城市规划环境色彩外文翻译文献
城市规划滨水景观设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
城市规划滨水景观设计中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) Riverfront Landscape Design for London 2012 Olympic ParkHow do you plant along a river's edge, knowing that millions of people could be passing through thesite in the near future? How do you design, create and maintain the surrounding wetlands, knowing that man-made wet woodland is very rare and transitionalby nature? How do you ensurethat the habitat being created remains viable and sustainable in the long-term? Atkins’engineers of the wetlands and river edges on the London 2012 Olympic Park were tasked with fi nding answers to all of these questions.Covering more than 246 hectares of formerly derelict industrial land, London’s new Olympic Park for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games is one ofEurope’s biggest-ever urban greening projects. Rivers and wetlands are at the heart of the vision for the new park, which lies in east London’s Lower Lee Valley. Th e landscape that’s now emerging will provide a backdrop for the main action of theLondon 2012 Games.As river edge and wetland engineers for the project, Atkins has played a critical role in turning the vision into reality. Atkins’remit includes design of the soft river edges and wetlands, including riverbank restoration and bioengineering.The transformation is unprecedented. More than 8km of riverbanks have been restored as part of the project; in tandem with this, 2 hectares of reed beds and ponds have been created, along with 9,000 square meters of rare wet woodland(Fig.01).The challenge was about getting people both visual and physical access down to the river-to actually make the rivers more accessible and more open, and therefore the centerpiece of the Park.Mike Vaughan heads up Atkins' multidisciplinary design team, which includes river engineers, geomorphologists and ecologists. “The idea was to open up the river corridor by making the steep sl opes that line the river fl att er,”explains Mike. “By dropping the slopes, we’ve brought the river into the park and made it much more accessible-people can get close to the river and see what’s going on there.”Gett ing the riverbank geometry just right was a delicate balancing act. Too steep, and the banks would need costly artifi cial reinforcement; too shallow, and they would start to eat into valuable space on the site. An optimum slope of 1 in 2.5-about 22 degrees- was chosen. The space occupied by river bank was restricted by the need to convey fl oodwater and the location of terrestrial landscape and infrastructure. As such, the banks were over-steepened using two approaches. Firstly, where possible, the riverbanks were terraced using coir rolls and timber stakes. In other locations, where only a 70 degree bank was possible, a reinforced detail was used, providing layers of geo-grid and steel mesh cages, faced with a riverside turf.Today, with the new landscape rapidly taking shape, it’s easy to forget how the Lee Valley used to look. Until the Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA) took possession of the site in 2006, many of the river channels that criss-cross the site were clogged with invasive weeds, along with the predictable detritus of urban decay: abandoned shopping trolleys and car tires.Th e Lee Valley’s neglected river network wasn’t only an eyesore, but also an obstacle-a gulf separating Hackney and Tower Hamlets in the west from Waltham Forest and Newham in the east.Now, the revitalized waterways-and the new crossings spanning them-will be vital not only during the Games, but also aft er 2012. Th ey are an integral part of the legacy solution, stitching the new Park and its waterways into the wider fabric of east London.1 Bringing Habitats back to LifeMaking the most of the site’s rivers and natural features to create sustainable habitats is a key part of the Olympic Delivery Authority’s vision for the Olympic Park. But the process of transforming the park’s rivers from weed and rubbish-infested gulches into pristine watercourses has been long and tough.For Atkins, that process started with developing an intimate understanding of the labyrinth of waterways and channels that wind their way through the site. Flows and velocities were measured at diff erent points over a period of time, with data used to construct a detailed hydraulic model to predict flood risk. That’s of critical importance, because Atkins had responsibility for everything up to a contour of 4 meters above ordnance datum (sea level) on the site.A full flood risk assessment was undertaken at environmental impact assessment stage. Atkins undertook analyses of the risk of fl ooding caused by frequent rainfall, taking into account the automated regulation of water levels in the impounded reaches and the impact of tidal lockout. The modeling exercise was made considerably more complicated by the impoundment of the river system during the course of 2008; in effect, this eliminated thedirect tidal infl uence of the Th ames. But its indirect infl uence is still felt. “When the tide comes in on the Th ames, it stops water fl owing out of the River Lee,”explains Mike Vaughan. “So the river levels fl uctuate by an average of 400mm a day.”Atkins’modeling calculations correctly predicted th is phenomenon, and also the increased risk of flooding. “These discoveries led to some changes in the landscaping profile,”says Mike. “The riverside paths have been raised by up to a meter and the profile of the wetlands was also raised, as maintaining cor rect water levels is critical to their survival.”Sustainable drainage techniques have also been used across the Park. In the landscape areas, porous strips have been used in the concourse, feeding into bioswales which drain down into the riverside ponds. Surface conveyance, underground pipes and storage features have also been utilized(Fig.02).The first step in the river restoration process was to “lay back”the banks, many of which were precipitously steep. This re-profiling was necessary because much of the surrounding land was “made”ground, the result of centuries of tipping that had raised the ground level by as much as 10 meters in places. The cocktail of materials on the banks included rubble, glass, animal bones and, more recently, wartime demolition materials from London’s east end.Another challenge facing the Atkins team was the prevalence of invasive weeds. These included Himalayan balsam, Japanese knotweed and giant hogweed. All are fast-growing non-native plants introduced to Britain in the 19th century as gardencuriosities; all have prospered on the wrong side of the garden wall.Invasive species are bad news for riverbanks. They reproduceand grow with prodigious speed, driving out native plant species. And they’re highly resilient. Knotweed ca n force its way through solid concrete, while giant hogweed contains furocoumarins, sun-activated toxins that can cause skin ulceration. Elimination was a priority –soil was treated throughout the site and the banks stripped of all remaining vegetation.In addition, Atkins was responsible for ensuring the protection of the existing fl ora and fauna on the site. Phase one habitat surveys were undertaken as part of the environmental impact assessment in 2006, including bird and fi sh surveys. A major translocation of species was undertaken to suitable receptor sites including a specially-created 1 hectare site just outside the Park. Atkins translocated 330 commonlizards, 100 toads and 4,000 smooth newts. In order to protect the flora on the site, Atkins maint ained a ‘permit to clear’system for contractors, and specifi ed safeguarded habitat areas that were not to be touched including areas of sycamore trees.2 Choosing Plants to PlantAtkins is responsible for the final look of the riverbanks and wetlands-and deciding what to re- plant presented a challenge. With banks now bare, new planting would have to fulfi ll not only ecological and aesthetic demands-they’d be expected to be in bloom for the Olympic Games-but engineering imperatives too.The Atkins design team chose bioengineering techniques, rather than culverting and hard engineering, for the project. That means protecting and consolidating riverbanks by using vegetation and natural products instead of concrete. Choosing the right species with the right root systems would be critical to protect the banks from erosion.An added challenge was that the river network is semi-tidal. The twice-daily rise and fall of around 400mm had the potential to play havoc with new planting, and the river’s high sediment loads threatened to smother anything planted from seed or plugs. “We don’t actually have a natural river system,”notes Mike. “Plants don’t cop well in those conditions.”To fi nd out which plants would fare best-and to establish the most eff ective planting methods -Atkins conducted a unique riverbank planting trial along a 50-metre stretch of the Lee in the Olympic Park.“We trialled plants of different elevations and different installation techniques. These were monitored over a year,”says Ian Morrissey, senior environmental scientist with Atkins. “That’s really helped to inform exactly what species we should plant and where.”The trial revealed that plug plants would be just too vulnerable. But plants pre-grown in coir -coconut fibre matting-resisted being washed away or swamped. Coir has other benefi ts too-it’s easy and quick to install in rolls and pallets two meters long and a meter wide(Fig.03).“Th e mat itself acts like a mulch, so you prevent any weeds growing up through it that might already be within the bank material. But more importantly, when the banks become inundated, you get fine sediment trapped within the coir. Th at helps to bind the roots and feed the plants,”says Ian.3 Banking on Tomorrow’s SeedlingsCreating a sustainable riverbank ecosystem means using native species. So before the banks were scraped back, seed was collected from suitable native aquatic species-a process managed by Atkins -and stored in a seed bank. Some of this seedwas then used by bioengineering and nursery specialists, Salix, who were appointed by the Olympic Delivery Authority to cultivate plants off site in what’s believed to be one of Britain’s biggest-ever nursery contracts.The offsite growing operation was huge and sowing for the project commenced in June 2009, as plants must be a year old and well established in their coir pallets before encountering the tough riverbank environment.Plants for the wet woodlands, including sedges, were raised in more than 7,000 pots at Salix’s nursery on the Gower peninsula, near Swansea. And in Norfolk, the company created a new 16-acre nursery dedicated to the 2012 project(Fig.04). Here, more than 300,000 plants representing some 28 different species, including sedges, common reed, marsh marigolds and yellow fl ag irises, were grown on more than a thousand coir pallets, ready to be transported to London in the following months.During the summer of 2010, the 18,000 square metres of planting were then pieced together like a giant jigsaw. This was a massive logistical challenge. To make it easier, each of the pallets and rolls was tagged. It was vitally important that each one went in exactly the right space so as to avoid cutting and trimming the roots and rhizomes of the plants. The team laid them out in blocks, to a plan, to make sure this didn’t happen.4 Ponds and Wet Woodlands from ScratchWhile the riverbanks of the “Old River Lee”occupied much of the attention ofthe Atkins team, there were also entirely new bodies of water to consider. A fundamental part of the biodiversity of the river edges in the north of the Park lies in three new triangular ponds, off the east bank. Two of these were designed to dry up in thesummer, forming moist grassy hollows. Th e third pond was created to retain water, enabling species such as water lilies and marsh marigold to thrive(Fig.05).Preventing that third pond from drying out -while also ensuring that it did not fl ood along with the River Lee-was a conundrum. Atkins responded by designing a connection between the pond and the river to act as both overfl ow and feed. Flows could be regulated: when the pond level rose too high, water could be drained back into the river; when it started to dry out, a valve could be opened to release river water back into the pond. It sounds simple, but it is believed to be the fi rst of its kind for a habitat feature of this scale.As well as the improved waterways and riverbanks, new wet woodlands will be a notable feature of the Olympic Park. They’re now a rare habitat in the UK, and the ones in the Park are being created from scratch.“It was quite a novel thing to be asked to do,”recalls Atkins’Ian Morrissey. “The challenge was to make sure we had the right water levels within the wetwoodland areas. Atkins was responsible for working out the topographies and the channels, and how they would interact with the river.”Wetlands have a tendency to become dry land eventually, a process that can be slowed down through selecting the right vegetation, careful water level management and maintenance.“The sedge spec ies we selected were chosen because they are quite vigorous so are able to compete well with terrestrial species,”says Ian.Tree species for the wet woodland include willow, alder, birch and the now rare black poplar, points out Atkins’Mike Vaughan: “It’s fantastic for wildlife. You get a lot of invertebrates in there,as well as nesting birds.”Birds, though, can present a challenge, particularly on the freshly planted riverbanks.“There’s a risk of wildfowl grazing our plants when they get on site,”says M ike. To prevent that happening, hundreds of meters of deterrent fencing were erected around new vegetation. That stayed there until spring 2012(Fig.06).5 Beyond the Finishing LineThe transformation of the lower Lee Valley and the creation of the new park, now nearing completion, is remarkable by any standards. Visitors to the Olympic Park –up to 250,000 every day at the peak of the Games –will encounter one of the greenest and most environmentally friendly parks ever to be created for the Olympics.And th e benefits will be felt long after 2012. “We’re pulling that really difficult trick of putting in infrastructure that’s good for the Games, but will work in legacy,”said the ODA's John Hopkins. “This will be a great place to live and work, with rivers and parklands at the heart. Socially, economically and environmentally, there will be a terrifi c legacy-it’s a new landscape powering a new piece of city.”伦敦2012奥林匹克公园滨水景观设计与营造如果在不久的未来，将有数百万人途经这块滨水区域，沿河该如何种植？如果了解到自然界中人造湿林地已十分罕见，该如何设计、创造并维护周边这种湿地环境？该如何长期保持栖息地的活力和可持续性？在伦敦2012奥林匹克公园项目中，来自阿特金斯的工程师们受托负责湿地和河滨地区设计及建设，将会找到所有这些问题的答案。
