 伏尔泰：抨击天主教会和封建制度。
明末清初三大反封建思想家文网严密中西交往断绝乾嘉考证学一枝独秀仍有一些鞭挞封建制度的文艺作品曹雪芹的红楼梦被誉为封建社会的百科全书蒲松龄的聊斋志异吴敬梓的儒林外史文化项目西方西方经济基础经济基础阶级力量对比阶级力量对比政治体制政治体制统治政策统治政策资本主义萌芽微弱自然经济为主体资本主义发展自然经济逐渐解体封建地主掌握统治权没有产生新兴资产阶资产阶级力量壮大开始掌握统治权封建君主专制高度强化资本主义制度诞生强调程朱理学
须根据实际，兴利除弊；主 张让富民放手经营工商业。
文网严密，中西交往断绝 乾嘉考证学一枝独秀 仍有一些鞭挞封建 制度的文艺作品 曹雪芹的《红楼梦》 被誉为封建社会的百科全书 蒲松龄的《聊斋志异》 吴敬梓的《儒林外史》
十八世纪英国文学特点
• 新古典主义者的文学形式都是在模仿古典作品中古希腊和古罗 马的作家，如荷马。
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About the beginning of modern novel：
• Modern English novel began in the 18th century and gave the world such novelists as Daniel Defoe、 Jonathan Swift、Henry Fielding.Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe was one of the forerunners of the English 18th century realistic novel. But Henry Fielding who became the real founders of the genre of the bourgeois realistic novel in England and Europe.
• Writing Styles（写作特点）
❖ His works mainly through the efforts of individuals, relying on their wisdom and courage to overcome difficulties. The plot twists and turns, used to tell, readability is strong. And expressed the pursuit of adventure, society and individual struggle. so he is regarded as the founder of British fiction.
18世纪英国文学特点分析
The Literary Principles of the 18th Century English LiteratureThe 18th century was generally considered as “the Age of Reason”. In the period Enlightenment prevailed in England and most European countries. Most of the literary works put significant emphasis on the social order, morality, justice and freedom of human nature, which are the essence of Enlightenment. Reason, which Enlightenment advocated, was the most important mode for the English people in the 18th century. The main tasks of the Enlighteners were to call for the elimination of the feudal remnants and religious ignorance, and to pave the path for the development of the bourgeoisie.The 18th century was of great significance in English history. Owing to the enormous strides in politics and economy, the literature of the century entered the period of prosperity.1. Historical BackgroundIn politics, the “Glorious Revolution” in 1688 made the smooth transition to a constitutional monarchy in peace come into realization, and afterwards Capitalism was definitely established in Britain. After many centuries of wars and civil trifles, the 18th century saw a period for the English people to enjoy peace and tranquility in their social and political life.The power of the monarch was deprived and fell into the hands of the Parliament, which was under the control of two major political parties, the Whigs and the Tories. Even though the Whigs were for the democracy and the Tories were the supporters of the British monarchy, the two parties had no much dispute in economic development and the policy of moderation, which ensured a relatively speedy development of the English society in economy and in democracy.The Act of Union united England, Scotland and Welsh into one country, which laid a foundation for the rise of the British Empire in the middle of the 18th century.In economy, the international trading and the lucrative slave trade broughttremendous wealth. Although almost all the European countries had been on the process of industrialization, in England the development was accelerated with the help of the new inventions and a large-scale Enclosure Movement all over the country. The social status of the newly rising bourgeoisie was gradually set up by the boom of economy at home and abroad.However, the time the capitalists accumulated the enormous profits was the time thousands of peasants were expropriated off the land and the labor workers lost their jobs. The gap between the ruling class and the oppressed was aggravated. The social contradictions were accumulated and deteriorated.In social life, economic development also brought changes for the English people’s way of life. The people began to have more energy to participate in the social life. Such places for the social activities as the coffeehouse, the theaters and libraries gradually thrived. In the coffeehouse, information, opinions and even gossips on various issues were exchanged and the style of literature was formed and influenced in the public way.The economic prosperity and the rising of the bourgeois class produced a new requirement for a new social order and rules to meet the need of the social development in politics and morality, and the need of a way to clear away the feudal remnants. The literary men achieved the aim by means of the introduction of the reason, morality, and equality. The development of science and technology boosted