外文文献及译文封皮
毕业论文(设计)外文文献翻译及原文
金融体制、融资约束与投资——来自OECD的实证分析R．SemenovDepartment of Economics，University of Nijmegen，Nijmegen（荷兰内梅亨大学，经济学院）这篇论文考查了OECD的11个国家中现金流量对企业投资的影响.我们发现不同国家之间投资对企业内部可获取资金的敏感性具有显著差异,并且银企之间具有明显的紧密关系的国家的敏感性比银企之间具有公平关系的国家的低.同时，我们发现融资约束与整体金融发展指标不存在关系.我们的结论与资本市场信息和激励问题对企业投资具有重要作用这种观点一致，并且紧密的银企关系会减少这些问题从而增加企业获取外部融资的渠道。
一、引言各个国家的企业在显著不同的金融体制下运行。
金融发展水平的差别(例如，相对GDP的信用额度和相对GDP的相应股票市场的资本化程度），在所有者和管理者关系、企业和债权人的模式中，企业控制的市场活动水平可以很好地被记录.在完美资本市场,对于具有正的净现值投资机会的企业将一直获得资金。
然而，经济理论表明市场摩擦，诸如信息不对称和激励问题会使获得外部资本更加昂贵，并且具有盈利投资机会的企业不一定能够获取所需资本.这表明融资要素，例如内部产生资金数量、新债务和权益的可得性，共同决定了企业的投资决策.现今已经有大量考查外部资金可得性对投资决策的影响的实证资料（可参考，例如Fazzari（1998）、 Hoshi(1991)、 Chapman（1996）、Samuel(1998））.大多数研究结果表明金融变量例如现金流量有助于解释企业的投资水平。
这项研究结果解释表明企业投资受限于外部资金的可得性。
很多模型强调运行正常的金融中介和金融市场有助于改善信息不对称和交易成本，减缓不对称问题,从而促使储蓄资金投着长期和高回报的项目,并且提高资源的有效配置（参看Levine（1997)的评论文章）。
因而我们预期用于更加发达的金融体制的国家的企业将更容易获得外部融资.几位学者已经指出建立企业和金融中介机构可进一步缓解金融市场摩擦。
毕业设计外文文献格式
本科毕业论文外文文献及译文Current situation of energy consumption and measures taken for energy saving in the iron and steel industry in China文献来源：期刊发表日期：2009.5.17学院：资源与冶金学院专业：冶金工程班级：冶金121姓名：孔博文学号：1206300131指导教师：梁铎强翻译日期：2016.6.23外文文献：Current situation of energy consumption and measures taken for energy saving in the iron and steel industry in China abstractA survey of the key issues associated with the development in the Chinese iron and steel industry and current situations of energy consumption are described in this paper. The apparent production of crude steel in China expanded to 418.78 million tonnes in 2006, which was about 34% share of the world steel production. The iron and steel industry in China is still one of the major high energy consumption and high pollution industries, which accounts for the consumption of about 15.2% of the national total energy, and generation of 14% of the national total waste water and waste gas and 6% of the total solid waste materials. The average energy consumption per unit of steel is about 20% higher than that of other advanced countries due to its low energy utilization efficiency. However, the energy efficiency of the iron and steel industry in China has made significant improvement in the past few years and significant energy savings will be achieved in the future by optimizing end-use energy utilization. Finally, some measures for the industry in terms of the economic policy of China’s 11th five-year plan are also presented.1.IntroductionThe steel industry has for long played an important role in the development of China’s economy. Over the past decades, China’s steel industry has grown rapidly, overtaken Japan, and become the world’s largest steel producer in 1996. In 2006, China’s production of crude steel amounted to 418.78 million tonnes (Mt) [1] and, continued to remain first in rank. The share of output of crude steel of about 335.17 Mt of the key producers accounted for 80% of the aggregate national production and 83.61 Mt of local producers for 20% [2]. In this paper, these key producers are the main subjects of our study.Despite these achievements, China remains a steel producer whose energy efficiency is the lowest among the major steel-producing countries, although the overall technical level of its industry has been greatly improved in line with the developments in science and technology. One typical example is the rapid adop-tion of continuous casting technology. The share of continuous casting output has increased from about 30% of all steel produced in 1992 to 95.8% in 2004. In the meantime, many large firms replaced aging blast furnaces, open-hearth furnaces, and ingot casters with large-scale, modern blast furnaces, and casting and rolling facilities. Iron making may take place either through the blast furnace process or by direct reduction and the subsequent transformation of iron into steel may be carried out either in an oxygen-blown converter or in an electric arc furnace.With improvement of the overall technical level in the steel industry, the production of iron and steel has greatly expanded in the past decade, as shown in Fig. 1 [1–4]. The apparent production of crude steel in China grew from 95 million tonnes in 1995 to 418.78 million tonnes in 2006, which is about 4.5 times that in 1995 and more than three times that in 2000 [3]. As a result, China’s share of world steel production leaped from 13% in 1995 to 34% in 2006. This