可持续城市景观设计外文文献翻译中英文2019
可持续城市景观设计外文翻译2019英文Sustainable Urban Landscape Practices: A New Concept to ReduceEcological Degradation.Manjari RaiAbstract - Urbanization is an inevitable process of development of human society and an outcome of economic development and scientific and technological progress. While urbanization process in promoting the development of human civilization, also no doubt, urban landscape has been a corresponding impact. Urban environment has suffered unprecedented damage majorly due to the increase in urban population density and heavy migration rate, traffic congestion and environmental pollution. All this have however led to a major ecological degradation and imbalance. As lands are used for the rapid and unplanned urbanization, the green lands are diminished and severe pollution is created by waste products. Plastic, the most alarming waste at landfill sites, is yet uncontrolled. Therefore, initiatives must be taken to reduce plastic mediated pollution and increase green application. However, increasing green land is not possible due to the landfill by urban structures. In order to create a harmonious environment, sustainable development in the urban landscape becomes a matter of prime focus. This paper thus discusses the concept of ecological design combined with the urbanlandscape design, green landscape design on urban structures and sustainable development through the use of recyclable waste materials which is also a low costing approach of urban landscape design.Index Terms— sustainable, urban, landscape, ecological balance.1INTRODUCTIONLandscape embodies human outlook, values, ethics and moral and reflects peoples love and hate, desire and dreams in the land. Today, landscape has become an indispensable part of contemporary urban life. From the perspective of modern people, we are supposed to protect environment in accordance with the laws of ecology in order to ensure sustainable development. With the rapid development of mankind and urbanization, landscape structures of cities have been affected accordingly. City environment suffers unprecedented hazards, such as air pollution, shortage of water resources, high population density, urban traffic congestion, shortage of resources and so on. Architecture is always in a dilemma when it tries to achieve the double objectives of creating its own value and manifesting the harmonious with the city as well. Nowadays, in the face of problems caused by the process of urbanism, such as destruction of ecology, loss of cultural characteristics, fragmentation of urban tissue, contemporary architecture has been strongly influenced by the concepts and methods of landscape, which give another possibility beyond the dualism2.1 Sustainability and environmentSustainable planning and design focus on promoting recycling and achieving an ecological balance. It majorly talks about designing nature in a very natural way. Sim Vander Ryn and Stuart Cown first proposed the definition of ecological design: any coordination with the ecological processes, as far as possible damage to the environment of their reach minimal design in the form, is referred to as eco-design.This coordination means that the design respects species diversity, reduce the deprivation of resources, maintaining nutrition and water circulation to maintain plant and animal habitats, habitat quality, and help improve the living environment and the health of ecosystems. Ecological planning and design follow the 4R principle - reduction (reduction), re-use (reuse), recycling (recycle), renewable (renewable).2.2 Ecology and environmentSustainable development aims at meeting current needs without compromising the ability of future generations meeting their development needs. Sustainable development also means the maintenance, rational use and improvement of the natural resource base which supports the pressure resistance of ecological basis and economic growth. The sustainable design is essentially a regenerated design based on a self-renewal capacity of natural systems, including how to interfere and destroy the self-regenerative capacity of natural systems as little as possible, how toenhance the regeneration capacity of damaged landscape as much as possible, and how to minimize a design by means of maximizing the natural regeneration capacity. These lead to a sustainable landscape.2.3 Eco-city: an integrated conceptRoseland argues that the eco-city is a particular structure consisted by numerous seemingly unrelated elements, including urban design, lifestyle, economic improvement, physical environment, popularity, and social system [xi]. It is an important argument of Yu that an eco-city should be a process of delivering integrated social, economic and environmental development [xiii].More specifically, Song describes six fundamental principles of establishing ecological city, including sustainability concept; individuals as priority; being harmony with economy, society and environment; emphasizing healthy economic environment; stimulating innovation and overall planning [xii]. These views show that the eco-city concept integrates culture, natural and social economy into a whole development approach.Currently, climate change is the major challenge to an ecofriendly environmental establishment. Because of the extreme weather, the energy shortage and overutilization of raw materials, the price of natural resources is rising sharply. Additionally, water shortage is a considerable challenge to the eco-city development. This situation is mainly caused by excessive use, low efficiency, pollution and destruction of vegetation.Due to the significantly important role of clean water in the city, water scarcity can be a great challenge of the ecological construction. Moreover, pollution of air, water, soil and other areas brings enormous challenge of ecological urban environment. Not only destroys the biological balance, the pollution may also cause negative effects on human beings. There is a tendency that pollution is a severe damage to individuals, leading to physical diseases and mental illness.3 IDEAS TO REDUCE ECOLOGICAL DEGRADATION IN URBAN LANDSCAPE DESIGNEcological landscape design is basically to maximize the use of nature and to improve regeneration capacity of nature system. To optimize ecosystem as much as possible in landscape design is the ultimate goal of landscape designers in the present times.Based on the methods of ecological design, designers should pursue to maximize the combination of design and environment rather than only one of them. In the actual urban landscape designs, landscape ecology and construction optimize landscape pattern and process, reducing Urban heat island effect, water resources consumption, water environmental deterioration and global warming and so on. As excellent contemporary landscape architects, we should avoid designing only for design and try to make full use of the original elements of nature. But we cannot be shackled by the natural elements. In our design, we do our best to userenewable raw materials and reuse the materials on the site, maximizing the potential of materials to reduce production, processing and transport of materials and reduce construction waste, and retain some characteristics of local traditional culture.Certain suggestive methods for Eco-sensitive landscape Design:1) The retention and re-use of the site: Fully respecting original appearance of the site, retaining its original elements and reusing the original material not only save handling materials and avoid producing, processing and transporting those materials but also reduce the destruction of the ecological environment.2) Priority to recycling materials and Eco-efficiency Based on local materials, promote the use of green materials. Strive to find a durable, locally produced, low-maintenance, and lowconsumed materials. The approach of using recyclable material and green landscaping can give a lot of beneficial effect in perspective of today’s scenario. It can be started easily from the waste without investment and application of technical sense can convert the polluted places to a green city, thereby reducing the load in landfill sites. Create a virtuous cycle of terrestrial ecosystems. Transform the "waste" mold into a new landscape through the recycling of materials and resource and thereby minimize the demand to new materials as well as reduce the demand of energy required for production of material obtaine3) Conservation and preservation of non renewable resource: We can reduce the consumption of non-renewable energy sources as much as possible through science and technology, and widely use renewable energy in nature such as solar, wind, etc., to adapt to modern ecology environment. Take Tilonia village, Rajasthan, India as an example. A well laid out village which plans and preserves the natural resources through the use of alternate energy resources in the buildings. Also termed as barefoot college.4) Reuse of certain specific building elements from dilapidated and dungeon site: Reusing certain specific building elements from old and dilapidated sites can be a great approach towards sustainable development. Apart from reducing the load on construction debris and landfill sites, it can be a great way to restore and revive our past glory. Certain specific cities from Rajasthan (India), which had a glorious past, are now into ruins. They had beautiful havelis and landscaped gardens, which now are in a dilapidated condition due to ill maintenance. However, 5) Revival and restoration: water bodies, natural woodlands, landscaped gardens, Kunds, baories, inland public spaces, which were acting as major active and recreation zones for local communities in the yesteryears, have come under major stress these days due to massive urbanization. Especially some of the Indian cities (jaipur, Varanasi etc) which, are now facing some critical challenges. These invaluable assets are now into a state ofmajor dilapidation and a big waste as far as land recourse is concerned. The stepped wells of Rajasthan and the Ghats of Varanasi, which had once been the outcome of a magnificent blend of natural phenomena, cultural belief and manmade intervention, presently, face the threat of extinction. It is therefore an important issue ecologically, to formulate a comprehensive vision for Repair, Renovation and Restoration of these bygone classics.6. Eco-Design for an overall sustainable development.Ecodesign methods are diverse, but every method in practice has different characteristics. We can make our design more ecological by these eco-design methods. We may maximize the use of the original elements on the site, respecting the original buildings and facilities and give some new features to them. Efficient use of water to reduce water consumption is common in ecological planning and design. In some urban landscape design, gathering rainwater or dew to supply most of the landscape water, add water to the surrounding waterscape and supply buildings with clean water, etc., so that the city achieve zero water consumption. Or we can adopt various natural purification mechanisms like artificial wetlands. Water flow and the growth of aquatic plants are associated with water purification, so that the landscape is ecologically rational integration of the principles. The rich plant resources