the process. Isaac Newton exerted great influence upon Enlightenment with his law of gravitation, which smashed the medieval superstition to the natural forces.2. The Principles of LiteraryIt was impossible to make a clear distinction of the different literary genres with so many factors mixed together. Roughly, the literature in the 18th century was divided into three periods, from the late of the 17th century to the middle of the 18th century the popularity of the Neoclassicism, the early to the middle 18th century the rapid growth of the realistic novels of Defoe, and the outstanding novelists Fielding and Smollett, and the last decades of the prevalence of Sentimentalism and theappearance of Romanticism.The literary trend of this century could be summarized as the development of poetry, the prosperity of prose, the rise of novel and the decline of drama.2.1 Enlightenment in LiteraryThe 18th century is known as “the Age of Enlightenment”, which is a progressive intellectual movement as a furtherance of the Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries. The Enlightenment left a lasting heritage for the 19th and 20th centuries.Enlightenment was not only a culture and thought movement, but has exerted huge influence on almost all of the aspects of the English people’s social life. The Enlighteners took the task to enlighten the people with the modern ideas in philosophy, politics and arts. The Enlighteners believed that the universe was rational and could be understood through Reason. Truth could be got through the empirical observation. And reason was the only yardstick to measure all human activities and relations. Only in this way can the primitive thoughts and feudal behaviors, such as superstition, injustice, oppression and religious persecution, be eliminated. The Enlighteners also fought against the social hierarchy system and called on the development of science and technology.Besides, they praised highly for the function of education. They held the belief that the universal education could bring about rationality, equality and truth. They believed that the human beings could be manipulated like the engine once they acquired these characteristics.In essence, the Enlightenment Movement was the struggle of the progressive bourgeoisie against Feudalism. For the bourgeois intellectuals, the Reason was the weapon to overthrow the domination of Feudalism. They sought the freedom of politics and academic thinking to pave the way for the establishment of the Capitalism.In brief, the Enlightenment movement was to enlighten or educate the people with the modern philosophical and artistic ideas. Literature at the time showed thestrong characteristics of didacticism and moralization. Among the famous Enlighteners in England, John Dryden and Alexander Pope were the most conspicuous.2.2 NeoclassicismThe influence of the Enlightenment Movement to the English literature of the 18th century was first reflected in the emergence and popularity of the Neoclassicism. Neoclassicism was a literature genre that came into being in the middle and late of the 17th century in England and France, and thrived in the beginning of the 18th century. John Dryden，though dead in 1700, was the first advocator and the most important performer.After the Renaissance, a reaction came against intricacy, boldness and extravagance. In the period, the literature brought about a revival of interest in the old Classical works. The writers got the ideas and art forms from the classical times. As John Dryden stated in his Essay of Dramatic Poesy, the Neoclassicists demanded that literature should learn from the Classical works of the ancient Greek and Roman writers and also their contemporary French writers, such as V oltaire and Diderot. The Neoclassicists advocated simplicity, restraint, regularity and good sense. They believed that accuracy and wits should be the most important elements in the art creation.The Neoclassicists formulated fixed rules and laws guided by Greek and Latin works for the genres of literature to follow. They believed that there was the proper language to choose and the right style and tone to use when they wrote different literature, which was the “correctness” that they pursued. Therefore, such standards of the Classics as drama, rhyme and good proportion were advocated. Under the guideline, poetry should be lyric, epic, didactic, or dramatic, and prose should be precise, direct, smooth and flexible.Meanwhile, the Neoclassicists argued that literature should be judged by the function of moralization and education. Therefore, most