growth is expected to be sustained over the next few years due to the continued growth in domestic demand.As is well known, the iron and steel industry is the industry with the largest energy consumption in the world. Having become the world’s largest steel producer since 1996 China’s steel industry has grown rapidly following huge growth in domestic demand. This increase is consistent with the trend in the increase in its energy consumption.Iron and steel production consumes large quantities of energy, especially in developing countries and countries with economies in transition where outdated and inefficient technologies are often still used. Steel production in developing countries has grown at an average annual rate of 6.6% in recent years [5] and is expected to continue to grow at similar levels due to the current low per capita steel consumption levels in these countries. In industrialized countries, steel consumption averages over 425 kg/capita, whereas even key steel-producing developing countries have extremely low average per capita consumption levels of 80 kg/capita (in 1995).Fig. 1. Crude steel production of China and share of the world from 1995 to 2006.Most of China’s steel industry developed through a system of state-owned ‘enterprises’, in which an entire community was devoted to the production of steel. As a result, the data collected relating to the energy consumed to produce steel in China also contain energy used at the enterprise level for a variety of other functional departments, both directly and indirectly related to the production of steel. In addition, part of China’s steel is produced by small steel mills that do not report energy consumption data to government statistical sources. It is important to differentiate these data so that the consumption values of China’s energy can be fairly evaluated, especially when we compare the energy consumption and energy intensity of the Chinese steel industry to those of other countries or to particular ‘best practice’examples. We note that even with these adjustments, it is possible that the data still include inaccuracies due to the issues of statistical reports.The objective of this paper is to present a survey of some of the key issues associated withthe development in the Chinese steel industry, and describes the status of its energy consumption. The differences in steel consumption in major processes and China’s role in the scene of the international steel industry are analyzed, and the outlook and the measures to be instituted for China’s iron and steel industry are also presented in the paper. It is important for the world to better understand China’s energy consumption and the use of raw materials and for China to better understand the approaches that have been developed or are being developed in other countries for more efficient use of energy and raw materials. The authors hope this paper contributes to the improved under-standing of these aspects of the industry.2.Energy consumption structure of the iron and steel industry in ChinaIt is well known that electricity production in China mainly depends on coal, and coal is also the most important fuel used in China’s iron and steel industry. In 2004, the energy consumption mix of the Chinese steel industry consisted of 69.90% coal, 26.40% electricity, 3.2% fuel oil, and 0.5% natural gas, as shown in Fig. 2 [4]. Coal is not only the most widely used fuel but is also as necessary as raw material in the iron and steel industry as most of the rest is electricity. Such a fuel structure raises the energy consumption per unit of production and is unlikely to change greatly in the near future.Fig. 2. Energy consumption mix of the steel industry of China in 2004.3. Energy consumption situation in the steel industryThe key iron and steel producers in China play an important role in its manufacture of steel and in the consumption of energy. In 2003, China’s 10 largest steel firms produced more than a third of China’s steel output, with the top four firms producing more than 20% [6]. This implies that many advanced technologies have earlier existed in China’s steel industry, but the current industry’s concentration limits the application of these technologies lowering energy efficiency in general [7]. Therefore, the iron and steel industry remains one of