are also an important element that cannot be ignored. In urban eco-landscape design,when designers choose plant material, shapes are very important. You can attract people's attention by designing a variety of forms of plants and let people benefit from nature. In plant design, grass plot and ground cover plants lie low and stretch without a break making our space full of vitality and endless green.4. CONCLUSIONEco design principles and its elements have been a part of our lifestyle since the beginning. It is closely linked with our daily lives and culture. In the present times, protecting the natural ecological environment and promoting sustainable development of the human environment has become our urgent task. The concept of sustainable development into urban landscape design to expand the area of landscape design is the need of the day. Design should apply more native plants; respect the field on the original natural regeneration vegetation. Nature will have its evolution and update the rule, from ecological perspective. Ecologically, sustainability is taken seriously in order to balance natural resources and its development thereby protecting an strengthening the production and updates of environmental systems. the urban designers and planners need to adhere to the view of ecology and culture, in the least damage to the site of the original ecological environment based on local conditions construction, inheritance historical context, regional development to push forward, through the mining of ecology and culture,to create a harmonious coexistence of cultural memory and the trend of the times of the urban space. Any landscape, especially the urban landscape system, with the most closely related is human itself. Concept of sustainable development requires caring for people first, respecting for nature and thus the blindness of artificial modification of the natural environment is reduced, which precisely embodies the concept of ecological planning; at the same time, we should pay attention to specific regional characteristics of the environment. When we create landscape design, we should avoid damaging original ecological environment and respect biological and ecological needs in the environment after fully understanding the ecosystem characteristics of the landscape. Secondly, in process of urban landscape design, we protect and make use of natural resources. We maximize the use of natural green energy, reduce the use of pollution energy, and reduce environmental pollution. Overall, the concept of sustainable development of landscape design requires us to take eco-development as basis and respect for the ecological environment, strengthening recycling of the material and energy.Strengthen using self-sustaining and sustainable environment processing technology. In fact, the process of urban landscape ecological design is also the process of sustainable development of urban landscape. They integrate with each other. Their design intents are same. The sustainable development of urban landscape design represents a designmethod of respecting objective environment and using green techniques. When creating a green environment, we should express original beauty, namely, a deep harmony of human, biology and nature. Sustainable urban landscape design emphasizes on harmony and unity of nature and society. As art works, urban landscape design respects nature and matches the requirements of ecological development. In addition, it also improves the visual environment of a region, thereby enhancing the value of entire region and closely link with the social economy. In short , urban landscaping design concept of sustainable development requires us to seek a balance between these factors, with both the rational use of landscape features of its own, but also good ecological and economic benefits of landscape, that is, the harmony and unity of nature and society.中文可持续城市景观设计实践：减少生态退化的新概念。
建筑环境色彩外文翻译文献
文献信息文献标题：Strategies in colour choice for architectural built environment（建筑环境色彩选择策略）文献作者：Pietro Zennaro文献出处：《Journal of the International Colour Association》,2017, 19:15-22.字数统计：英文3211单词，16942字符；中文5483汉字外文文献Strategies in colour choice for architectural builtenvironmentIn the realisation of a colour design, or of a colour plan, every designer should have the availability of a set of basic tools to prevent him or her from performing prejudicial operations in the territory, in the landscape, in the city, in the neighbourhood, and in the individual building. The same designer should then know some rules in the colour choice that will enhance the built environment. The approach to colour selection depends on many factors, for example the building size and function, the combination of spaces, the urban form, the dimensions of streets, alleys, plazas, squares and so on, but especially the specificity of the place. By this we mean the history, traditions, culture, geographical location, the qualities and weaknesses, the range of possible design/conservation options and all those characteristics that distinguish one place from another. So it should be clear to the designer who faces a chromatic project, that he or she primarily needs a dedicated strategy, different from case to case, specific to each place. The diversity of the places establishes the richness of traditions and customs that should be preserved and/or possibly updated.Introduction“Starting the study of perception, we find in the language the concept of sensation, which seems immediate and clear: I have the sensation of red, blue, hot, cold.”The perception of space is a complex phenomenon. It takes into account not only the detection and appearance of the surroundings, but also involves the viewer in terms of synaesthesia, memory, personal experiences, moods, physical and psychological conditions, age, sex and a thousand other aspects that would be long even to list. In turn, the same perception produces innumerable and complex reactions, highly dependent from subject to subject. “We approach the variability of the outer world at several levels of experience simultaneously, partly naturally by ecologically based counterbalances in perception and body and partly through conscious actions, personal or cultural, through appropriate behaviours or through technical adaptability. ”Therefore anyone who wants to deal with the design of buildings cannot be unfamiliar with some basic knowledge that will enable the limitation of damage caused by his actions. Architectural design is a complex kind of work that has the purpose to aesthetically qualify the environment. Even just dealing with chromatic aspects in the project is not a minor thing. In fact, the colour of the planet is made up of infinitely many aspects that are certainly not easy to approach.Colour exerts a strong influence on the perception and interpretation of the surroundings. Colour affects mood and health. “In perceiving a colour we experience the objective meaning. Each colour is then an emotional precisely determined signal that is experienced unconsciously. The colour signals are therefore an emotional language understood at a subconscious level.”In social terms, for human beings colour is basically a means of communication and cultural transmission. “For many reasons (historical, economic, religious, military) the West has too well understood this law: all the cities are concentric; but, in accordance with the same movement of Western metaphysics, for which each centre is the location of truth, the centre of our city is always full: a marked place, where we collect and condense the values of civilisation: spirituality (with churches), power(with offices), money (with banks), the goods (with department stores), the word (with «agorà»: coffee and walks).” Analogously Western urban centres are a collection and a condensation of colours. Each city centre tends to show emblematic colours, representing the level of civilisation. Commonly the colours used in historical urban centres are often low in saturation. The newer cultures, preferring to live in a techno-scientific environment, are more attracted by highly-saturated colours.On the other hand, in the oriental culture we see empty urban centres. Considering Japan, in Tokyo the historical city is concentric and the centre is empty. It is occupied by the heart of the nation: the religious and political power. The Emperor, Japan's religious and political leader, occupies this big empty space. So the colours used are those of the tradition: red, gold and white. Similarly in the Chinese culture the urban centre is an empty space. In Beijing, the Forbidden City was exactly this kind of concentration of non-physical elements: power and religion. The colours used also in this case were those of the Emperor. After the Communist revolution red became the main colour in China. But the tradition persists and the main colours are those of the five elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. In China, there are five very specific colours (i.e. blue-green, red, yellow, white, black) resonating with meaning through every layer of traditional and modern life, representing emotional, physical, spiritual and directional forces.As synthetically expressed, transmitting a culture not only requires knowing technical aspects, but also other aspects affecting a society and its evolution. Having care of colours is not only a personal pleasure but in architecture concerns the whole community. Everybody is influenced by colour and it seems necessary that designers should be provided with some basic information. The architectural profession also involves such tasks.What’s discussed in the following is the result of research experience at the University Iuav of Venice, in leading the Research Unit “Colour and Light in Architecture”, and in the professional activity of colour design and planning for villages/towns with historical centres, expansion zones, sprawl, isolated houses or industrial areas. The focus on the improvement of such places through the appropriateuse of colour is determined by the need for upgrading the man-land, and by putting in place suitable low- impact factors.DiscussionIn the perception of our surroundings, the colours are seen differently depending on weather conditions, seasonal, direct or indirect radiation, by reflection, by source of natural or artificial lighting and in many other aspects. The perception of the surroundings takes place in terms of synaesthesia, involving all the senses of the observer.Analysing the behaviour of colour and light in built places, there is no more emblematic experience than the evaluation on site or by pictures of what happens in a common sunny day. For convenience we have taken a Venetian example, where the presence of water and the density of the built façades more easily shows the interaction of light with the facing fronts. The presence of water, also, increasing the mirror effect of the canal that is less evident in common roads, shows better the transfer of a colour from an illuminated wall to the opposite one in shadow.In the scene of Figure 1, the left front is less exposed to bad weather than the right one. Since the colours painted on the walls are based on lime they have the tendency to wash out easily. In fact, the opposite façade at right is completely washed out and then shows a grey plaster. The sun, beating on the walls of Fondamenta Minotto (left), affords a transfer of the yellow colour by reflection over the water surface of the Rio Magazen to the shadowed opposite walls. Then a double phenomenon occurs, the specular reflection from the coloured wall to the water and its transfer onto the grey wall is added to the diffused reflection coming directly from the illuminated yellow wall. Another clue comes from the reflection of sunlight on the windows bouncing directly partly on the pavement and partly on the walls of Fondamenta Gaffaro (right). In turn, the wall in shadow casts its silhouette on the opposite façade darkening the yellow colour. The shape of the tympanum makes an almost grey shaded space. On the days when the sky is covered, the difference in brightness between the two walls is considerably more noticeable, darkening the greyto a greater degree and making the yellow less expressive.Figure 1: Rio del Magazen: Fondamenta Minotto (left) and Fondamenta Gaffaro (right).Thecolours are reflected between the walls and the waterIt is easy to understand that the materials used in building’s construction have intrinsic chromatic behaviour and considering a built system like that described above, their relationship with the surroundings can also modify their chromatic expressiveness. Moreover in the perception of the surroundings, built forms are perceived differently depending on: seasons, weather conditions, direct or indirect radiation, reflection, natural or artificial light source, and many other aspects.So the minimum designer's tools for colour design, necessary to avoid prejudicial operations, are:•To know that perception of the surroundings takes place in