of the literature during that period was didactic so as to form a new social order and morality to meet the needs ofthe new era.What’s more, another aim of the literature was to entertain the readers. With the boom of the publishing industry and the increase of the educated population, new ways to entertain the mass, especially the people of the middle class, were called on. The expectation of the people to participate in social activities and express their emotions grew stronger. Hence, the simple, elegant and restraint writing styles gained popularity.Furthermore, the writings of Neoclassicism shared a common feature—objectivity. As the neoclassicists emphasized Reason and thought that art should be logically organized, neoclassical art did not appreciate the emotion or imagination, but logic, good organization and proportion. However, literature under this guideline seemed a bit cold and inhumane. The absence of any elements of romantic and the over emphasis on Reason led to the rise of the opposite genr e—Romanticism in the period followed.However, literature at that period was not simply the imitation of the Classics but something new was injected into it. Dryden, the advocator of the Movement, laid emphasis not only on Neoclassicism, but also on the traditional English literature. He praised the works of Shakespeare’s and Chaucer’s, and encouraged the combination of the classics with the native elements of England to make the writing style new. Dryden’s theory was modern and flexible, so it was easy to be accepted and promoted by his followers in the 18th century, such as Alexander Pope and Swift. The idea promoted the popularity of the English literature, especially the first half of the 18th century.With the influence of Neoclassicism, the prose was developed dramatically. A lot of prose writers and novelists appeared, like Addison, Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding and Samuel Richardson.Even though the Neoclassicism did not flourish very long in the history of English literature and was substituted by the Sentimentalism and Romanticism. The ideas of reason, wit, simplicity and regularity existed and influenced the English literature even to the modern times.2.3 The Origin of the English NovelThe 18th century was the golden age of the novel. The origin of the novel can date back to Homer’s epic, the legend in the medieval times of Europe and the adventure stories in Europe. However, in English literature, the novel, the new genre, emerged and the realistic novels reached the peak in the 18th century. Many great novelists, such as Defoe, Swift, Richardson, Fielding and Smollett, were not only world famous, but has left a great cultural heritage.In the 18th century, the rapid growth of economy boomed the city life. The middle class had more leisure time to entertain themselves. They called for fresh ways of entertainment and expressions of their thoughts and emotions. In the new social system, the patronage, which used to be the main means for the writers to get subsidization, was substituted by the new system of publishing and copyright. The writers had more freedom to write what they wanted to and some of them wrote to cater to the popular taste. At the same time, a new and great need for the reading emerged. Libraries stepped into the people’s daily life, so that more and more prints were called for in the huge market. They were all the reasons to promote the originality and development of English novels, especially the rise and the prosperity of the realistic novels in the 1730s to 40s.2.3.1 The Realistic NovelIn the first half of the 18th century, “reality”became the most important conception of the creation of novels. Novels were not only the means for the writers to reflect their life and feelings but also the way for the common people to express their passion and emotions.In the process of elevating their social status and accumulating the wealth, the bourgeois fought with the old system and had endured the hardships. The whole meaning of their life was to work hard, to make wealth and to get a better life. What was realistic in the true life was represented faithfully in the realistic novels of the century.The feature was best found in Robinson Crusoe, Denial Defoe’s masterpiece. Denial Defoe was named the “father of English realistic novel” by some scholars not only because Robinson Crusoe was the first realistic novel in the 18th century and the first modern English novel, but also it was a good example of the “truth to life”.In the novel, the writer gave the reader a vivid description of the