the highest energy consumersand pollu-tion producers accounting for about 15.2% of the national total energy consumption, 14% of the national total waste water and waste gas, and 6% of the total solid waste materials generated.Fig. 3 shows the variations in energy consumption of the key enterprises in China from 1995 to 2006 [3,8–10]. The total energy consumption of the iron and steel industry rose rapidly along with rising steel production in the past decades. In the year 2004, the total steel production of China was 274.7 Mt, rising by 107.7% compared to 2000 and by 184.2% compared to 1995 [10]. The total energy consumption of the key enterprises in China soared from 96.30 Mtce in 2000 to 197.79 Mtce in 2006, which was over twice that for 2000. However, the rising trend in energy consumption weakened in 2006, when it was 8.8% lower than that of the year before.With the application of many new technologies and equipment, the index of energy consumption per tonne of steel decreased remarkably in the past decades. The overall energy consumption for China’s large and medium producers in 2005 was 741 kgce per tonne of steel, which was 20.3% lower than that in 2000 of 930 kgce per tonne. In 2006, the overall energy consumption per tonne of steel continued to decrease to 645 kgce per tonne of steel. The comparable energy consumption also took on a decreasing trend.Fig. 3. Variation of energy consumption of the key enterprises in China from 1995 to 2006.Fig. 4. Fresh water consumption per tonne of steel from 2000 to 2005.The variations in fresh water consumption per tonne of steel from 2000 to 2006 are shown in Fig. 4 [3,10]. The total quantity of fresh water used per tonne of steel in 2006 was 6.56 m3, which is 14.9% lower than that in 2005. Other data comparing energy saving, water saving, and environmental protection between 2000 and 2005 are presented in Table 1 [10]. It can be seen that the energy efficiency of China’s iron and steel industry has made significant improvement in the past few years.4.Energy consumption situation of several main processes in the steel industryFig. 5 shows the variations in energy consumption of several major processes in the steel industry from 1995 to 2005 [3,10]. The energy consumption of the blast furnace, electric furnace and steel rolling processes has decreased remarkably since 1995, and the corresponding values for the coking, sintering, and converter furnaces have also shown minor decreases. In contrast to the years before 2001, the current energy consumption of the blast furnace process presents an increasing trend that is attributed to cost increases since 2001 in raw materials for iron making, such as coke and coal.Fig. 5. Variation of energy consumption of several main processes in the steel industry in1995–2005.Among several major processes, the energy consumption of the iron making process is markedly higher than that of other processes. Taking the example of 2004 as shown in Fig. 6, the total energy consumption of the iron making system accounted for about 70% of the total process energy consumption, including 39% for the blast furnace, 11.9% for coking, 3.51% for balling and 5.55% for sin-tering. The remaining processes accounted for a small part of about 30%, which is comprised of 12.5% for power, 7.77% for rolling steel, 17.5% for the electric furnace, and 2.22% for the converter furnace. This means that the iron making system is a key part of any energy conservation effort in the steel industry.parisons of energy consumption of the steel industry in China with international levelsEnergy consumption per tonne of steel in China is higher than that of most advanced countries. One of the reasons for this is that the energy utilization efficiency in China is low. The average energy consumption per unit of steel is about 20% higher than that of other advanced countries. Compared with Japan, for example, energy consumption for China’s large and medium firms in 2004 was 705 kgce per tonne of steel, 7.5% higher than that in Japan, which was 656 kgce per tonne. However, the energy consumption level of the small production units in Chinawas as high as 1045 kgce per tonne of steel.Fig. 6. Energy consumption structure of several main processes in the steel industry in 2004.Z.C. Guo, Z.X. Fu / Energy 35 (2010) 4356–4360The general energy