terms of synaesthesia (vision is only one of the five senses);•To have a cultural understanding of design and colour essentials;•To know the basic rules of colour combination and colour harmony in the built environment;•To know the history, traditions, culture, geographical location, the qualities and weaknesses and the range of possible options of the site/city/environment…;•To know the characteristics that distinguish one place from another;•To formulate a dedicated strategy different from case to case, specific to each place;•To make continuous iterations between theory, project and realisation.This list could be expanded, progressing from the basic to the more sophisticated level, where detailed study gives more information to the professional, finally to attain sufficient experience on the approach to colour design. Translating the above list into knowledge requires specific instruction on a topic that usually is little practised at universities where architecture design is taught. In these academies, the training of architectural design is still almost exclusively based on the knowledge of shape and dimensionality, as if a building were an abstract living sculpture. In fact, if we analyse critically the majority of the latest works having a strong appeal to contemporary academic and the professional world we would have more than a few doubts in distinguishing sculptures from architecture.But, without digression, it is perhaps enough to tell someone who works in the world of architecture that a simple action of painting on the walls of buildings can completely disrupt the interpretation of the shape. So it could be necessary to clarify to the reader, that knowing how to use the colour, starting from the design phase, can help to counteract changes to the original project conception, as well as provide new tools to modify a lot of buildings born speculatively or following ideologies with currently indigestible forms. For example, the buildings of the former socialist countries generally need requalification for energy consumption. Architects working around the problems in repetitive mega structures are also facing a lack in aesthetic quality. The use of colour design on the refurbishment of façades, in some cases, has given excellent results.But how can we approach the chromatic choice in architecture? The answer depends on diverse aspects such as:•The size and typology of the building’s façades;•The type and scale of aggregation;•The dimensions of streets, roads, alleys, squares and so on;•The dominant colours and accent colours, contrasts, architectural unity, etc.;•The colour project/planning strategy adopted;•The congruence with the environment and with local history and culture;•The presence/absence of colour harmony and chromatic cacophonies.We could add many other aspects in a kind of journey from the general to the particular, until we define every detail. Obviously this list cannot provide useful tools for colour selection, but can supply some precautions to be noted at the time of decisions and choices.In the perception of the surroundings, built forms are perceived differently depending on weather, seasonal conditions, direct or indirect radiation, by reflection or by natural or artificial light source, and by many other factors. The shape/colour ratio is also influenced by a series of secondary effects such as:•Distance: far, from afar, close, very close;•Space: very large, large, medium, small, very small;•Environment: wet, dry, humid, windy;•Light: on, off, sunny, shady, bright, dark;•Weight: light, heavy;•Time: short, medium, long;•Thermal: cold, hot and lukewarm;•Psychology: depressive, relaxing, soothing, stimulating, exciting, very exciting, exhilarating.Some of these effects depend on the wavelengths, colour hue/tone/saturation and other optical phenomena. The feeling of space, according to ponderable and temporal terms, changes with the wavelengths and varies according to the hue and intensity. Other effects depend on the combination of closeness/distance and the overall design or perceived detail. Others are consequences of physical, electrical, optical, physiological features and combinations.The selection of colours to paint walls and other parts of buildings must reference general guidelines when treating for example:•Narrow streets;•Wide Roads;•Squares and plazas;•Sprawl houses;•Farmhouses;•Buildings in barren, arid, stony fields;•Continuous façades;•Tall buildings;•Public buildings;•Industrial buildings;•Others.Figure 2 shows a narrow calle (Venetian street) in Burano Island on a sunny day after a rain shower. In these conditions of light, colours seem much more saturated when the walls are not washed out. The chromatic cadence is based almost exclusively on warm colours, if one excludes the green façade that can be seen on the right. On the basis of the list above we can say that the distance effect is between close and very close; the environmental effect is wet; the light effect is sunny and shady; the weight effect is heavy going to light; the thermal effect is lukewarm/hot; and the psychological effect is stimulating.Figure 2: Burano Island (Venice): Narrow street. A sunny day after a storm Burano island is a particular case of the use of colour in the façades of buildings, a case begun around the 1960s with the sale of synthetic materials for painting of external façades. The colour choice was left to the discretion of individual owners who, in order to stand out in relation to their neighbours, have engaged in an uncontrollable competition by using different colours for their properties. A new reality has thus exploded with a considerable increase of the saturation of colours and the birth of combinations without rules. The recent widespread marketing of siloxane paints has further increased such saturation and the duration of colours. Also the application techniques have changed considerably and, if previously the wall painting was carried out directly by the owners, now there are professional painters who apply the products and often give advice on the choice of colours.In the Italian mainland this random choice of the colour of the exterior of buildings has had the effect of creating a visual chaos that impinges on the usability of the places and the possibility of preserving or repurposing many historical centres. Some civic administrations, however, are equipping their planning instruments with colour schemes. These local regulations are producing contrasting effects. On the one hand there are restorers who tend to set a standard epoch that serves as a model for all buildings even though they connote very different epochs; others argue for a kind of scientific restoration, that is practised to recover the buildings according to their date of construction or their period of maximum glory; others are inclined to make choices coinciding with their personal taste, legitimising the colour choices on the basis of derivation from natural local elements; others are based on statistics, considering the prevailing colours and formalising a project that doesn’t deviate much from the state of fact; others behave with reasoning difficult to interpret. In short, the plans/projects of colour, at least in Italian society, are made by professionals who may have only a vague knowledge of colour (engineers, architects, planners, restorers, industrial designers, etc.). Of course all these different people adopt different approaches, producing results that are not always congruent with the places where they perform the colour plan. The one positive thing that can be said is that most of the colourdesigns are implemented through paint, and fortunately the paintings don’t have long durability. Usually time is a gentleman and erases many design hysteric results.ConclusionsThis paper arose from what the author has written in one of his recent books in the Italian language. In fact the motivation for transmitting some knowledge to colleagues (especially architects) was born from the consideration that a good part of the practice of Italian professionals is devoid of even minimal knowledge of the use of colour. Many times they use it in an ideological manner.“Light and colour together form our visual image of the surrounding world. Despite this, colour and light are too often treated as two distinct fields of knowledge. Colour specialists often lack knowledge about light, and light specialists often do not know enough about colour. Knowledge of both colour and light are separated between different professional and academic areas, each with its own set of theories, concepts and methods. Those who want to find their own understanding and be able to apply it in their work could easily get lost in all of this – with the result that only a small proportion of existing knowledge will be used in practice.”During the investigation we found that only those who have attended schools with an artistic orientation that enable access to the university had some notions about the use of colour. The others, who are the vast majority, are fixed to either childhood or adolescent education, and are therefore not sufficiently familiar with knowledge about chromatic mechanisms. Hence there is a need to produce manuals on the proper use of colour and colour harmony. Even the colour collection handbooks showing standard solutions often seem useful, to be taken as they are and transferred to the reality. But this is not colour design. I think that promoting colour culture towards Architects is a mission for those who deal in terms of training, skills and knowledge.What is proposed is a modest "Toolbox", with instruments to design buildings knowing from the outset which colours will be chosen. The earlier we know the chromatic directions, the better we can check the quality of form, embedding it in the thought processes inherent in planning. In the "Toolbox" there are various tools andtechniques, which depart from the general and extend up to the particular. Obviously equipment is useful and often necessary, but sometimes it can also be cumbersome. It becomes worthless at the moment in which the designer has matured his own poetic impulses and is equipped with an exclusive personal set of instruments. For example, in the world of painting, the colours of the paints are always the same, but the artworks they realise are absolutely different from artist to artist. The colour choices are personal, as well as the combinations, harmony and anything else the artist considers necessary to express his or her thoughts on the canvas. This ability sets apart the great painters. In the case of amateurs however, it often happens that when they begin to mix colours on the palette the result ends up as muddy brown, despite good intentions.Thus this paper aims to avoid amateurism in design and to provide some guidance to those who build up architectures, colour plans, furniture, objects and so on, without knowing anything about colour and its impact on the environment and the human psyche.中文译文建筑环境色彩选择策略在实现色彩设计或色彩规划时，每个设计师都应拥有一套基本的方法，以防止他或她在领域、景观、城市、邻近地区和个别建筑物中进行有害的操作。
城市规划外文翻译文献综述
城市规划外文翻译文献综述(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)绿地，城市持续发展最重要的指标：城市规划效用研究摘要：本篇文章总结了在西班牙城市巴伦西亚开展的一次非常广泛的研究，即绿地在城市舒适度中起到的作用。
之前，已经研究出了组成城市环境的环境参数。
根据这些值，一系列的舒适指数被分析并被证实，这些指数证明了之前作出的决定中的最佳的行为。
同样被研究的还有绿地在公共城市空间中的作用：对太阳辐射的保留度和污染滞留容量。
根据绿地的总量，这在公式上达到了舒适指数的极限值，即通过统计相关性，测定出城市达到理论上的舒适所需的绿地的表面积。
本篇文章对城市量度的公式进行了更宽泛的分析，通过对空间和环境以更广泛的视角和更丰富的多样性的研究。
这三个舒适指数已经被巴伦西亚以最佳的运作状态表现出来了，即达到了统计学上的最确定性。
这篇文章最后研究了早前在巴伦西亚进行的绿色规划实验。
最终结果考虑到巴伦西亚的学术权威提出的保护许尔塔的建议，正是这个天然商品花园开始了巴伦西亚的形成，接着形成了欧洲地区的战略哲学和欧洲景观风俗。
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.0000060. © 2011 美国土木工程师协会关键词：城市规划，植物，树木，应用研究，可持续规划引言：全球人口城市化速度的增长在最近几年值得注意，这一现象的发生根本上是由于城市为居民提供了更优的基本生活条件，极大地增加了他们的自由度。
现实情况是，城市地区表现出越来越多的矛盾、不健康、难管理，其中最主要的是巨大的压力在环境方面。
因此，在城市首先思考环境问题并将它从根本上的处理和解决掉才是合乎情理的。
最近几年，数以千计的人们每当周末便涌向城市周边，探索还未被发现的动物栖息地和自然空间。
这在根本上是因为现代文明，尤其是在西方社会，对“基本生活条件”进行了清楚的定义，涉及到的基本生活条件是幸福的一项复杂的参数，根据世界卫生组织的建议，这一可靠结果有着和健康同等的定义：“不仅仅是没有疾病和病痛，而且要在身体、心理和社交方面都是幸福的。
城市景观规划设计毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
建筑环境色彩外文翻译文献