spirit of struggle and adventure at the beginning of the Capitalism, and successfully portrayed an image of an enterprising Englishman. The realistic presentation of the growth and struggle of Robinson showed the spirit of that time. Robinson, as a businessman who pursued wealth, was a typical representative of the English middle-class men with courage, energy, persistence and wisdom. His struggle against the hostile natural environment showed the strong confidence of the bourgeoisie to fight for the ambitions. Robinson grew from a naive youth full of dreams into a realistic and hardened man, tempered by numerous trials in his eventful life.Besides, Robinson was also the representative of the bourgeois colonizers who took control of the new land and his servant, Friday. Therefore, this novel was the product of the Industrial Revolution and a real presentation of life of the common people.Generally, the writers of the realistic novels would claim that what they had written was really based on the true events with the real place names and the exact date as the background. At the beginning of Robinson Crusoe, “he” said, “I was born in the Year 1632, in the City of York, of a good Family, though not of that country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen who settled first at Hull.” And later the description of his life in Brazil as a planter conformed to the historical facts at that time. In the novel, the colloquial, easy language and sometimes, short, plain sentences were used to leave the readers the impression that the hero was true to life and was telling his stories face to face. In the narrative, the writers put an emphasis on the detailed account of the process and the description of the mental activity. In Robinson Crusoe, the vivid description of the details made the story fascinating. However, this novel was criticized for the repetition and the loose structure.Besides, even though the themes of the realistic novels were different, they hadthe same core, which was the searching for the essence of life. Through the account of the living conditions and the way of living at that period, the writers sought the answers from the common people, and even the vulgar and the poor, which was contrary to the traditional romance of aristocrats or epics. Through Robinson, who lived alone in an isolated island, and Tom Jones, an outcast in Henry Fielding’s masterpiece The life and History of the Foundling Tom Jones, the writers, against the mode of the Neoclassicism, expounded that the courage, the wisdom, the persistence and the morality of the mass people were the primitive power for the social progress.To summarize, the realistic novels, for the first time turning their attention from the grand themes and the high classes to the common people and the reality, adding the modern element to the writing style of that period. That is why Robinson Crusoe was taken as the forerunner of the modern novel.Besides Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding and Tobias Smollett made even higher achievement. Their works had impact on some of the great works of European writers, and paved the way for the great 19th century realistic writers like Jane Austen, Walter Scott, Charles Dickens and William M. Thackeray.2.3.2 The Epistolary NovelIn the 18th century, another style emerged and brought in a new way of narrative, which is the epistolary novel. Samuel Richardson flourished the style by three famous works Pamela, Clarissa and Grandson.The novel Pamela was written in the form of a series of letters from the heroine to her parents. In the letters she told them her life and experience at her master’s house. The epistolary novels not only enriched the narrative form of the novel, but also transformed the role of the writers from the narrator to the editor. By means of the pile of letters, the heroine herself told the story. In the epistolary novel, the characters would get closer to the reader. The mental activities and the change of their emotions could be more vivid. It was easy to get the readers to resonate deeply with the fate of the heroine. Pamela was among the first novels to give detailed description of the character’s psychology. It described not only the common life of the characters,but through the letters their inner thoughts and feelings. Therefore, this novel was also considered as the first psycho-analytic novel in the history of English literature. The vivid description of the psychology of the females gave an impetus to the development of the modern novels. From this perspective, Richardson was thought