efficiency of China’s steel industry is still relatively low. One of the important reasons is the existence of these small units. Table 2 shows that there is a vast difference in energy consumption between the advanced and small plants [8]. Only a few large-scale steel-makers have attained or have even exceeded the international levels. Since the output of these advanced plants cannot achieve market dominance, the average energy consumption level of China’s iron and steel industry is still embarrassing.The second reason is the existence of small-scale and decen-tralized industry in China. There are 18 plants with production capacities exceeding 5 Mt of crude steel, which accounted for 46.36% of the total national crude steel production in 2005. In Japan, the crude steel production of four largest plants accounted for 73.22% of the total national crude steel production in 2004, three of which accounted for 61.09%. Except for a few of the large-scale steel plants, China’s steel industry lags behind in technology, equipment, energy saving, environmental protection, etc. The third reason is that the low recovery and recycling efficiency of the secondary energy resources results in higher energy consumption.6.Measures and policy recommendations for the iron and steel industries of China6.1. To expand coke dry quenching technologyTraditionally, the sensible heat of hot coke, pushed from the coking chamber at the temperature of 950–1050 C, is almost equal to 35%–40% of the total amount of heat consumed in the coking process. Adopting coke dry quenching technology can enable recovery of about 80% of the sensible heat from hot coke. Besides, during dry quenching 1 tonne of hot coke can generate 0.45–0.60 tonne of steam at a pressure of about 3.9 MPa. The coke dry quenching process belongs to a technology that is energy saving, environmentally protective, and pollution-free. By using coke dry quenching, it is estimated that the rotary drum strength (M40) of coke increases by 3%–8% and the coke strength after CO2 reaction by 3%–4%. In addition, the quantity of weak binding coal input can be increased by 10% saving about 0.38 tonne of water for every tonne of coke.At the end of 2005, the proportion of coke dry quenching technology usage in China’s iron and steel industry was less than 30%. At the end of 2007, with the spread of this technology rein-forced by an independent innovation in the past two years, the proportion of usage rose to 45%. Now 34 sets of the coke dry quenching unit are under construction and the output share of coke of about 101.58 Mt produced by the coke dry quenching technology accounts for one-third of the total national production.6.2. To expand top gas pressure recovery turbine (TRT) technologyPower can be generated with the energy of pressure from the top of a blast furnace using a turbine generator group. Theoretically,the power generated from TRT equipment is equal to the power energy consumed when the coal gas pressure at the top of the blast furnace is 80 kPa. Economic returns may be obtained when the pressure of the coal gas reaches 100 kPa and even higher economic returns can be achieved, especially, if the coal gas pressure is greater than 120 kPa. In steel production by the blast furnace route, increasing the pressure at the top of the blast furnace is advanta-geous as it leads to recovery of energy resources. The amount of power generated increases by 30% if dry dust is removed at the coal gas purification stage and theturbine capacity by about 3% if the temperature of coal gas is raised by 10 C. If TRT equipment is adopted, it is estimated that 30% of energy can be recovered from the air blast for the furnace and the energy consumption in the steel making processes reduced by l l kgce/t.At the end of 2007, the blast furnaces of capacity greater than 2000 m3 in China that were equipped with TRT technology numbered 49. In future, the use of TRT technology large-scale blast furnaces in China will be widespread and vigorous.6.3. To expand the technology of pulverized coal injection for the blast furnaceUse of pulverized coal injection for blast furnaces is an impor-tant innovation for optimizing steel making systems using the blast furnace route. In addition, it is a powerful incentive to prompt the iron–steel industry to progress in many aspects such