建筑环境⾊彩外⽂翻译⽂献⽂献信息⽂献标题：Strategies in colour choice for architectural built environment（建筑环境⾊彩选择策略）⽂献作者：Pietro Zennaro⽂献出处：《Journal of the International Colour Association》,2017, 19:15-22.字数统计：英⽂3211单词，16942字符；中⽂5483汉字外⽂⽂献Strategies in colour choice for architectural builtenvironmentIn the realisation of a colour design, or of a colour plan, every designer should have the availability of a set of basic tools to prevent him or her from performing prejudicial operations in the territory, in the landscape, in the city, in the neighbourhood, and in the individual building. The same designer should then know some rules in the colour choice that will enhance the built environment. The approach to colour selection depends on many factors, for example the building size and function, the combination of spaces, the urban form, the dimensions of streets, alleys, plazas, squares and so on, but especially the specificity of the place. By this we mean the history, traditions, culture, geographical location, the qualities and weaknesses, the range of possible design/conservation options and all those characteristics that distinguish one place from another. So it should be clear to the designer who faces a chromatic project, that he or she primarily needs a dedicated strategy, different from case to case, specific to each place. The diversity of the places establishes the richness of traditions and customs that should be preserved and/or possibly updated.Introduction“Starting the study of perception, we find in the lang uage the concept of sensation, which seems immediate and clear: I have the sensation of red, blue, hot, cold.”The perception of space is a complex phenomenon. It takes into account not only the detection and appearance of the surroundings, but also involves the viewer in terms of synaesthesia, memory, personal experiences, moods, physical and psychological conditions, age, sex and a thousand other aspects that would be long even to list. In turn, the same perception produces innumerable and complex reactions, highly dependent from subject to subject. “We approach the variability of the outer world at several levels of experience simultaneously, partly naturally by ecologically based counterbalances in perception and body and partly through conscious actions, personal or cultural, through appropriate behaviours or through technical adaptability. ”Therefore anyone who wants to deal with the design of buildings cannot be unfamiliar with some basic knowledge that will enable the limitation of damage caused by his actions. Architectural design is a complex kind of work that has the purpose to aesthetically qualify the environment. Even just dealing with chromatic aspects in the project is not a minor thing. In fact, the colour of the planet is made up of infinitely many aspects that are certainly not easy to approach.Colour exerts a strong influence on the perception and interpretation of the surroundings. Colour affects mood and health. “In perceiving a colour we experience the objective meaning. Each colour is then an emotional precisely determined signal that is experienced unconsciously. The colour signals are therefore an emotional language understood at a subconscious level.”In social terms, for human beings colour is basically a means of communication and cultural transmission. “For many reasons (historical, economic, religious, military) the West has too well understood this law: all the cities are concentric; but, in accordance with the same movement of Western metaphysics, for which each centre is the location of truth, the centre of our city is always full: a marked place, where we collect and condense the values of civilisation: spirituality (with churches), power(with offices), money (with banks), the goods (with department stores), the word (with ?ag orà?: coffee and walks).”Analogously Western urban centres are a collection and a condensation of colours. Each city centre tends to show emblematic colours, representing the level of civilisation. Commonly the colours used in historical urban centres are often low in saturation. The newer cultures, preferring to live in a techno-scientific environment, are more attracted by highly-saturated colours.On the other hand, in the oriental culture we see empty urban centres. Considering Japan, in Tokyo the historical city is concentric and the centre is empty. It is occupied by the heart of the nation: the religious and political power. The Emperor,Japan's religious and political leader, occupies this big empty space. So the colours used are those of the tradition: red, gold and white. Similarly in the Chinese culture the urban centre is an empty space. In Beijing, the Forbidden City was exactly this kind of concentration of non-physical elements: power and religion. The colours used also in this case were those of the Emperor. After the Communist revolution red became the main colour in China. But the tradition persists and the main colours are those of the five elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. In China, there are five very specific colours (i.e. blue-green, red, yellow, white, black) resonating with meaning through every layer of traditional and modern life, representing emotional, physical, spiritual and directional forces.As synthetically expressed, transmitting a culture not only requires knowing technical aspects, but also other aspects affecting a society and its evolution. Having care of colours is not only a personal pleasure but in architecture concerns the whole community. Everybody is influenced by colour and it seems necessary that designers should be provided with some basic information. The architectural profession also involves such tasks.What’s discussed in the following is the result of research experience at the University Iuav of Venice, in leading the Research Unit “Colour and Li ght in Architecture”, and in the professional activity of colour design and planning forvillages/towns with historical centres, expansion zones, sprawl, isolated houses or industrial areas. The focus on the improvement of such places through the appropriateuse of colour is determined by the need for upgrading the man-land, and by putting in place suitable low- impact factors. DiscussionIn the perception of our surroundings, the colours are seen differently depending on weather conditions, seasonal, direct or indirect radiation, by reflection, by source of natural or artificial lighting and in many other aspects. The perception of the surroundings takes place in terms of synaesthesia, involving all the senses of the observer.Analysing the behaviour of colour and light in built places, there is no more emblematic experience than the evaluation on site or by pictures of what happens in a common sunny day. For convenience we have taken a Venetian example, where the presence of water and the density of the built fa?ades more easily shows the interaction of light with the facing fronts. The presence of water, also, increasing the mirror effect of the canal that is less evident in common roads, shows better the transfer of a colour from an illuminated wall to the opposite one in shadow.In the scene of Figure 1, the left front is less exposed to bad weather than the right one. Since the colours painted on the walls are based on lime they have the tendency to wash out easily. In fact, the opposite fa?ade at right is completely washed out and then shows a grey plaster. The sun, beating on the walls of Fondamenta Minotto (left), affords a transfer of the yellow colour by reflection over the water surface of the Rio Magazen to the shadowed opposite walls. Then a double phenomenon occurs, the specular reflection from the coloured wall to the water and its transfer onto the grey wall is added to the diffused reflection coming directly from the illuminated yellow wall. Another clue comes from the reflection of sunlight on the windows bouncing directly partly on the pavement and partly on the walls of Fondamenta Gaffaro (right). In turn, the wall in shadow casts its silhouette on the opposite fa?ade darkening the yellow colour. The shape of the tympanum makes an almost grey shaded space. On the days when the sky is covered, the difference in brightness between the two walls is considerably more noticeable, darkening the greyto a greater degree and making the yellow less expressive.Figure 1: Rio del Magazen: Fondamenta Minotto (left) and Fondamenta Gaffaro (right).Thecolours are reflected between the walls and the waterIt is easy to understand that the materials used in building’s construction have intrinsic chromatic behaviour and considering a built system like that described above, their relationship with the surroundings can also modify their chromatic expressiveness. Moreover in the perception of the surroundings, built forms are perceived differently depending on: seasons, weather conditions, direct or indirect radiation, reflection, natural or artificial light source, and many other aspects.So the minimum designer's tools for colour design, necessary to avoid prejudicial operations, are:To know that perception of the surroundings takes place in terms of synaesthesia (vision is only one of the five senses);To have a cultural understanding of design and colour essentials;To know the basic rules of colour combination and colour harmony in the built environment;To know the history, traditions, culture, geographical location, the qualities and weaknesses and the range of possible options of the site/city/environment…;To know the characteristics that distinguish one place from another;To formulate a dedicated strategy different from case to case, specific to each place;To make continuous iterations between theory, project and realisation.This list could be expanded, progressing from the basic to the more sophisticated level, where detailed study gives more information to the professional, finally to attain sufficient experience on the approach to colour design. Translating the above list into knowledge requires specific instruction on a topic that usually is little practised at universities where architecture design is taught. In these academies, the training of architectural design is still almost exclusively based on the knowledge of shape and dimensionality, as if a building were an abstract living sculpture. In fact, if we analyse critically the majority of the latest works having a strong appeal to contemporary academic and the professional world we would have more than a few doubts in distinguishing sculptures from architecture.But, without digression, it is perhaps enough to tell someone who works in the world of architecture that a simple action of painting on the walls of buildings can completely disrupt the interpretation of the shape. So it could be necessary to clarify to the reader, that knowing how to use the colour, starting from the design phase, can help to counteract changes to the original project conception, as well as provide new tools to modify a lot of buildings born speculatively or following ideologies with currently indigestible forms. For example, the buildings of the former socialist countries generally need requalification for energy consumption. Architects working around the problems in repetitive mega structures are also facing a lack in aesthetic quality. The use of colour design on the refurbishment of fa?ades, in some cases, has given excellent results.But how can we approach the chromatic choice in architecture? The answer depends on diverse aspects such as:The size and typology of the building’s faades;The type and scale of aggregation;The dimensions of streets, roads, alleys, squares and so on;The dominant colours and accent colours, contrasts, architectural unity, etc.;The colour project/planning strategy adopted;The congruence with the environment and with local history and culture;The presence/absence of colour harmony and chromatic cacophonies.We could add many other aspects in a kind of journey from the general to the particular, until we define every detail. Obviously this list cannot provide useful tools for colour selection, but can supply some precautions to be noted at the time of decisions and choices.In the perception of the surroundings, built forms are perceived differently depending on weather, seasonal conditions, direct or indirect radiation, by reflection or by natural or artificial light source, and by many other factors. The shape/colour ratio is also influenced by a series of secondary effects such as:Distance: far, from afar, close, very close;Space: very large, large, medium, small, very small;Environment: wet, dry, humid, windy;Light: on, off, sunny, shady, bright, dark;Weight: light, heavy;Time: short, medium, long;Thermal: cold, hot and lukewarm;Psychology: depressive, relaxing, soothing, stimulating, exciting, very exciting, exhilarating.Some of these effects depend on the wavelengths, colour hue/tone/saturation and other optical phenomena. The feeling of space, according to ponderable and temporal terms, changes with the wavelengths and varies according to the hue and intensity. Other effects depend on the combination of closeness/distance and the overall design or perceived detail. Others are consequences of physical, electrical, optical, physiological features and combinations.The selection of colours to paint walls and other parts of buildings must reference general guidelines when treating forexample:Narrow streets;Wide Roads;Squares and plazas;Sprawl houses;Farmhouses;Buildings in barren, arid, stony fields;Continuous faades;Tall buildings;Public buildings;Industrial buildings;Others.Figure 2 shows a narrow calle (Venetian street) in Burano Island on a sunny day after a rain shower. In these conditions of light, colours seem much more saturated when the walls are not washed out. The chromatic cadence is based almost exclusively on warm colours, if one excludes the green fa?ade that can be seen on the right. On the basis of the list above we can say that the distance effect is between close and very