语言学中descriptive定义
语言学名词解释07790
名词解释1.Prescriptive and Descriptive规定性的和描述性的Prescriptive and descriptive represent two kind of different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.描述性的研究主要以观察和描述人们实际所使用的语言为目的。
规定性的研究以制定语言使用的规范和标准为主要目的，即为使用者指出语言的标准用法，什么是正确的用法，什么是错误的用法，为语言使用者提供典范。
ngue and Parole 语言和言语Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Parole is the concrete use of the convention and the application of rules.语言是一种社会机制、是一种语言的理想形式、是为一个团体所有成员所接受的社会惯例的抽象的语言系统。
英语语言学部分名词解释(英文版)
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say).5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C)6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04)7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range are speech sounds)2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C)3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.QR It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.20. phoneme : An abstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)或者The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone : the different phones which can represent the same phoneme in different phonetic enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme (07C/ 05)22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds form patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isola tion, they’re collectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.。
语言学概论 名词解释
1. Design features of language:(1)Arbitrariness (任意性):there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with.（声音和意思无直接联系）eg: why English should use the sounds /dog/ to refer to the animal dog, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental.（2）Duality(双重性)：the way meaningless elements of language at one level(sounds and letters)combine to form meaningful units at another level. That is, sounds such as d, g, f, o, mean nothing separately. They normally take on meaning only when they are combined in certain ways, as in dog, fog, and god. 2．Descriptive grammars(描写性语法): attempt to tell what is in the language(语言第一，语法第二，语法是为语言服务)Prescriptive grammars（规定性语法）：tell people what should be in the language.3．Phonetics(语音学): the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they ate produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.It can be divided into 3main branches:(1) articulatory phonetics(有音节的), which is the study of how speech sounds are produced(2)acoustic phonetics（有关声音的）,which deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air(3)auditory phonetics(听觉的)，which deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.4.Assimilation(同化): a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phonetically similar to a neighboring sound ,eg: a vowel becomes whenfollowed by a consonant.5．Phonology(音系学): the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.6．Minimal pairs（最小对立体）: a pair of words that differ by only a single sound in the same position, e.g. look/ took, spill/still and keep/coop Minimal set（最小对立体集）: when a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme(always in the same position)eg: a minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of English would include feat, fit, fate, fat, fought, foot, and one based on consonants could have big, pig, and wig.7．Syllable（音节）: these units which are often longer than one should and smaller than a whole word. 1. phonetically, syllables are usually described as consisting of a center which has little or no airflow and which sounds comparatively loud.2.phonologically, syllables are defined by the way in which vowels and consonants combine to form various sequences.8．Stress (重音): the prominence given to certain sounds in speech. 9．Morphology (形态学)：the study of the structure of words.10．Root（词根）: the morpheme that remains when all affixes are strippes froma complex word. eg: system from un- +system + atic +ally11.Derivational morphemes（派生词缀）可能会改变词性: a morpheme that serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning. eg: -ment derives the noun from the verb establish; re- changes themeaning of the verb paint to "paint again".Inflectional morphemes（屈折词缀）不改变词性: which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.12.Allomorphs(语素变体): a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized,e.g. -s, -es, and all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.plementary distribution(互补分布):allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution for they never occur in the same contest. Eg: the unaspirated /p/ always occurs after /s/ while the aspirated one always occurs in other places.14.types of word formation:(1)compounding(合成构词法):words like typewriter, workshop, tractor-driver are formed by putting two words together. Two free morphemes are combined to form a compound.(2)Derivation（派生构词法）：derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. A derivational word consists of at least a free morpheme and a bound morpheme. For example, by adding affixes un-, mis-, -ful, -less, -ism, we can get words like unhappy, misunderstand, careful, careless.