as optimizing energy structure, energy saving, reducing consumption of mate-rials, cost reduction, etc. Replacing coke by coal can ease the problem of coking coal shortage caused by energy saving measures. Besides, it can reduce environmental pollution from the coking process while also producing considerable economic returns resulting from the price difference between coal and coke.In 2007, the average quantity of pulverized coal injection employed for the blast furnace route by China’s large and medium producers was 137 kg per tonne of iron, which in 2000 was 118 kg per tonne of iron. The average quantity of injection has exceeded 200 kg per tonne of iron in some large-scale blast furnaces of China. The 4350 m3 capacity blast furnace in Bao-steel is an example. It is estimated that in 2010 the average pulverized coal injection quantity realized in China’s blast furnaces iron will be 160 kg per tonne.6.4. To eliminate low-level equipment and introduce and develop new technologyOver the past few years, the government of China made a strong effort to eliminate low-level equipment. The energy consumption of China’s small iron and steel units was 1.5 times higher than that of the large and medium producers. When China implemented its 11th five-year plan’s policy of energy saving and reducing discharge of pollutants the steel industry was restructured, its equipment capacities enhanced, and pace of modernization accelerated all ofwhich produced an enormous effect.In 2007, the number of blast furnaces with a capacity of 2000 m3 in China was 63, 17 more than that in 2005, and production capacity increased by 35%. The number of converters with a capacity of 100 tonnes was 98 in 2007, eight more than that in 2005, and production capacity increased by 8%. In 2007, the overall energy consumption, the fresh water consumption, the total emission of SO2, the total soot emission, and the total mill dust emission per tonne of steel declined by about 8%, 24%, 4.5%, 3% and 4.5%, respectively, when compared with that in 2005.In addition, China’s iron and steel industries introduced and developed actively new technologies, such as COREX and C300 melted-deoxidize technology.6.5. To create the recycling economy chain within the iron–steel industryIt is believed that three recycling economy chains could be developed in the iron–steel production process aiming at zero emission. First is recycling flue gas, which means that not only coal or coke but also flue gas will be recycled from blast furnaces, converters, or coke ovens to realize zero flue gas emission. The second is recycling industrial waste water, which means that the consumption of fresh water will be minimized and industrial waste water will be recycled using some treating equipment. The third is recycling solid waste materials. It is a comprehensive reuse process for some raw materials such as iron ores left over from the production process.China’s traditional development pattern such as large invest-ment, regardless of serious pollution and lower value-added products resulted in China’s location at the low end of the value chain of the worldwide industrial structure. It is the most impor-tant reason for China’s high consumption of energy. Compared with developed countries, China’s use of poorer quality equipment and ineffective use of process energy led to lower energy utilization efficiency.7.ProspectsWith the improvement of the overall technical level in the steel industry, the production of iron and steel has greatly expanded in the past decade. However, the iron and steel industry is still one of the major high energy consumption and high polluting industries in China. Although the energy efficiency of the iron and steel industry in China has made significant improvement in the past few years, the average energy consumption per unit of steel is about 20% higher than that of other advanced countries owing to low energy utilization efficiency, the existence of somesmall-scale and decentralized industries and low recovery and recycling efficiency of the secondary energy resources. During 2006–2010, the period of China’s 11th five-year plan, based on existing policies, measures and standards, China will promulgate and implement some new policies with more ambitious objectives of sustainable develop-ment and restructuring in the