close; the environmental effect is wet; the light effect is sunny and shady; the weight effect is heavy going to light; the thermal effect is lukewarm/hot; and the psychological effect is stimulating.Figure 2: Burano Island (Venice): Narrow street. A sunny day after a storm Burano island is a particular case of the use of colour in the fa?ades of buildings, a case begun around the 1960s with the sale of synthetic materials for painting of external fa?ades. The colour choice was left to the discretion of individual owners who, in order to stand out in relation to their neighbours, have engaged in an uncontrollable competition by using different colours for their properties. A new reality has thus exploded with a considerable increase of the saturation of colours and the birth of combinations without rules. The recent widespread marketing of siloxane paints has further increased such saturation and the duration of colours. Also the application techniques have changed considerably and, if previously the wall painting was carried out directly by the owners, now there are professional painters who apply the products and often give advice on the choice of colours.In the Italian mainland this random choice of the colour of the exterior of buildings has had the effect of creating a visual chaos that impinges on the usability of the places and the possibility of preserving or repurposing many historical centres. Some civic administrations, however, are equipping their planning instruments with colour schemes. These local regulations are producing contrasting effects. On the one hand there are restorers who tend to set a standard epoch that serves as a model for all buildings even though they connote very different epochs; others argue for a kind of scientific restoration, that is practised to recover the buildings according to their date of construction or their period of maximum glory; others are inclined to make choices coinciding with their personal taste, legitimising the colour choices on the basis of derivation from natural local elements; others are based on statistics, considering the prevailing colours a nd formalising a project that doesn’t deviate much from the state of fact; others behave with reasoning difficult to interpret. In short, the plans/projects of colour, at least in Italian society, are made by professionals who may have only a vague knowledge of colour (engineers, architects, planners, restorers, industrial designers, etc.). Of course all these different people adopt different approaches, producing results that are not always congruent with the places where they perform the colour plan. The one positive thing that can be said is that most of the colourdesigns are implemented through paint, and fortunately the paintings don’t have long durability. Usually time is a gentleman and erases many design hysteric results.ConclusionsThis paper arose from what the author has written in one of his recent books in the Italian language. In fact the motivation for transmitting some knowledge to colleagues (especially architects) was born from the consideration that a good part of the practice of Italian professionals is devoid of even minimal knowledge of the use of colour. Many times they use it in an ideological manner.“Light and colour together form our visual image of the surrounding world. Despite this, colour and light are too often treatedas two distinct fields of knowledge. Colour specialists often lack knowledge about light, and light specialists often do not know enough about colour. Knowledge of both colour and light are separated between different professional and academic areas, each with its own set of theories, concepts and methods. Those who want to find their own understanding and be able to apply it in their work could easily get lost in all of this –with the result that only a small proportion of existing knowledge will be used in pra ctice.”During the investigation we found that only those who have attended schools with an artistic orientation that enable access to the university had some notions about the use of colour. The others, who are the vast majority, are fixed to either childhood or adolescent education, and are therefore not sufficiently familiar with knowledge about chromatic mechanisms. Hence there is a need to produce manuals on the proper use of colour and colour harmony. Even the colour collection handbooks showing standard solutions often seem useful, to be taken as they are and transferred to the reality. But this is not colour design. I think that promoting colour culture towards Architects is a mission for those who deal in terms of training, skills and knowledge.What is proposed is a modest "Toolbox", with instruments to design buildings knowing from the outset which colours will be chosen. The earlier we know the chromatic directions, the better we can check the quality of form, embedding it in the thought processes inherent in planning. In the "Toolbox" there are various tools andtechniques, which depart from the general and extend up to the particular. Obviously equipment is useful and often necessary, but sometimes it can also be cumbersome. It becomes worthless at the moment in which the designer has matured his own poetic impulses and is equipped with an exclusive personal set of instruments. For example, in the world of painting, the colours of the paints are always the same, but the artworks they realise are absolutely different from artist to artist. The colour choices are personal, as well as the combinations, harmony and anything else the artist considers necessary to express his or her thoughts on the canvas. This ability sets apart the great painters. In the case of amateurs however, it often happens that when they begin to mix colours on the palette the result ends up as muddy brown, despite good intentions.Thus this paper aims to avoid amateurism in design and to provide some guidance to those who build up architectures, colour plans, furniture, objects and so on, without knowing anything about colour and its impact on the environment and the human psyche.中⽂译⽂建筑环境⾊彩选择策略在实现⾊彩设计或⾊彩规划时，每个设计师都应拥有⼀套基本的⽅法，以防⽌他或她在领域、景观、城市、邻近地区和个别建筑物中进⾏有害的操作。
城市规划与发展中英文对照外文翻译文献
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文翻译Urban planning and development in TehranWith a population of around 7 million in a metropolitan region of 12 million inhabitants, Tehran is one of the larger cities of the world. This paper charts its planning and development through the ages, particularly since the mid-20th century, a period in which the city has gained most of its phenomenal growth. Three phases are identified in this historical process, with different types of urban planning exercised through infrastructure design and development, land use regulation, and policy development.德黑兰的城市规划与发展_ 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Planning, Urban growth, Iranian citiesPlanning through infrastructure design and development: foundations for growth The f irst phase of Tehran‘s planning refers to the period before the Second World War, whereby at least three major efforts set the framework for the city‘s growth and development: walling the city (1550s) , expanding the walled city (1870s) and building a new urban infrastructure (1930s). They were all led by the government‘s ability and desire to instigate change and shape the city through undertaking large-scale infrastructure projects.Tehran was a village outside the ancient city of Ray, which lay at the foot of mount Damavand, the highest peak in the country, and at the intersection of two major trade highways: the east–west Silk Road along the southern edge of Alburz mountains and the north–south route that connected the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf. Ray had been inhabited for thousands of years and was the capital of the Seljuk dynasty in the 11th century; however, it declined at the end of the medieval period, when Tehran started to grow (Lockhart, 1960).The first large-scale town planning exercise in Tehran was undertaken in 1553, with the construction of a bazaar and city walls, which were square and had gates on four sides, in accordance with the pattern of ancient Persian cities (Barthold, 1984). This set the framework for other developments that followed, and the city grew in significance, eventually to be selected in 1785 as the capital of the Qajar dynasty (1779–1925).On becoming the capital, the city swelled by courtiers and soldiers, who were followed by trades and services. From a population of 15,000 at the end of the 18th century, Tehran grew tenfold by the 1860s, with a 10th of its inhabitants now living outside the old walls (Ettehadieh, 1983). The country‘s military defeats in its encounters with Britain and Russia had engendered a process of reform, which was now being extended to the capital city. The second large-scale town planning exercise in Tehran, therefore, was conducted for accommodating growth and introducing modernization and reform. Starting in 1868 and lasting for 12 years, new city walls, in the form of a perfect octagon with 12 gates, were constructed, which were more useful for growth management and tax collection than for their defensive value. Selection as the capital city and these transformations, which included a new central square, new streets, a bank, an institute of technology, a hospital, a telegraph house, hotels and European-style shops, were, according to a British observer, a ‗‗twofold renaissance‘‘ for Tehran (Curzon, 1892, p. 300).The city continued to grow and pressure for modernization intensified, which was manifested in the Constitutional Revolution of 1906. A modern municipality was established in 1910, transforming the old system of urban governance. After the First World War, the Pahlavi dynasty came to power and this lasted from 1925 to 1979. The new regime‘s emphasis was on secularism and nationalism, which were reflected in administrative centralization, modernization of the army, expansion of bureaucracy, development of a transport network, integration of regions into a national market, and restructuring towns and cities (Abrahamian, 1982). The 1930s witnessed widespread road-widening schemes that tore apart the historic urban fabric, making them accessible to motor vehicles. The city of Tehran thus went through its third major town planning exercise. The city walls of the 1870s were far too restrictive for a growing city. By 1932, population density had doubled to 105 persons per hectare and a third of the population lived outside the walls. In addition to demographic pressure, the arrival of motor本科毕业设计（外文翻译）vehicles, the regime‘s desire to control urban populations and to modernize the urban infrastructure led to a substantial transformation of the capital, in which it was ‗‗radically re-planned and re-built‘‘ (Lockhart, 1939, p. 11). New boulevards were built on the ruins of the city walls and moats, as part of a transport network of 218 km of new roads. The walled royal compound was fragmented and replaced by a new government quarter; retailers were encouraged to move to new streets and to abandon the old streets of the bazaar; and new buildings and institutions sprang up all over the city. The new street network was imposed on the winding streets of old neighborhoods, with the aims of unifying the space of the city, overcoming the traditional factional social structure, easing the movement of goods, services and military forces, strengthening the market economy and supporting the centralization of power. The city was turned into an open matrix, which was a major step in laying the foundations for further modernization and future expansion. The immediate result was the growth of the city from 310,000 inhabitants in 1932 to 700,000 in 1941.These large-scale urban planning and development phases of Tehran were all efforts at modernization, instigating and managing radical change. However, while the first phase had used distinctively ancient Persian imagery and local expertise, the second and third phases employed European images and experts, primarily from France and Germany. What these early town planning efforts shared was that they were all envisaging a particular new form and implementing it through the (re)development of the urban environment; they were all plans for a major series of physical changes executed in a relatively short period of time.The reforms in the second half of the 19th century opened up the city‘s society and space to new economic and cultural patterns, and unleashed centrifugal and dialectic forces that exploded in two major revolutions. Economically, the city started to be integrated into the world market as a peripheral node. Embracing the market economy divided the city along the lines of income and wealth, while new cultural fault lines emerged along lifestyle and attitude towards tradition and modernity. Rich and poor, who used to live side by side in the old city, were now separated from one another in a polarizing city. Moreover, modernizers welcomed living in new neighborhoods