of the real founder of English modern novels by some scholars.The subtitle of the novel was Virtue Rewarded, the function of moral instruction and education was clearly showed in the novel beside that of entertainment.2.3.3 The Gothic NovelIn the last decades of the 18th century, the English realistic novel gradually gave way to the Gothic novel or the Gothic romance.The Gothic novel refers to the strange, mysterious adventures happening in dark and lonely places such as graveyards and old castles built in the middle ages, such as the Gothic castle. The Gothic novel originated from Horace Walpole’s novel The Castle of Otranto in 1764. As a branch of the English literature, the Gothic novels played an important role in the development of the horror movies and left great influence upon the English romanticists.Generally speaking, the Gothic novels included such elements as horror, mystery, supernature, and death. Usually the story would be set in the classic castles with haunted ghosts. The typical story focused on the sufferings or mystery imposed on an innocent heroine. Frequent use was made of ghosts, mysterious disappearances, sensational and supernatural occurrences. The principal aim of such novels was to evoke chilling terror by exploiting mystery and a variety of horrors.2.4 The Satire StyleSatire，another typical feature of this period’s writing, prevailed in the first half of the 18th century. A common feature of satire was to use strong irony or sarcasm, usually in parody, exaggeration and comparison, to attack something they did not accept or approve of. Not only was satire an effective weapon for arguments of all kinds and attacks on the political views, the social system and social life, but also itanswered well the purpose of the Enlightenment, aiming at universal education to perfect the mass in moral, social as well as cultural life.In the 18th century, satire prevailed at a certain historical background. Even though this was a relatively peaceful period in English history, various divergences of values and conflicts still existed. With the increase of the wealth, the bourgeoisie expected to have higher social status and more power to control the nation, which was to turn over the social hierarchy and social custom. The contradictions between the two parties increased the social unrest. Among them the contradictions between the ruling class and the laboring poor were gradually intensified. The industrial Revolution and foreign trade brought a large quantity of wealth to the country, but that did not spread to the mass of the poor people. Correspondingly, social problems and discontent were constantly emerging. The social reality was reflected in the literary works in a satirical style.Pope and Swift were the superb satirists during that period. Swift defined a good style as “proper words in proper places”. Their satires are well-known for witty remarks and adept techniques. So satire became the fashion and was performed almost in all forms of writing at the time.Jonathan Swift not only was one of the greatest representatives of the genre, but also was thought of the first writer to perform the modern satire. Even though he advocated Reason, he sometimes held certain skepticism to the “universal Reason”. He was well-known for his meaningful wording and the diversified writing techniques in his satiric novels.In A Modest Proposal, the writer suggested a seemingly logical proposal for the Irish slum, only to mock the heartlessness and selfishness of the high classes as well as their inhumane Irish policy in general. This essay has been regarded as the most ridiculous and savage ironical satire.In Gulliver’s Travels, the writer used fancy to make up an imaginary social condition, by using imaginary plots and exaggerated techniques to satirize and attack the social system and the politics. The book seemed to be an allegorical story for children, but in it the vanity and hypocrisy of the contemporary courts, statesmen andpolitical parties were satirically attacked. In the first two parts of the novel, the writer mocked the conflicts between the parities, the Whigs and the Tories. In the part of the Flying Island, the writer described the strange and useless experiments that the scientists did, through which Swift satirized that the science was far away from the practical life.Henry Fielding’s works showed a grand panorama of life of the 18th century English society through the realistic description of the details. In his works, the characters were true-to-life, and full of optimism. Yet he also mildly criticized the