(3)Blending(混成构词法): a process a single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. eg: the English word brunch is made from breakfast and lunch.(4)Acronym（首字母拼音词）：some new words are formed from the first letters of a series of words. They are pronounced as single words, as in NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization)15.Syntax(句法学): used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentence structure.(1)Immediate constituent analysis(直接成分分析法)：also called IC Analysis, in linguistics, a system of grammatical analysis that divides sentences into successive layers, or constituents, until, in the final layer, each constituent consists of only a word or meaningful part of a word. (A constituent is any word or construction that enters into some larger construction.) eg. In the sentence “The old man ran away,” the first division into immediate constituents would be between “the old man” and “ran away.” The immediate constituents of “the old man” are “the” and “old man.” At the next level “old man” is divided into “old” and “man.” It was introduced by the United States linguist Leonard Bloomfield in 1933.(2)Recursion（递归性）:the feature of recursion permits a grammar of a finite number of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences. For example: This is the house that jack built. /This is the cat that lived in the house that jack built.16.Semantics（语义学）：the study of linguistic meaning.(1)Sense(意义)语言之间的关系：the inherent part of an expression’s meaning which, together with context, determines its referent. It is also called intension. Eg: knowing the sense of a noun phrase such as the president of the UnitedStates in 2004 allows one to determine that George W. Bush is the referent. (2)Reference(指称，参照)：the relationship between words and the things, actions ,events, and qualities they stand for. An example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object "tree" in the real world.17、Pragmatics(语用学)：a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(1)Anaphora(回指):the process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.(2)Cohesion(衔接): the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse. This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.Coherence(连贯): :the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a discourse of the sentences in a text.18、Iconicity(象似性)：the major types of iconicity in language which have frequently been proposed are those of order, distance, and complexity.(1)Iconicity of order(顺序象似性)：refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic of construction. (e.g. Caesar’s historic words “veni, vidi, vici”-I came, I saw, I conquered.) iconicity of order reflects the consistency of language with human cognition and the objective world.(2)Iconicity of distance（距离象似性）：accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance. That is, elements which have a close relationship must be placed close together.(3)Iconicity of complexity(复杂象似性):accounts for our tendency toassociate more form with more meaning and, conversely ,less form with less meaning.19.The prototype theory（原形理论）：what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category. eg: For some English speakers "cabbage" might be the prototypical vegetable.20.Lexical gap(词汇空缺) : the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language is called lexical gap. For instance, in English there is no singular noun that covers both cow and bull as horse covers stallion and mare.21.Associative meaning（联想意义）：connotative(内涵), social, affective（情感）, reflective（反射）, and collocative（搭配）meanings are called associative meaning.Reflective meaning(反射意义):is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.22.Allophone(音位变体)：a phonetic form in which a phoneme is realized.23.Diacritics（变音符号）：is a set of symbols which can be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible.。
Descriptive_Linguistics
3.在结构分析中主要运 用分布和替换的方法， 以便从一堆言语素材中 切分出独立的单位并加 以归类。
4.对句法结构进行层次分 析，这是分布和替换的方 法在句法研究中的具体运 用，并由此发展出直接成 分的分析法，即把句子或 词按层次区分出它的组成 部分。
5.建立语素音位这个新的单位， 这是在语法和语音结合的基础上 建立的一个新的单位。它是由出 现于某个语素变体的一组音位所 组成的语音单位（如英语名词复 数的词尾-s, -z, iz是由不同的音 位组成的同一个语素音位）。
The purpose of linguistic theory, so far as a practical linguist is concerned, is to make descriptions of morphology and syntax comprehensible. It is easy to see that the same data can often be described in different ways. For a while there was an active desire to find some measure which would allow some one description to be called the best. Today that goal seems to have been given up as chimerical.
6.强调验证。这一学派认为语言研 究必须根据话语的素材，采用严格 规定的步骤对这些素材做形式的分 类，而且分析的结果必须经受验证。 因此，它也被称为"操作主义"和"分 类主义"。五十年代末，随着转换生成语言学的新起，它逐渐失去了 原有的主导地位，影响减弱。
语言学的重要区分
• 共时语言学就是研究一种或多种语言 在其历史发展中的某一阶段的情况， 即语言状态(language state)，而不考 虑这种状态究竟如何演化而来,又称静 态语言学(static linguistics).
• 历时语言学集中研究语言在较长历史 时期所经历的变化，又称演化语言学 （evolutionary linguistics）
• Langue refers to the abstract linc system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
• langue is the set of conventions and rules which lg users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the applications of the rules.