and frequented new streets and squares, while traditionalists continued to live and work in the older parts of the city. Ever since, these economic and cultural polarizations—and their associated tensions—have characterized Iran‘s urban conditions.Planning through land-use regulation: harnessing speculative developmentThe second type of planning to emerge in Tehran was in the 1960s, which saw the preparation of plans to regulate and manage future change. The city had grown in size and complexity to such an extent that its spatial management needed additional tools, which resulted in the growing complexity of municipal organization, and in the preparation of a comprehensive plan for the city.After the Second World War, during which the Allied forces occupied the country, there was a period of democratization, followed by political tensions of the start of the cold war, and strugglesover the control of oil. This period was ended in 1953 by a coup detat that returned the Shah to power, who then acted as an executive monarch for the next 25 years. With high birth rates and an intensification of rural–urban migration, Tehran— and other large cities—grew even faster than before. By 1956, Tehran‘s population rose to 1.5 million, by 1966 to 3 million, and by 1976 to 4.5 million; its size grew from 46 km²in 1934 to 250 km²in 1976 (Kari man, 1976; Vezarat-e Barnameh va Budgeh, 1987).Revenues from the oil industry rose, creating surplus resources that needed to be circulated and absorbed in the economy. An industrialization drive from the mid-1950s created many new jobs in big德黑兰的城市规划与发展cities, particularly in Tehran. The land reforms of the 1960s released large numbers of rural population from agriculture, which was not able to absorb the exponential demographic growth. This new labour force was attracted to cities: to the new industries, to the construction sector which seemed to be always booming, to services and the constantly growing public sector bureaucracy. Tehran‘s role as the administrative, economic, and cultural centre of the country, and its gateway to the outside world,wa s firmly consolidated.Urban expansion in postwar Tehran was based on under-regulated, private-sector driven, speculative development. Demand for housing always exceeded supply, and a surplus of labor and capital was always available; hence the flourishing construction industry and the rising prices of land and property in Tehran. The city grew in a disjointed manner in all directions along the outgoing roads, integrating the surrounding towns and villages, and growing new suburban settlements. This intensified social segregation, destroyed suburban gardens and green spaces, and left the city managers feeling powerless. A deputy mayor of the city in 1962 commented that in Tehran, ‗‗the buildings and settlements have been developed by whomever has wanted in whatever way and wherever they have wanted‘‘, creating a city that was ‗‗in fact a number of towns connected to each other in an inappropriate way‘‘ (Nafisi, 1964, p. 426). There was a feeling that something urgently needed to be done, but the municipality was not legally or financially capable of dealing with this process.The 1966 Municipality Act provided, for the first time, a legal framework for the formation of the Urban Planning High Council and for the establishment of land-use planning in the form of comprehensive plans. A series of other laws followed, underpinning new legal and institutional arrangements for the Tehran municipality, allowing the Ministry of Housing and others to work together in managing the growth of the city. The most important step taken in planning was the approval of the Tehran Comprehensive Plan in 1968. It was produced by a consortium of Aziz Farmanfarmaian Associates of Iran and Victor Gruen Associates of the United States, under the direction of Fereydun Ghaffari, an Iranian city planner (Ardalan, 1986). The plan identified the city‘s problems as high density, especially in the city centre; expansion of commercial activities along the main roads; pollution; inefficient infrastructure; widespread unemployment in the poorer areas, and the continuous migration of low-income groups to Tehran. The solution was to be found in the transformation of the city‘s physical, social and economic fabric (Farmanfarmaian and Gruen, 1968). The proposals were, nevertheless, mostly advocating physical change, attempting, in a modernist spirit, to impose a new order onto this complex metropolis. The future of the city was envisaged tobe growing westward in a linear polycentric form, reducing the density and congestion of the city centre. The city would be formed of 10 large urban districts, separated from each other by green belts, each with about 500,000 inhabitants, a commercial and an industrial centre with high-rise buildings. Each district (mantagheh) would be subdivided into a number of areas (nahyeh) and neighborhoods (mahalleh). An area, with a population of about 15–30,000, would have a high school and a commercial centre and other necessary facilities. A neighborhood, with its 5000 inhabitants, would have a primary school and a local commercial centre. These districts and areas would be linked by a transportation network, which included motorways, a rapid transit route and a bus route. The stops on the rapid transit route would be developed as the nodes for concentration of activities with a high residential density. A number of redevelopment and improvement schemes in the existing urban areas would relocate 600,000 people out of the central areas (Far manfarmaian and Gruen, 1968).Almost all these measures can be traced to the fashionable planning ideas of the time, which were largely influenced by the British New Towns. In his book, The Heart of Our Cities, Victor Gruen本科毕业设计（外文翻译）(1965) had envisaged the metropolis of tomorrow as a central city surrounded by 10 additional cities, each with its own centre. This resembled Ebenezer Howard‘s (1960, p. 142) ‗‗social cities‘‘, in which a central city was surrounded by a cluster of garden cities. In Tehran‘s plan, a linear version of this concept was used. Another linear concept, which was used in the British New Towns of the time such as Redditch and Runcorn, was the importance of public transport routes as the town‘s spine, with its stopping points serving as its foci. The use of neighborhood units of limited population, focused on a neighborhood centre and a primary school, was widely used in these New Towns, an idea that had been developed in the 1920s in the United States (Mumford, 1954). These ideas remained, however, largely on paper. Some of the plan‘s ideas that were impl emented, which were rooted in American city planning, included a network of freeways to connect the disjointed parts of the sprawling metropolis; zoning as the basis for managing the social and physical character of different areas; and the introduction of Floor Area Ratios for controlling development densities.Other major planning exercises, undertaken in the 1970s, included the partial development of a New Town, Shahrak Gharb, and the planning of a new administrative centre for the city—Shahestan—by the British consultants Llewelyn–Davies, although there was never time to implement the latter, as the tides of revolution were rising.Planning through policy development: reconstruction after the revolution and war The revolutionary and post-revolutionary period can be divided into three phases: revolution (1979–1988), reconstruction (1989–1996), and reform (1997–2004), each demonstrating different approaches to urban planning in Tehran.After two years of mass demonstrations in Tehran and other cities, the year 1979 was marked by the advent of a revolution that toppled the monarchy in Iran, to be replaced by a state which uneasily combined the rule of the clergy with parliamentary republicanism. Its causes can be traced in the shortcomings of the Shah‘s m odel of development, which led to clashes between modernization and traditions, between economic development and political underdevelopment, between global market forces and local bourgeoisie, between foreign influence and nationalism, between a corrupt and complacent elite and discontented masses. Like the revolution of 1906, a coalition of many shades of opinion made the revolution of 1979 possible. In the first revolution, the modernizers had the upper hand, while in the second the traditionalists won the leadership. However, the attitudes of both revolutions—and the regimes that followed them—to a number of major issues, including urban development, show a preference for modernization. In this sense, both revolutions can be seen as explosive episodes in the country‘s troubled efforts at progressive transformation (Madanipour, 1998, 2003).The revolution was followed by a long war (1980–1988) with Iraq, which halted economic development. Investment in urban development dwindled, while rural areas and provincial towns were favoured by the revolutionary government, both to curb rural–urban migration and to strike a balance with large cities. The key planning intervention in this period was to impose daytime restrictions on the movement of private cars in the city centre. Meanwhile, the war and the promise of free or low-cost facilities by the new government attracted more migrants to the capital city, its population reaching 6 million by 1986. The rate of population growth in the city had started to slow down from the 1950s, while the metropolitan region was growing faster until the mid-1980s, when its growth rate also started to decline (Khatam, 1993).After the revolution and war, a period of normalization and reconstruction started, which lasted德黑兰的城市规划与发展for most of the 1990s. This period witnessed a number of efforts at urban planning in Tehran. Once again, urban development had intensified without an effective framework to manage it. The comprehensive plan came under attack after the revolution, as it was considered unable to cope with change. In 1998, the Mayor criticized it for being mainly a physical development plan, for being rooted in the political framework of the previous regime, and for not paying enough attention to the problems of implementation (Dehaghani, 1995).The comprehensive plan‘s 25-year lifespan came to an end in 1991. A firm of Iranian consultants (A-Tech) was commissioned in 1985 to prepare a plan for the period of 1986–1996. After much delay, it was only in 1993 that the plan was finally approved by the Urban Planning High Council. This plan also focused on growth management and a linear spatial strategy, using the scales of urban region, subregion, district, area and neighbourhood. It promoted conservation, decentralization, polycentric development, development of five satellite new towns, and increasing residential densities in the city. It proposed that the city be divided into 22 districts within five sub-regions, each with its own service centre (Shahrdari-e Tehran, 2004).The 1993 plan was not welcomed by the municipality, which disagreed with its assessments and priorities, finding it unrealistic, expensive, and impossible to implement. The municipality produced its own strategic plan for the period 1996–2001, known as Tehran Municipalty‘s First Plan,or Tehran 80. Rather than introducing a land-use plan as its goal, this was the first plan for the city that emphasized a set of strategies and propose d policies to achieve them. It identified the city‘s main problems as shortage of resources to deliver its services; the pace and pattern of urban growth; environmental pollution; the absence of effective public transport, and inefficient bureaucracy. The municipality‘s vision for the future of the city was then outlined to have six major characteristics: a clean city, ease of movement in the city, the creation of parks and green spaces, the development of new cultural and sports facilities, reform of the municipal organization, and planning for the improvement of urban space, including preparation of comprehensive and detailed plans for land use and conservation (Shahrdari-e Tehran, 1996).The municipality implemented part of the proposals, such as increasing the amount of green open spaces in the south, or constructing new parts of the motorway network, which was proposed by the 1968 plan; opening large parts of the city to new development, and easing movement across the city. Following the advice of the 1993 plan, the municipality relaxed FAR limits and allowed higher densities through bonus zoning. This, however, was not based on planning considerations, but was mainly to bring financial autonomy to the municipality. This proved to be popular with the development industry, but controversial with citizens. Developers could build taller buildings by paying fines to the municipality, in a policy popularly known as ‗‗selling density‘‘, without having to show their impacts on the surrounding environment. The face of the city, particularly in its northern parts, was transformed in a short period, consisting of medium to high-rise