weakness of the human nature and the vulgar social customs. His works Joseph Andrews was at first written to ridicule Richardson’s Pamela for its utilitarian morality, but made a big success unexpectedly. He claimed that this novel was “a comic epic poem in prose”in the preface of Joseph Andrews. However, different from the traditional epic, which is a genre generally used to praise heroes, nobles or kings, Fielding took advantage of the conception but portrayed the heroes of the middle or low classes so as to produce the ironic effect.Fielding’s Jonathan Wild the Great is a bitter satire on the exploiting and oppressing class. It is one of the best exposures of the corruption of the English bourgeois-aristocratic society. The “great”in the title referred not only to the hero “Jonathan Wild”, but also the minster “Robert Walpole” and other “great” men in the ruling class. From these men, Fielding summarized a common virtue “greatness” from their true nature of tyranny, corruption, oppression and exploitation to others.The Life and the History of Tom Jones, a Foundling, as Fielding’s masterpiece, was another good example. The story, through the growth of a foundling, Tom Jones, touched upon all kinds of people as well as the social problems. The novel was about a young man and a young woman who tried to unravel their birth myth, and their love story. In the process of their looking for their birth, Fielding gave the readers an extensive view of the social life in the city and the town. Through the comparison of different characters they met, the writer severely criticized the corruption, greed and hypocrisy of the nobles at that period. Fielding contributed a lot to the advance of the English and European novels.2.5 SentimentalismSentimentalism was a trend of thought beginning in the 1740s and 50s. Its name was gained from Laurence Stern’s A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy (1768). By the middle of the 18th century, sentimentalism came into being due to the discontent with the social reality.In the middle of the century, the contradictions were intensified to the degree that the nation was faced with the threat of instability. The Enlighteners, such as, Fielding and Smollett, who at first had sufficient faith in the eventual triumph of virtue and the final achievement of social justice, began to be skeptical about the eternal “truth” and Reason, which were preached by the bourgeoisie.Even though the people began to doubt the power of the Reason to solve the social problems, they could not find out a more positive way to make the society better. The decline of the great Enlightenment brought about sentimentalism and pre-romanticism as the protest against the social reality of the day. Sentimentalism was an outlet for their dissatisfaction to the reality and for the escape from the far-from-perfect reality. Sentimentalism was the forerunner of the Romanticism later prevailing in the European literature.Form the angle of the ideology, sentimentalism was against the classicism and the rationalism. It was totally opposite to the perspective of the rationalism that the individuals should be under the control of the sovereignty. Sentimentalism stressed the expression of the emotions and feelings of the individual in the daily life. It concentrated on the distress of the poor and the virtuous people. It revealed grief, pains and tears. The emotions were mainly melancholy, sentimental and sensitive.Leslie Stephen once argued, “Sentimentalism could be defined to be indulgence in emotion for its own sake. The sentimentalist does not weep because painful thoughts are forced upon him but because he finds weeping pleasant in itself (p160).”In sentimental works, the first characteristics is that the characters’ mood and miserable life were portrayed to arouse readers’ sympathy to the ordinary people and discontent towards the social reality. The appeal to sentiment, not Reason, was the main characteristics. Sentimentalists thought that Reason was only a cold rule or lawto tell the people the code of conduct. In their views, human beings were born good and were endowed with compassion, kindness and morality. Hence, the function of literature was to awaken and motivate the potential.The writers usually made use of death, loneliness and miserable experience to make the atmosphere desolate, dark and melancholy. In this way, the readers were easy to move and full of sympathy to the character. At the beginning of the century, almost all the works, as poetry, novels and essays were rational, ironic and instructive. Sentimentalism totally