Important Distinctions in Linguistics
Contents
• Descriptive vs Prescriptive • Synchronic vs Diachronic • Langue vs Parole • Competence vs Performance • Speech vs Writing
• Synchronic study---description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)
语言学名词解释
语言学名词解释胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1.Design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity,displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2.Function: the use of language to communicate, to think, etc. Language functions include informativefunction, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3.Synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.4.Diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.5.Prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. layingdown rules for language use.6.Descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.7.Arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.8.Duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels ofare composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.9.Displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable theirusers to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.10.Phatic communion: one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.11.Metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particularstudies./doc/1716061846.html,petence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.13.Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation./doc/1716061846.html,ngue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.15.Parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).16.Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. (The study ofsounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.)17.Phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover theprinciples that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.18.Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speech sounds.19.Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.20.Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actualrelationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.21.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants, place of articulation refers to where in thevocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air./doc/1716061846.html,plementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the sameenvironment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.23.Suprasegmental: suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than singlesound segments. The principal supra-segmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation. 24.Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, aunit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering themeaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.25.Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.26.Affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme (the root or stem).27.Derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.28.Root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.29.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.30.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.31.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.32.Lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided withsemantic interpretation.33.Grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articlesand pronouns.34.Lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is, those which refer to substance, action andquality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.35.Blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining theinitial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.36.Loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, insome cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.37.Loan blend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning isfully borrowed.38.Loan shift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.39.Acronym: is made up of the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modifiedheadword.40.Loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.41.Back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting animagined affix from a long form already in the language.42.Assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is morespecifically called. ”contact” or”contiguous” assimilation.43.Linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. language determinesthought.44.Linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.45.Performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as opposed to aconstative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.46.Constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.47.Locutionary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying l iteral meaning by means ofsyntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense andreference.48.Illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’sintention.49.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.50.Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.。
Descriptive Linguistics
The Trend of Modern Linguistics ……
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Accurate description of real speech is a difficult problem, and linguists have often been reduced to grossly inaccurate approximations. Almost all linguistic theory has its origin in practical problems of descriptive linguistics. Phonology (and its theoretical developments, such as the phoneme) deals with how native speakers pronounce their languages. Syntax has developed to describe what happens when phonetics has reduced spoken language to a normalized control level. Lexicography（词典编纂） collects "words" and their derivations and transformations: it has not given rise to much gen调验证。这一学派认为语言研 强调验证。 强调验证 究必须根据话语的素材， 究必须根据话语的素材，采用严格 规定的步骤对这些素材做形式的分 而且分析的结果必须经受验证。 类，而且分析的结果必须经受验证。 因此，它也被称为"操作主义 操作主义"和 分 因此，它也被称为 操作主义 和"分 类主义"。五十年代末，随着转换类主义 。五十年代末，随着转换 生成语言学的新起， 生成语言学的新起，它逐渐失去了 原有的主导地位，影响减弱。 原有的主导地位，影响减弱。
英语语言学导论笔记
一、语言学总论1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 象似性iconicity定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.举例：书, book, livre喜欢，like，aimer2）Duality（二层性）:定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）:定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality.举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park举例2：England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4）Displacement（替代性、移位性）:定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.5）Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）:定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.反例：印度狼孩2. Important Distinctions in Linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1) Descriptive （描述性）vs. Prescriptive （规定性）Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguistics举例：Don't say X.People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.2). Synchronic（共时性）vs. Diachronic （历时性）synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.举例：研究1800年的英语发音Synchronic studies (共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies (历时研究)3). langue（语言）& parole （言语）Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguisticslangue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langueImportant Distinctions in Linguistics4) Competence（语言能力）and performance （语言运用）theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.二、语音学和音系学1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究语音学分类articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers productionacoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmission’s mediumauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s receptionHow speech sounds are madeSpeech organsPosition of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)Voiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction清音举例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates浊音: [b,z,d]The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of air stream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.音系学重要概念:Phone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和tea 中的/t/两个不同的音子Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例：tea 和sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeSuprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .The principal suprasegmentals are:stress （重音）举例: perfect (adj) 和perfect (v)tone (声调)/pitch (音高):定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.举例: mā妈, má麻, mă马，mà骂比较：英语单词，如meintonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.三、Morphology 形态学1. 学科定义2. 语素的定义和分类3. 词的分类（classification of words）形态学研究的基本单位1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例：ballfootballballsTypes of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense)Derivational morpheme（派生语素）=derivational affix (派生词缀）: change the lexical meaningDerivational morpheme(改变词义):改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改变词性：en-, -full, -mentInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s,改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed,改变形容词的级：-er, -est如何区分派生词（derivational word）和合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。
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语言学中descriptive定义
在语言学中，描述性定义是一种研究语言的方法，致力于对语言现象进行客观、准确的描述。
它通过观察和记录实际语言使用的情况，而不是在规范或规则上进行评判。
描述性定义关注语言实践者的语言行为，以及语言中存在的各种变异和差异。
与规范性定义不同，描述性定义避免通过应该如何使用语言来规范或评判语言。
它试图描述语言现象的实际情况，而不是提出应该如何正确地使用语言的规则。
这种方法的目标是提供一个关于语言的客观和完整的描述，从而更好地理解语言的本质和语言使用者之间的关系。
描述性定义的研究方法包括实地观察、语料库分析和数据收集等。
研究者会收
集大量的语言数据，以了解语言在不同社会和文化环境中的使用方式。
他们会考察语音、语法、词汇和语用等方面，以建立一个全面、准确的语言模型。
一个成功的描述性定义应该是基于严谨的数据分析和语言实证研究。
它应该具
备可靠性、客观性和普适性，能够涵盖各种语言现象和语言使用的多样性。
通过描述性定义，语言学家可以更好地了解语言的性质、结构和规律，为其他相关研究提供基础，并为语言教育、翻译和语言技术等应用领域提供指导。
总之，描述性定义是语言学中一种重要的研究方法，它通过对实际语言使用进
行客观、准确的描述，揭示语言现象的本质和规律。
它帮助我们更好地理解语言，为其他语言学领域的研究和应用提供基础。