steel industry. One objective of this plan is to build a society committed to energy conservation and a pollution-free environment and to develop the recycling economy chain in the iron and steel industry. Successful implementation of current sustainable development policies and measures will result in considerable energy saving.According to this plan, China’s energy consumption per GDP in ‘China’s 11th five-year plan’will decrease by 20%, the water consumption per unit of industrial added value will decrease by 30% and the total emission of main pollutants will decrease by 10%. Some major tasks will be undertaken for some high energy consumption industries such as the iron and steel industry, nonferrous metal industry, coal industry, power sector, and chemical industry. Therefore, a new industrial path leading to the use of technology-intensive products, optimal economic efficien-cies, lower resource consumption, and less environmental pollu-tion should be forged. There will be significant energy savings by optimizing end-use energy utilization.References[1]Xie QH. The operational aspects of iron and steel industry of China in 2006 and the prospects in 2007. China Steel 2007;2:6–11 (in Chinese).[2]/cyfz/hxfx/t20070126_113627.htm[3]/economic/txt/2007-02/22/content_7852832.htm[4]Wang K, Wang C, Lu XD, Chen JN. Scenario analysis on CO2 emissions reduction potential in China’s iron and steel industry. Energy Policy 2007;35: 2320–35.[5]The Editorial Board of China steel yearbook China steel yearbook. Beijing: China Statistical Publishing House; 2004.[6]Heane A, Heste S, Gurney A, Fairhead L, Beare S, Me´lanie S, et al. New energy technologies: measuring potential impacts in APEC. APEC Energy Working Group, Report no. APEC#205–RE–01.1. Published by ABARE as Research Report 05.1, Canberra. /apec/publications/free_downloads/2005.Medialib Download.v1.html?url=/et c/medialib/apec_media_library/ downloads/workinggroups/ewg/pubs/2005.Par.0001.File.v1.1. [7]Weng YQ. Current status and prospect of energy saving and environment protection of Chinese steel industry. China Metallurgy 2003;11:1–6 (in Chinese).[8]/Info_Show.aspx?Mess_Id¼1659[9]Wang WX. Iron and steel enterprises’process energy consumption and energy saving potential. Metallurgy Management 2005;6:32–4 (in Chinese).[10]Cai JJ, He JH, Lu ZW, Li GT, Wang WX, Kong LH. Analysis of energy saving and energy consumption in Chinese steel industry for last 20 years and next 5 years. Iron and Steel 2002;37:68–73 (in Chinese).中文译文：我国钢铁工业能源消耗现状及节能对策摘要本文介绍了我国钢铁工业发展中的关键问题和能源消耗现状。
外文文献原稿和译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿MechanicalandRegenerativeBrakingIntegrationforaHybridElectricVehicleAbstract,namelyanelectricmotorandinternalcombustionengine,whichallowtheelimina tionofidling,,theaddedcostofthehybridelectricsystemhashinderedthesalesofth esevehicles.JapanNorth America automotive companieshavedevelopedandreleasedforsaletheirownhybridelectric unpredictablegasprices,thesalesofhybridelectricvehicleshaveincreaseddramat ically inrecentyears.2.1.1HybridConfigurationsForthepast100yearstheobjectiveofthehybridhasbeentoextendtherangeofelec tricvehiclesandtoovercometheproblemoflongrechargingtimes35.Therearethree ,par allelhybridsandseries/parallelhybrids.Eachconfigurationhasitsadvantagesanddisadvantageswhichwillbediscussedi nthefollowingsections.SeriesHybridsInserieshybridsthemechanicaloutputfromtheinternalcombustionengineisuse dto driveageneratorwhichproduceselectricalpowerthatcanbestoredinthebatteriesor highpowersystemssuchaslargetrucksorlocomotivesbutcanalsobeusedforlowerpowe rpassengervehicles18.2.1.2‘degreeofhybridization’toquantifytheelectrica lpowerpotentialofthesevehicles.ThedegreeofhybridizationrangesfromDOH=0foraconventionalvehicletoDOH=1f oranallelectricvehicle25.Asthedegreeofhybridizationincreases,asmallerICEcanbeusedandoperatedclosertoitsoptimumefficiencyforagreaterproportionoftheti me,.MicroHybrid MicrohybridshavethesmallestdegreeofhybridizationandusuallyconsistofanintegratedstartergeneratorISG2.1.31500 kg100 km/h0 km/h0 km/h50 