changed the direction of English literature. At the same time, the educational function was also fulfilled.Besides, the common people molded in the works made the readers feel real empathy for what the characters had been through. And the sympathy for the misery of others became a sign of good manners and social morality.What’s more, in the views of the sentimentalists, there was no distinction of the genres of literature, that is, elegance or vulgarity. Therefore, a lot of different literature styles, such as prose, lyric, letter, autobiography, became the common styles in sentimentalism.Sentimentalism, having obtained pleasure in nature and the mysterious, paved the way for Romanticism, which put high value on nature and spontaneous expression of emotion. In addition, romanticists’ praise for the virtue of the common people and the attack on the rich and the system owed a good deal to sentimentalism.The most outstanding figure of English sentimentalists are Laurence Sterne who wrote A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy in 1768 and Thomas Gray with his masterpiece, Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, the model of sentimental poetry.Sentimentalism in poetry first found its full expression in the 40s and the 50s and was the bridge from Classicism to Romanticism. In Thomas Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, the poem reflected the poet’s melancholy on the death and the sorrowful life of human beings. The poet also pointed out that death was inevitable no matter who you were. This poem, with the well-balanced structure and the metrical beauty of the language, has been considered as one of the best poems in。
英国文学——18世纪概述
英国文学——18世纪概述
要是想聊聊18世纪的英国文学呀，那可真是像打开了一个装满奇珍异宝的大箱子，啥好玩意儿都有。
我记得我第一次正儿八经接触18世纪英国文学，是在大学的一堂文学课上。
当时我们那个教授呀，是个头发有点花白，戴着个大眼镜，看起来特别有学问的老头。
他走进教室，把书往讲台上一放，清了清嗓子说：“同学们啊，今天咱们要走进18世纪的英国文学世界，那可是个相当有趣的地方。
”
在这个时期呀，还有好多诗人呢。
就像亚历山大·蒲柏，他的诗写得可精致了。
我参加过一次学校的诗歌社团活动，有个同学在台上朗诵蒲柏的诗，那抑扬顿挫的感觉，就像是把我们带到了18世纪的英国贵族聚会中。
当时台下有个调皮的同学开玩笑地说：“这诗听起来就像是那些穿着华丽衣服的人在装深沉呢。
”不过大家都知道，他这是在调侃，蒲柏的诗可是很有深度的，用那种优雅的语言表达着对生活、对人性的思考。
18世纪的英国文学就像是一场盛大的狂欢，有冒险、有幻想、有对人性的探索，还有对社会的批判。
从笛福到斯威夫特，从蒲柏到其他的众多作家，他们共同构建了这个丰富多彩的文学世界。
就像我那教授最后总结的那样：“18世纪的英国文学，那是历史长河中的一颗璀璨明珠，值得我们反复品味。
”
现在每次我翻开那些18世纪英国文学的作品，就好像又回到了那个充满活力和创造力的时代，能听到那些作家们的喃喃自语，看到书里人物的喜怒哀乐，还能感受到那个时代的人们对文学的热爱。
这就是18世纪英国文学的魅力所在，就像一个永远讲不完的精彩故事。
18世纪英国文学的趋势
18世纪英国文学的趋势
18世纪是英国文学发展的重要阶段，其中出现了一些明显的趋势和特点。
以下是一些重要的趋势：
1. 古典主义：18世纪英国文学受到古典文学的强烈影响，特别是古希腊和罗马文学。
作家们研究和模仿古典作品的风格和主题，追求文学的严谨和规范性。
2. 启蒙思想：18世纪是启蒙时代的全盛期，思想家们强调理性和科学的重要性，反对迷信和专制。
这种思潮在文学中也有所体现，作家们开始关注社会问题、人权和个人自由。
3. 社会批判：18世纪英国社会出现了巨大的变革，人们开始对社会问题展开批判。
一些作家，如塞缪尔·理查森和亨利·菲尔丁，通过小说探讨了社会阶级、性别和家庭关系等问题。
4. 英国浪漫主义：18世纪末，浪漫主义逐渐兴起，对理性主义和古典主义的反叛开始显露。
浪漫主义作家，如威廉·华兹华斯和塞缪尔·柯勒律治，强调个人情感和自然的力量。
5. 小说的兴起：18世纪是英国小说发展的重要时期。
小说成为一种流行的文学形式，作家们开始创作长篇小说，如丹尼尔·笛福的《鲁滨逊漂流记》和简·奥斯汀的《傲慢与偏见》。
6. 诗歌的转变：18世纪的英国诗歌呈现出一种转变，由古典的形式
和主题向更加个人化和自由的方向发展。
诗人们开始关注个人情感和自然景观，并采用更加自由的诗体，如威廉·布莱克的无韵诗。
总的来说，18世纪英国文学在古典主义和启蒙思想的影响下，开始关注社会问题和个人情感，同时也为后来浪漫主义和小说的兴起铺平了道路。
英国文学——18世纪概述
启蒙时期文学（17世纪后期—18世纪中期）1688年的“光荣革命”推翻复辟王朝，确定了君主立宪制，建立起资产阶级和新贵族领导的政权，英国从此进入一个相对安定的发展时期。
18世纪初，新古典主义成为时尚。
新古典主义推崇理性，强调明晰、对称、节制、优雅，追求艺术形式的完美与和谐。
亚历山大·蒲柏（Alexander Pope, 1688-1744）是新古典主义诗歌的代表，他模仿罗马诗人，诗风精巧隽俏，内容以说教与讽刺为主，形式多用英雄双韵体，但缺乏深厚感情。
18世纪英国散文出现繁荣，散文风格基本建立在新古典主义美学原则之上。
理查德·斯梯尔（Richard Steele, 1672-1729）与约瑟夫·艾迪生（Joseph Addison, 1672-1719）创办《闲谈者》（Tatler）与《观察者》（Spectator）刊物，发表了许多以当时社会风俗、日常生活、文学趣味等为题材的文章，他们清新秀雅、轻捷流畅的文体成为后人模仿的典范。
乔纳森·斯威夫特（Jonathan Swift, 1667-1745）是英国文学史上最伟大的讽刺散文作家，他的文风纯朴平易而有力。
斯威夫特的杰作《格列佛游记》（Gulliver's Travels）是一部极具魅力的儿童故事，同时包含着深刻的思想内容。
作者通过对小人国、大人国、飞岛国、慧马国等虚构国度的描写，以理性为尺度，极其尖锐地讽刺和抨击了英国社会各领域的黑暗和罪恶。
塞缪尔·约翰逊（Samuel Johnson, 1709-1784）是18世纪英国人文主义文学批评的巨擘，《莎士比亚戏剧集序言》（The Preface to Shakespeare）和《诗人传》（Livesof the Poets）是他对文学批评作出的突出贡献。
他从常识出发，在某些方面突破了新古典主义的框框，不乏真知灼见。
约翰逊的散文风格自成一家，集拉丁散文的典雅、气势与英语散文的雄健、朴素于一体。
简析18世纪文学的背景
简析18世纪文学的背景1.产业革命；2.启蒙运动；3.社会科学、自然科学，包括洛克重视感觉和经验的唯物主义哲学及社会政治理论，牛顿的万有引力定律，瓦特的蒸汽机以及当时的光学理论等；4.古希腊文学传统。
18世纪，在英国资产阶级革命的影响下，欧洲大陆以法国为中心发生了声势浩大的启蒙运动。
“启蒙”原义为“用光去照亮”，因而18世纪又称为“光明世纪”。
启蒙学者宣扬天赋人权，宣扬自由、平等、博爱，特别是宣扬理性，一切都必须在理性的法庭上证明自己符合理性或者放弃存在的权力。
启蒙运动为1789年法国资产阶级革命作了理论准备，启蒙学者利用文学宣扬自己的主张，由此造就了启蒙文学。
启蒙文学具有鲜明的政治色彩，具有强烈的战斗性和批判性，批判的锋芒直指封建专制制度和天主教会，揭露和批判社会上的种种不合理现象。
启蒙文学把所谓“第三等级”的普通人作为正面主人公加以歌颂，描写资产阶级和平民的悲欢离合，反映他们的思想感情。
启蒙作家常常借用古典主义的文学形式，给它注入了新的思想内容，也创造了不少新的文学形式，如哲理小说、正剧（严肃喜剧）、书信体小说、对话体小说、教育小说等，打破了古典主义的一些清规戒律，拓展了文学表现的领域。
启蒙文学的缺点是：有时忽视文学的审美功能，把人物形象变成作者的代言人甚至“时代精神的单纯的传声筒”。
17—18世纪的俄国是一个落后的农奴制的专制国家。
18世纪初，彼得大帝的改革打开了俄罗斯的国门，西欧的启蒙思潮陆续传入俄国，带动俄国人追求自由、平等的梦想，启蒙文学由此诞生。
罗蒙诺索夫（1711—1765）是它的开创者，拉季谢夫（1749—1802）是最杰出的代表。
拉季谢夫代表作《从彼得堡到莫斯科旅行记》（1790）是一部游记体的作品，通过作者途中的见闻，表现了鲜明的反对专制农奴制度的立场，并提出了民主革命的思想。
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简析18 世纪英国中产阶级文化本文从网络收集而来，上传到平台为了帮到更多的人，如果您需要使用本文档，请点击下载按钮下载本文档（有偿下载），另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意！随着时代的进步，以商人阶层、乡绅以及约曼农阶层和专业人士阶层为代表的中层阶级成为18 世纪英国中产阶级的主力军，他们的形成与发展，不仅使英国传统的、等级结构分明的社会结构得以改变，而且推动了英国近代社会的转型和工业革命的开展，直接促成了19 世纪更加成熟的中产阶级的形成。
[1]一、18 世纪英国中产阶级的来源( 一) 贵族的没落与中产阶级的产生英国中产阶级早在伊丽莎白时期就已产生，那时候的英国等级制度森严，上层阶级享受着财富和荣誉，而中下层阶级则感受到了财富的不公，而王室和教会也为了巩固自己的地位，更是卖官鬻爵，最终造成了国家等级制度混乱。
但随着资本主义在英国迅速发展，商品经济冲击着英国市场，一些中下层阶级借着商品经济的这一冲力，打破了传统的商业模式，大力发展工商业，政府受到了威胁。
在这样的情况下，贵族不能支持国家的经济发展，政府不得不削弱贵族的势力，转而拉拢占经济比例较大的以中产阶级为代表的新贵，王权与中产阶级的主动结合加快了英国中产阶级上升的速度。
随着英国旧贵族地位的衰落，以中产阶级为代表的新贵和国家政权机构出现了相互利用的关系，在现实政治生活中这种关系体现了其实际地位和作用[2]。
英国中产阶级的产生是英国社会各阶层不断分化与整合的结果，人们追逐财富的欲望使得社会结构一直处在不断变化中。
而位于贵族之下、下层民众之上的中产阶级由一开始只是效仿贵族，发展成为一个独立且强大的阶层，可以说是由于社会的推进，也可以说是其自身的不断发展的结果。
( 二) 宗教改革下的新兴阶级作为多种宗教成分并存的英国来说，宗教问题是不可忽视的。
一方面，随着理性主义在英国的传播，使得社会各阶层反教会情绪不断高涨。
另一方面，国王与教会的权力之争也越演越烈。
16 世纪，随着国王权力的加强，英国国王亨利八世为打击天主教会势力，在国内推行了一场由上至下的宗教改革; 天主教地位逐渐衰弱，而新教地位得以上升。
作为宗教的研究者，马克斯·韦伯曾经说过，“宗教改革并不意味着解除教会对日常生活的控制，相反却只是用一种新型的控制取代先前的控制。
这就意味着要废止一种从前非常松弛的控制，而这种控制在实际生活中已经难以察觉，甚至仅仅流于形式了。
取而代之的是，倡导一种难以忍受的，但却又得严格执行的控制方式，并且这种控制已渗透进入私人生活和公共生活各个领域。
”[3]也就是说，宗教改革也是为了统治者的利益服务的，并符合当时人们的需求而产生的，与所谓的善恶、道德无关，甚至可以说是一种政治手段。
在宗教改革的影响下，以资本主义精神为代表的新教主义在英国得到广泛传播，而中产阶级作为它的具体实现者，在创造财富的商业活动中，自力更生，积极地发挥自身的才能，在工作领域中不断投入劳动和利润，积累一定的成本，最终成为真正的“资本家”，操控着经济中最活跃的一部分。
[4]二、18 世纪英国中产阶级文化的渊源及内容文化作为社会中约束人们的一种综合力量，属于意识形态，更是一种价值取向。
有人这样定义文化:文化是“指各种关系与组织中的象征与规范，这些象征与规范包含着宗教信仰、相互感情、亲情纽带以及参加组织的众人所承受并受其约束的是非标准。
这种象征性价值赋予文化网络一种受人尊敬的权威，它反过来又激发人们的社会责任感、荣誉感———它与物质利益既相互区别又相联系———从而促使人们在文化网络中追求领导地位。
”18 世纪的英国中产阶级文化，从其自身的发展历程看，应该是多元化的，但又在不断演变中形成独具一格的文化体系。
( 一) 对贵族文化的继承和发展文化是任何社会结构中必需的一种内在凝聚力，把英国社会各阶层紧密联系在一起。
我们把英国上层阶级和中层阶级联系在一起的文化称之为绅士文化。
其来源主要有两大部分: 一为贵族精神，二为英国社会中间阶层的文化价值观念。
就贵族精神而言，从贵族在英国的发展我们可以看到，他们自身就有着优良的骑士精神和高贵的品质，他们的行为习惯也被社会其他阶层作为一种日常行为标准，但由于商业化的兴起，贵族的这种地位却逐渐被社会其他阶层所取代，其中最为典型的就是中产阶级，在与贵族的接触中，他们学习贵族的生活方式，与贵族进行思想交流，无形中贵族的一些优秀品质就被中产阶级吸收了。
另一来源则为英国社会中间阶层的文化价值观念。
中产阶级是当时英国社会一股正在崛起的中坚力量，他们内部存在着各种贫富差距，个体之间也在不断竞争中，但又有一个共同的文化价值观念，即富有创造力、进取精神和很强的合作精神，还有最重要的一点就是注重实效。
到了工业革命前后，中产阶级借助已有的经济和政治上的优势，在文化上逐渐形成了自己的文化优势。
[5]当贵族在经济和政治上失去优势后，其精神也被融合到以中产阶级文化为代表的绅士文化中，并成为社会的一种潮流，开始被更多的人效仿。
( 二) 新教伦理与资本主义精神在英国，以中产阶级文化为代表的新教，在自身发展中就以禁欲主义和资本主义精神为内涵，并结合当时商业化的社会环境，提出了一系列适应社会发展新理论。
首先，新教主义的核心为“天职”观，即人人都可以成为上帝的选民，并且人生下来就必须参加劳动和从事职业劳动，为争做上帝的选民而准备。
在上帝的选民要求中，既反对人们对物质的享受，又积极提倡人们要尽可能的创造财富，并认为积累财富的勤俭在道德上是不可指责的，拥有更多的财富就会对社会做贡献，上帝就会青睐于他。
然而这样的要求并不是相矛盾的，它要求人们要在有限的生命里合理运用时间，依靠自身的努力创造财富，从而得到精神上的满足。
其次，新教在宣扬禁欲主义的同时，又非常注重一种商业化精神，即资本主义精神。
特别是到了工业革命时期，一些中产阶级更是成为了这种精神的实践者。
对于资本主义精神的内容，概括起来主要分为以下几个方面。
第一，非常热忱于对财富的追求。
认为整个世界应该处在一个自然法制下，对财富的欲望正符合这一自然法，所以不应该感觉到自责，反之还应想尽一切办法创造财富，实现自己的人生价值。
到了工业革命后，英国社会出现了以资本的多少决定社会地位高低的现象，社会等级划分更加明显，与此同时，资本主义精神使得商业化模式侵袭着人们的思想。
第二，合理谋利思想。
可以说合理谋利思想就是资本主义精神的核心，它是指人们在理性的驱使下，随着资本的不断积累，市场需要人们相互合作，形成利益集团共同承担风险和进行市场扩大化。
所以为了解决这一问题，更多的人选择加入新教，进入一个可以得到社会认可的地方。
有了这种思想的熏陶，合理谋利思想就开始在社会中不断传播，特别在工业革命中起到了很大指导作用。
第三，一种求实、不断进取、积极拼搏的竞争精神。
我们可以从社会商品化的角度来看，首先，资本主义经济的发展造成了英国社会财富分配不均，人与人之间存在着激烈的竞争，一种物竞天择、适者生存的自然法则让人们明白了强者才能立足的道理。
其次，资本主义经济的发展使得人与人之间竞争越来越激烈，人们只有使自身能力不断加强和尽可能的适应社会的发展模式，才能应对困难，得到自己想要的生活。
英国中产阶级正是受到了这种精神的启发，才能在竞争激烈的社会中迅速发展起来，在工业革命时期不断进行资本积累。
三、18 世纪英国中产阶级文化中的实效性中产阶级作为英国的新兴阶级，它的产生是英国史上一次重大的事件。
根据其内部各自的经济收入、社会意识、生活方式的不同，该阶级总的可以概括为三大类，即商人、专业人员、乡绅阶层。
由于文化意识的差异，各阶层所选择的行业千差万别，对社会的作用也不同。
( 一) 商人对国家政策的影响对财富的追求是中产阶级文化中一个重要组成部分，这主要从商人的活动中得以体现。
一方面，由于社会的发展模式是经济基础决定上层建筑，而生产力的控制则取决于商人们对市场的控制。
因为商人代表着市场经济中最活跃的部分，对市场的运行管理比较熟悉，为保证自己的利益，他们总是竭尽全力地提高社会生产力。
另一方面，商人经济地位的提高最终导致了其政治地位的提高。
作为社会上一股积极的经济力量，商人用钱财疏通王侯，用财力支援政府，与政府形成一种特殊的关系，从而获得政府的保护。
这些因素就要求国家对商人的经济活动进行政策扶持，因而商人的经济活动就成为政府制定政策的参考因素，对国家政策制定起着支配作用。
( 二) 专业人员对社会生产的作用早在16 世纪，专业人员就已在贵族阶级的生活中产生，但主要的服务对象是贵族，服务类型也比较单一。
随着工业革命后英国社会结构发生了改变，社会各阶层都得到了发展，人民的生活水平得到提高，社会经济活动走向了多元化，单一的服务不能满足人们的需求，消费水平的提高需要更多的专业人员提供服务。
社会上出现了更多的新兴行业，吸纳更多的专业人员。
专业人员这一社会群体的不断壮大是社会发展的产物，同时也是社会进一步发展的需要。
专业人员的出现可以说是由于社会生产力水平的提高而产生的，它作为中产阶级的一个重要组成部分，不仅仅是社会服务的提供者，还进一步促进了社会生产的多样化。
中产阶级文化中一个重要的精神观念就是通过自己的劳动获得更多的利益，我们从专业人员所从事的社会活动看，他们并不是所谓的无私奉献者，而是自私的牟利者。
但英国社会中正是有了这些自私的人，社会才会是多元的，英国的综合国力才能得到提高。
( 三) 乡绅阶层与农业发展乡绅在英国是一个特殊的概念，它是英国上层阶级和中产阶级共同的产物，同时也深深影响着下层阶级。
在农村，乡绅的来源主要包括两个方面，其一是自由持有农，其二是有着贵族称号的没落贵族。
他们一般拥有一定的土地份额，在社会中有一定的经济地位和社会地位。
在英国，乡绅作为国家经济与农业之间的纽带，对国家的发展有一定的促进作用。
由于乡绅中的一部分是由贵族演变而来的，所以他们与新贵之间有着密切的交流，很多行为都保持着与新贵一致。
由于条件限制，乡绅不能享受新贵的待遇，只能在农村发展经济，把国家政策真正落实到农村。
从这个意义上说，有时候甚至可以把乡绅作为政府在农村治理机构的延伸。
在农业发展中起着主导地位的并非农村那些没落的贵族，而是拥有土地的自由持有农。
一方面，自由持有农依靠自身经营土地和农场主的租金为收入，面向市场对土地进行耕种，使得农业与经济很好地结合在一起。
另一方面，乡绅阶级在不断地经营农业活动中，对农业的某些方面进行了改良，他们根据市场的反应制定相应的土地经营方式，把商品经济和农业很好地结合在一起，使英国的农村迅速走上了农业商品化的道路，促进了英国农业的发展，为英国新型社会构建打下了基础。
[6]四、18 世纪英国中产阶级文化实效性在工业革命中的实现18 世纪英国中产阶级在工业革命中对人类最大的贡献在于把自己已有的知识运用到实践中，建立起许多工厂，并通过工厂主与发明家的结合，不断改进生产技术，推动社会的进步。