km/h2.1.42.1.5译文混合动力电动汽车机械和再生制动的整合摘要为了减少对环境的污染和车辆的燃油消耗,混合动力电动汽车已经成为汽车工业的首选方法;混合动力电动汽车通过使用由电动马达和内燃发动机组成的混合动力系统来达到减少环境污染和燃油消耗的目的;混合动力系统消除了怠速,使发动机以一种更有效的方式运行,增加了再生制动的使用;但是,混合动力的成本的增加阻碍了这些车辆的销售;在这里提出一个更具成本效益的电液制动系统的设计;该系统使用电控机械结合的控制方式控制制动助力器产生的推动力,并有足够的时间反应;这个系统使驾驶员清楚地了解机械和再生制动力矩的混合,使再生制动力系统得到有效的控制;一个系统化的设计过程是其次,重点在于展示概念设计方案的可行性和使用虚拟和实物模型的初步设计功用;虚拟和实物模型的结合使用成为验证和开发系统的强大工具,本文将介绍和讨论在设计过程中模型所起到的作用;因为在设计过程中设计者可以获得相关的经验,提倡学生设计实物模型,以提高学生的学习经验;很明显,这正是本文所要提出的;现代混合动力电动汽车随着油价的上涨和环境保护意识的提高,消费者和政府迫使汽车行业开始生产省油和对环境污染小的汽车;一个有前景的方法就是现在实行的混合动力电动汽车;混合动力汽车指的是有两个或两个以上动力来源的车辆;混合动力汽车动力的来源可能有很多的不同,但是现在混合动力汽车最常见的布局是由内燃发动机和电动马达,能量储存系统共同输出动力,这样的车辆就叫混合动力电动汽车;汽车可以同时使用发动机和电动马达输出的动力,从而可以提高汽车的使用性能和效率,进而又可以提高燃油经济性,减少废气的排放,同时还能满足消费者对汽车性能的要求;1997年,丰田成普瑞斯为了第一款混合动力电动汽车,在日本进行了批量生产;本田公司花费了三年的时间进行混合动力电动车的生产,然后进军北美市场;丰田普瑞斯在北美发行几个月后,本田Insight紧随其后也在北美进行发行;混合动力电动车具有再生制动系统的独特优势;在制动过程,通常用于动力输出的电动马达,可以起到发电机的功用,把汽车的动能转化为蓄电池的电能,而不会转化为热能浪费掉;转换的电能可以储存到蓄电池中,然后可以作为电动马达驱动汽车使用的能量;考虑到蓄电池能量密度时,动能转换为电能这个过程就更加重要了;能量密度是指单位体积或质量下能量储存系统所储存的能量;为了说明这一点,我们可以做个对比,4.5公升的汽油通常可以维持一辆汽车行驶50千米;而要把相同的能量储存到蓄电池中,则需要一个质量约为270千克的铅酸蓄电池;这就说明了在汽车行驶过程中能够有效地储存再生制动系统产生的能量的重要性,从而可以保证在提高混合动力电能车性能的前提下,不至使能量储存系统所占体积过大;再生制动系统研究范围本文所提出的再生系统的研究范围是研究再生制动系统和机械制动系统之间相互作用的关系,目的是设计开发出一个低成本的再生制动系统,从而可以应用到未来经济型的混合动力电动汽车上;这个系统可以根据驾驶员的需要进而控制再生制动系统和机械制动系统产生的制动力矩的结合,还应该保证这个过程的平顺性和安全性;再生制动力矩是通过使用的异步电动机的矢量控制算法进行控制的;但是,独立地控制制动踏板产生的机械制动力矩,同时又要保持机械制动系在再生制动系统失效后起到备用作用,这是一个很大的难题;为了解决这个问题,需要研究一个通过减少制动主缸内制动液压来来控制机械制动系统产生的制动力矩的制动系统;混合电动汽车概述混合动力电动车已经成为了可以在短时间内减少汽车污染排放和提高燃油经济型的解决方法之一;在过去的10年几乎所有的主要汽车公司都已经向公众发行销售自己的混合动力电动汽车,混合动力电动汽车的普及和销售在这个世纪有了很明显的增长,随着不可预测的汽油价格的增长和对环境保护的关注,混合动力电动汽车的销售将在最近几年内急剧增长;2.1.1混合动力装置在过去100年来混合动力的研究目标是延长电动汽车的使用寿命,解决蓄电池的长期充电问题;在目前市场,现在主要有三种混合动力装置,这些混合动力装置为串联混合动力,并联混合动力,串并联混合动力;每一种动力装置都有其优点和缺点,这将在以后的章节进行讨论;串联混合动力串联混合动力汽车使用发动机输出的动力来驱动发电机产生电能,这些电能可以储存在蓄电池中,也可以用来驱动电动马达来驱动汽车;在串联混合动力汽车上,发动机和驱动轮之间没有直接的机械连接,串联混合动力往往在高功率系统中使用,如大型货车或火车,也可以应用到低功率的客运车辆上;发动机输出的机械能和蓄电池输出的电能可以通过电子控制器进行控制接合,然后这个电子控制器通过比较驾驶员所需的动力和汽车车速,电动马达输出的转矩,从而决定每个动力源驱动汽车行驶所要输出的能量;在制动过程中,这个电子控制装置可以使电能输出模式转换为再生模式,直接把再生制动系统产生的电能储存在蓄电池内;按照这种布置方式进行设计有很多的优点;发动机可以保持高效率的运行,使发动机产生的电能在蓄电池和驱动马达之间得到分配;发动机在其最高效率的工况下运行,排放可以大大降低,燃烧每体积的燃料可以产生更多的电能;因为串联动力装置结构简单且成本低,这种动力装置很容在汽车上落实;并联混合动力在并联混合动力汽车中,发动机输出的机械功传到变速箱中;发动机输出的机械功和电动马达输出的功在变速箱内进行机械式的接合,混合的机械功用于驱动汽车行驶;在这种混合动力装置结构中,发动机和驱动轮之间有直接的机械连接;在串联混合动力装置中,电子控制器通过比较驾驶员所需的动力和汽车车速,电动马达输出的转矩,从而决定每个动力源驱动汽车行驶所要输出的能量,以满足汽车行驶性能,获得最佳的效率;正如串联混合装置一样,并联混合动力也以相似的方法控制再生制动;并联混合动力装置通常应用到低功率的电动车中,这两种驱动力可以同时使用,提供更高的行驶性能;与串联混合动力系统相比,并联混合动力系统有很多优势;其中最重要的一项优势是效率高,因为在并联混合动力中,电能和机械能只需转换一次,而在串联混合动力中,电能和机械能需要两次转换;由于并联混合动力可以使发动机和电动马大产生的动力同时结合起来,在不损失汽车行驶性能的前提下,可以使用体积小的电动马达,同时也降低了油耗和排放;最后,并联混合动力汽车在行驶过程中只需使发动机运行,而不需要另一个发电机为蓄电池充电;串、并联混合动力串并联混合动力装置结合了串联和并联动力装置的特点;这种混合方式汽车通过使用动力分配装置来控制双动力源电动马达输出动力,发动机输出动力或者两者同时输出驱动汽车行驶;虽然这种装置形式可以获得串联混合动力装置和并联混合动力装置的优点,因为考虑到汽车实际行驶可能性,这种装置的控制算法会变得非常复杂; 2.1.2混合度现在道路上行驶的混合动力电动汽车大多是串联混合动力,并联混合动力,或者串并联混合动力,因此定义一个‘混合度’变量来评价混合动力电动汽车的电能潜能是非常有意义的;混合度变从传统车辆DOH=0到所有电动车DOH=1之间变化,随着混合度的增加,在汽车上可以使用一个比较小的发动机,同时发动机可以在最接近最佳效率的工况下运行很长的时间,这样就可以减少燃油的消耗和废气的排放;电动马达输出的功用P表emP表示;示,发动机输出的功用ice微混合动力微混合指的是最小混合度,通常是由一个连接到发动机曲轴的综合起动发电机组成;在加速和怠速过程中,综合起动发电机使发动机处于关闭状态,从而节约燃油;加速时,在燃油喷入汽缸之前,综合起动发电机使发动机的曲轴加速旋转;在加速过程中,综合起动发电机对发动机起动协助的作用,在制动过程中,综合起动发电机还可以作为发电机向蓄电池充电;和非混合动力汽车相比,微混合动力汽车的燃油经济性可以提高10%左右;轻混合动力轻混合动力和微混合动力结构相似,有一点不同的是其综合起动发电机是经过改进的,其输出的动力可以超过20KW;但是,轻混合动力的能量储存系统只能储存1KWh左右的能量;轻混合动力汽车只有一个很短的纯电动续航能力,但是可以在加速过程中给发动机提供很大的辅助作用;轻混合动力中的电子元件要比微混合动力中的电子元件复杂的多,且在汽车行驶过程中发挥着更大的作用;和非混合动力的汽车相比,轻混合动力汽车的燃油经济性可以提高20%-25%左右;全混合动力在全混合动力汽车上不再使用综合起动发电机,取代它的是一个独立的电动马达和交流发电机、起动机,这些装置也可以起到综合起动发电机的作用;电动马达可以独立驱动汽车行驶,尤其是在城市道路上走走停停的行驶;能量储存系统也得到了改进,这样就提高了汽车纯电动续航能力,减少了发动机的体积,从而提高燃油经济性和减少排放;与非混合动力汽车相比,全混合动力汽车的燃油消耗量可以减少40%-50%;插电式混合动力插电式混合动力汽车在结构上和全混合动力汽车相似,不同的是插电式混合动力汽车有一个比较大的能量储存系统,可以通过与外部电源连接进行充电;在蓄电池储存能量范围内,可以通过电动马达来驱动汽车行驶,但是当蓄电池的能量降到一定水平后,其运行形势就和全混合动力一样了;2.1.3再生制动原理混合动力电动汽车最重要的特点是可以回收大量的制动能量;在制动过程中,电动马达可以作为发电机来运行操作,将制动过程中的动能转换为电能储存到蓄电池中,这些电能就可以被汽车重复使用;但是,车辆的制动性能就将影响到汽车的安全性;在紧急制动状态下,汽车的制动距离要尽可能的短,还要保证制动时汽车有较好的方向稳定性;汽车具有较好的方向稳定性,就需要控制车轮的制动力分配;一般来说,制动时所需的制动力矩比电动马达产生的制动力矩大得多;因此,机械制动系统需要和电子再生制动系统同时存在,这就需要适当的设计以保证制动时的操作稳定性,不至于影响到汽车的安全性;制动时能量消耗由公式可得,一个质量为1500Kg的汽车以100km/h初速度制动到完全停止,需要消耗的动能;如果这些能量的25%可以通过再生制动系统进行回收,当忽略制动和加速过程中的空气阻力,机械摩擦和滚动阻力,假设电动马达的工作效率100%,利用公式可以估算出,这些能量可以使汽车从0km/h加速到50km/h.这就表明,当汽车行驶在城市道路上,汽车不停加速和制动,混合动力电动车的燃油经济性可以大大增加;需要注意的是,制动能量的回收量受到马达的型号和能量转换率的限制;2.1.4再生制动系统目前,通常使用的有两种再生制动方法;这些方法通常称为串联再生制动和并联制动,每种制动策略都有其优点和缺点,本文对此将进行具体讨论;并联再生制动在并联再生制动系统中,电动马达和机械制动系统同时工作,从而使汽车减速;因为机械制动系统不能独立的控制制动力,使制动时的能量转换为热能而不是电能,因此这不是最有效地再生制动方法;但是并联再生制动结构简单成本低,这就成为其一大优势;并联再生制动的机械制动系统只需要稍加修改,而且电动马达的控制算法也可以很容易在汽车上实现;这种制动方法还有一个额外的优势,当再生制动系统发生故障时,机械制动系统可以起到备用的作用;串联再生制动在串联再生制动中,电动马达只有在制动时才起作用;只有当电动马达和能量储存系统无法接受更多制动时所需的能量时,再生制动系统才起作用;串联再生制动需要独立的控制制动力矩,串联再生制动可以高效率的把动能转换为电能,这是其一项优势;但是它的不足之处在于,制动系统结构复杂,成本高;这种制动方式需要制动踏板模拟器,制动系统也需要重新设计,这都会增加其制造成本;因为制动系统需要装有传感器和信息处理器,这就会增加了结构的复杂度;2.1.5目前的再生制动系统目前大多数混合动力电动汽车的再生制动系统都是比较昂贵的电液制动系统;再生制动系统使用制动踏板模拟器来建立驾驶者的制动需求,这个制动踏板模拟器与液压制动电路独立分开;这样再将制动需求按照一定比例转换为再生制动和机械制动需求,然后将机械制动需求发送到由高压液压泵,蓄能器和比例控制阀的系统;比例控制阀根据制动需求,控制制动液以一定的预定值流到每个车轮的制动轮缸中;。
外文参考文献译文及原文【范本模板】
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部城建学部专业土木工程年级 2011级班级名称 11土木工程9班学号 23031109000学生姓名刘林指导教师卢集富2015 年5 月目录一、项目成本管理与控制 0二、Project Budget Monitor and Control (1)三、施工阶段承包商在控制施工成本方面所扮演的作用 (2)四、The Contractor’s Role in Building Cost Reduction After Design (4)一、外文文献译文（1）项目成本管理与控制随着市场竞争的激烈性越来越大,在每一个项目中，进行成本控制越发重要。
本文论述了在施工阶段,项目经理如何成功地控制项目预算成本。
本文讨论了很多方法。
它表明，要取得成功，项目经理必须关注这些成功的方法.1。
简介调查显示,大多数项目会碰到超出预算的问……功控制预算成本.2.项目控制和监测的概念和目的Erel and Raz (2000）指出项目控制周期包括测量成……原因以及决定纠偏措施并采取行动。
监控的目的就是纠偏措施的。
.。
标范围内。
3.建立一个有效的控制体系为了实现预算成本的目标，项目管理者需要建立一……被监测和控制是非常有帮助的。
项目成功与良好的沟通密。
决（ Diallo and Thuillier， 2005）.4.成本费用的检测和控制4.1对检测的优先顺序进行排序在施工阶段，很多施工活动是基于原来的计……用完了。
第四,项目管理者应该检测高风险活动，高风险活动最有。
..重要（Cotterell and Hughes, 1995)。
4.2成本控制的方法一个项目的主要费用包括员工成本、材料成本以及工期延误的成本。
为了控制这些成本费用，项目管理者首先应该建立一个成本控制系统：a)为财务数据的管理和分析工作落实责任人员b)确保按照项目的结构来合理分配所有的……它的变化-—在成本控制线上准确地记录所有恰..。
毕业设计(论文)外文资料及译文(模板)
大连东软信息学院
毕业设计（论文）外文资料及译文
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大连东软信息学院
Dalian Neusoft University of Information
外文资料和译文格式要求
一、装订要求
1、外文资料原文（复印或打印）在前、译文在后、最后为指导教师评定成绩。
2、译文必须采用计算机输入、打印。
3、A4幅面打印，于左侧装订。
二、撰写要求
1、外文文献内容与所选课题相关。
2、本科学生译文汉字字数不少于4000字，高职学生译文汉字字数不少于2000字。
三、格式要求
1、译文字号：中文小四号宋体，英文小四号“Times New Roman”字型，全文统一，首行缩进2个中文字符，1.5倍行距。
2、译文页码：页码用阿拉伯数字连续编页，字体采用“Times New Roman”字体，字号小五，页底居中。
3、译文页眉：眉体使用单线，页眉说明五号宋体，居中“大连东软信息学院本科毕业设计（论文）译文”。
外文参考文献译文及原文
目录1介绍 (1)在这一章对NS2的引入提供。
尤其是，关于NS2的安装信息是在第2章。
第3章介绍了NS2的目录和公约。
第4章介绍了在NS2仿真的主要步骤。
一个简单的仿真例子在第5章。
最后，在第.8章作总结。
2安装 (1)该组件的想法是明智的做法，以获取上述件和安装他们的个人。
此选项保存downloadingtime和大量内存空间。
但是，它可能是麻烦的初学者，因此只对有经验的用户推荐。
(2)安装一套ns2的all-in-one在unix-based系统 (2)安装一套ns2的all-in-one在Windows系统 (3)3目录和公约 (4)目录 (4)4运行ns2模拟 (6)ns2程序调用 (6)ns2模拟的主要步骤 (6)5一个仿真例子 (8)6总结 (12)1 Introduction (13)2 Installation (15)Installing an All-In-One NS2 Suite on Unix-Based Systems (15)Installing an All-In-One NS2 Suite on Windows-Based Systems (16)3 Directories and Convention (17)Directories and Convention (17)Convention (17)4 Running NS2 Simulation (20)NS2 Program Invocation (20)Main NS2 Simulation Steps (20)5 A Simulation Example (22)6 Summary (27)1介绍网络模拟器(一般叫作NS2)的版本，是证明了有用在学习通讯网络的动态本质的一个事件驱动的模仿工具。
模仿架线并且无线网络作用和协议(即寻址算法，TCP，UDP)使用NS2，可以完成。
一般来说，NS2提供用户以指定这样网络协议和模仿他们对应的行为方式。
外文文献翻译要求及封面
根据《普通高等学校本科毕业设计（论文）指导》地内容，特对外文文献翻译提出以下要求：
一、翻译地外文文献一般为～篇，外文字符要求不少于万（或翻译成中文后至少在字以上）.
二、翻译地外文文献应主要选自学术期刊、学术会议地文章、有关著作及其他相关材料，应与毕业论文（设计）主题相关，并作为外文参考文献列入毕业论文（设计）地参考文献.并在每篇中文译文首页用“脚注”形式注明原文作者及出处，中文译文后应附外文原文.个人收集整理勿做商业用途
三、中文译文地基本撰写格式为题目采用小三号黑体字居中打印，正文采用宋体小四号字，行间距一般为固定值磅，标准字符间距.页边距为左，右，上下各，页面统一采用纸.个人收集整理勿做商业用途
四、封面格式由学校统一制作（注：封面上地“翻译题目”指中文译文地题目，附件为一篇外文翻译地封面格式，附件二为两篇外文翻译地封面格式），若有两篇外文文献，请按“封面、译文一、外文原文一、译文二、外文原文二”地顺序统一装订.个人收集整理勿做商业用途
信息工程学院教科办
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杭州电子科技大学信息工程学院
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译
毕业设计（论文）题
目
翻译题目
系
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指导教师
杭州电子科技大学信息工程学院毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译
毕业设计（论文）题
目
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系
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指导教师。
外文文献翻译——参考格式
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部经济学部专业经济学年级 2007级班级名称 07经济学6班学号 16020706001学生姓名张瑜琴指导教师陈锶2011 年05月目录1挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺 (1)2什么商业银行带给小额贷款和什么把他们留在外 (2)3 商业银行的四个模型进入小额贷款之内 (4)3.1内在的单位 (4)3.2财务子公司 (5)3.3策略的同盟 (5)3.4服务公司模型 (6)4 合法的形式和操作的结构比较 (8)5 服务的个案研究公司模型：厄瓜多尔和Haiti5 (9)1 挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺商业银行已经是逐渐重要的运动员在拉丁美洲中的小额贷款服务的发展2到小额贷款市场是小额贷款的好消息客户因为银行能提供他们一完整类型的财务的服务，包括信用，储蓄和以费用为基础的服务。
整体而言，它也对小额贷款重要，因为与他们广泛的身体、财务的和人类。
如果商业银行变成重的运动员在小额贷款，他们能提供非常强烈的竞争到传统的小额贷款机构。
资源，银行能廉宜地发射而且扩张小额贷款服务rela tively。
如果商业广告银行在小额贷款中成为严重的运动员，他们能提出非常强烈的竞争给传统的小额贷款机构。
然而，小额贷款社区里面有知觉哪一商业银行进入进入小额贷款将会是短命或浅的。
举例来说，有知觉哪一商业银行首先可能不搬进小额贷款因为时候建立小额贷款操作到一个有利润的水平超过银行的标准投资时间地平线。
或，在进入小额贷款，银行之后可能移动在－上面藉由增加贷款数量销售取利润最大值－或者更坏的事，退出如果他们是不满意与小额贷款的收益性的水平。
这些知觉已经被特性加燃料商业银行的情形进入小额贷款和后来的出口之内。
在最极端的，一些开业者已经甚至宣布，”降低尺度死！”而且抛弃了与主意合作的商业银行。
在最 signific 看得到的地方，蚂蚁利益商业银行可能带给小额贷款，国际的ACCION 发展发射而且扩张的和一些商业银行的关系小额贷款操作。