buildings connected through wide streets and motorways. In the poorer south, a major redevelopment project, Navab, cut a motorway through the dense and decayed fabric, building gigantic superstructures on each side. The city‘s administrative boundaries were expanded twice, once outward and then westward, to encompass 22 district municipalities in 700 km².This controversial period of reconstruction was followed by a period of democratic reform, which re-launched an elected city council for the city, which at first caused institutional confusion about its relationship with the mayor and the municipality. The council published its own vision of the city as Tehran Charter in 2001, which was the summary of the principles agreed between council members,本科毕业设计（外文翻译）non-governmental organizations, and urban experts at a congress about the subject. The Charter adopted sustainability and democracy as its key principles, which were used to develop strategies for natural and built environments, transport, social, cultural and economic issues, urban management, and the city‘s regional, national and international roles (Shahrdari-e Tehran, 2004).Currently, detailed plans are being prepared for the city‘s 22 district s, and work is under way on a strategic plan to link these detailed plans and to guide the future development of the city as a whole. Even though the city is more integrated and democratic than before and has a more coherent approach to planning (Hourcade, 2000), some authorities still see plans as isolated documents, rather than seeing planning as a continuous process. Land use plans are produced by private sector consultants for a specified period. The role of the municipality is merely implementation of these plans, rather than generating and revising them. New schemes for urban motorways and large-scale radical redevelopment of the central and decayed areas continue to be prepared and implemented. The last mayor, who was elected the president of the republic in 2005, was a civil engineer, putting road building schemes high on his agenda, even aiming to widen parts of the most beautiful boulevard in the city (Vali Asr) to ease traffic flows. Meanwhile, the city continues to suffer from acute social polarization, high land and property prices, heavy traffic congestion and some of the worst atmospheric pollution in the world, and remains unprepared for any serious earthquake.Managing change in a metropolisLeaving aside the earlier phases, the key urban planning stages in the 20th century (1930s, 1960s, 1990s) show some broad similarities: they mark the periods of relative economic and political strength, in which at once urban development flourishes and the government feels able enough to manage growt h. Iran‘s oil economy is so much integrated with the global economy that these periods parallel the international economic cycles and periods of urban development booms. These planning stages also show cyclical development pressure, cyclical attention to planning matters, within an overall move towards democratic urban governance, to sophistication of municipal organization and city planning approaches, which are nevertheless far behind the momentous process of urban growth and development. The main focus has remained management of physical development. Each phase, however, has added a new dimension to city planning: from design to regulation and policy development; each new approach adding to the complexity of the process, rather than replacing the previous approach.The other feature they all share is their preference for redevelopment, which is the hallmark of a country with a young population caught in the fever of modernization, despite its upheavals and setbacks. Post-revolutionary governments claimed to revive many traditional forms and practices, as a reaction to radical modernization of the past. In relation to the built environment, however, they have shown strong modernist tendencies, with redevelopment remaining their favourite device, similar to previous generations. This is mainly due to the pressure for change that characterizes the modern history of Iran, as reflected in the advent of two revolutions, i.e., radical breaks from the past. It is also partly due to institutional continuity, whereby legal and institutional arrangements for urban planning remained almost intact, despite change of individuals, and despite structural changes at the higher levels of government after 1979. Also, the expert communities and their technocratic culture passed through the revolution without major internal changes, despite the flight of many professionals from the country.Tehran‘ governance has been dominated by the central government. Although the municipality has grown in size and complexity, it is still under the shadow of government ministries,德黑兰的城市规划与发展even after the launch of an elected city council and a degree of financial autonomy. It is only charged with implementing the plans, rather than preparing them; and yet it is expected to have financial autonomy, resulting in controversial ways of implementing or changing planning regulations. It is only charge d to manage its 22 districts, and yet the urban region covers 5 million inhabitants outside the city‘s boundaries. Without empowering the munici pality to take full control of planning for its jurisdiction within a democratic and accountable framework, and to collaborate with other authorities in charge of the urban region, planning and management of the metropolis remain less than effective.ConclusionTehran‘s planning history shows early stages in which new infrastructure was designed and developed by the government as part of its strategy for modernization and growth management. The intensity of speculative development after the Second World War met the demands of the exponential growth of the city‘s population. This, however, needed to be controlled and regulated through a planning process, which produced Tehran‘s comprehensive plan of 1968. Within a decade, the revolution interrupted its implementation, and growth could only be managed through piecemeal efforts. The period of reconstruction in the 1990s relaxed some of the limits of the 1968 plan, which showed the urgent need for an updated planning framework. Several planning documents were launched in this period, which show a stronger role for the municipality and attention to policy development. Work on a strategic plan for the city continues today. These plans all have much that has remained unimplemented, although they have managed to some extent to steer the course of events and develop a more sophisticated approach to planning. And yet social and economic upheavals of the past three decades, the intensity of speculative development—especially since the Second World War—and the speed of events seem to have left the city authorities and citizens alike feeling trapped in a turmoil, lagging behind the events, and unable to manage change. The city continues to suffer from a range of problems, including traffic congestion, environmental pollution, and unaffordable property prices.德黑兰的城市规划与发展摘要：德黑兰是世界上较大的城市之一，拥有居民人口1200万，都市人口约700万，本文主要介绍其规划和历代的发展，特别是自20世纪中期，在这个时期城市获得了其最显着的增长。
城市规划文献翻译
<文献翻译一：原文>Planning, Governing, and the Image ofthe City1THE SEPARATION OF KNOWLEDGE FROM ACTION,AND THE IMAGE AS A TIE THAT BINDS THEMPlanning theory has tended to emphasize the separation of knowledge from action, as evidenced by the subtitle of a main text, Planning in the Public Domain: From Knowledge to Action (Friedmann 1987). Doing so has perpetuated a long line of enlightenment thinking that nourishes the epistemological roots of endeavors such as planning and design. Hannah Arendt (1958) identified knowledge with command and action with obedience to command. Thus she was able to claim that the separation of knowing and doing is the root of domination. Arendt was influenced by Martin Heidegger who, in his famous essay "The Question Concerning Technology," questioned how society questions technology (1977). What he achieved by this was a radical rethinking of what technology is, and how society mediates thought and action by technology. For Heidegger, technology is not limited to machines nor popular ascriptions like means and tools. For him the essence of technology is enframing. Technology enframes the real and transforms it into a standing reserve. Everything lies in wait to be used and transformed by technology. In this sense institutions are a technology that turns agents and ideas into objects subject to institutional technology. This places agents and ideas in a subordinate relation to the institution. In Heidegger's analysis, knowledge is both subordinate to institutional action and superordinate to the power that enables the institution to act. In contrast, Arendt's analysis of the individual person places knowledge in a position superior to action.The separation of knowledge from action, object from subject, being from doing, and command from obedience is picked up in the historical studies of Michel Foucault and his theorizing on power and knowledge (Foucault 1978, 1979, 1980). Juirgen Habermas is also sympathetic to Arendt's treatment of knowledge and action (1974, 1979).These fecund lines of thought opened up a host of pathways for critical social, political, philosophical, and professional analyses. Not in the least, they helped bring the institution back in, to paraphrase Theda Skocpol (1985).1． Michael Neuman．Planning, Governing, and the Image ofthe City [D]．Current Issue，（J）：December 2012．In the sphere of planning, Friedmann's "knowledge before action" can be traced back to Patrick Geddes's survey before plan，if not earlier (Geddes 1915). Friedmann (1987) cloaked a rational model similar to the choice theory put forth by Davidoffand Reiner a generation earlier (1962) in radical transactive garb. Friedmann underscored the link that politics makes between scientific/technical knowledge and societal guidance. He ironically set up a consulting capacity for planners in which they advise decision makers. If planners are cast into this advisory role, they can do nothing but fulfill the dichotomy signalled by the phrase "from knowledge to action" (emphasis added).Moreover, in his prescription for radical planning, references to vision, images, and institutions do not appear, if one excepts macro-institutions such as the market, government, and society.The divorce of knowledge from action, of content from process, is nearly complete in planning theory. The primacy of process is held firm under the grip of theories of communicative action. The communicative paradigm has unearthed fertile soil for a cadre of theorists using rubrics suchas discourse, consensus building, debate, story telling, equity planning, and interactive planning (Innes 1995). But to remove images in any of their forms from discourse results in a partial analysis, and will eventually result in communicative theories coming to a standstill. Not only are images and plans important to planning and governing, images are critical parts of and influences on daily life. "Pervasive images" is a pleonasm. Is it not our responsibility as scholars to come to grips with this phenomenon? Rodowick, for one,claimed that "electronic and digital arts are rapidly engendering new strategies of creation and simulation, and of spatial and temporal ordering, that linguistic philosophies are ill-equipped to understand" (Rodowick 1991, 12,quoted in Boyer 1994, 490).Boyer, writing on North American city planning, claimed "the past failures of the architect-planner to build images of the city reflect the refusal to allow the past to be experienced with the present in a new constellation. In consequence our modern cityscapes show little awareness of their historical past" (1983, 286). We can add that the present failures of planning theorists to build theories incorporating images and plans reflect the refusal to allow planning's past to be experienced with its present. We can rest somewhat easier knowing that practice has gone ahead of theory by reincorporating the image and rediscovering the plan (Neuman 1996).<文献翻译一：译文>规划、指导、形象和城市理论与实践的分离形象作为其纽带如《不受限制的规划：从知识到实践》(Friedmann 1987 年)的标题所言，规划理论已倾向于将知识从实践分离出来。
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文献信息文献标题：Exploring Environmental Colour Design in Urban Contexts （城市环境色彩设计初探）文献作者：Galyna McLellan, Mirko Guaralda文献出处：《The Journal of Public Space》,2018,3(1):93-102字数统计：英文3636单词，20879字符；中文7078汉字外文文献Exploring Environmental Colour Design in Urban Contexts Abstract The increasing complexity of urban colour and growing recognition of its psychological effects prompts rethinking of the current conceptual and methodological approaches to environmental colour design. Contemporary designers are challenged to understand how evolving colour knowledge can be integrated with the fundamentals of colour design. This paper aims to elaborate on the concept of environmental colour composition (ECC) and outlines an alternative approach to colour design in urban environments. A better understanding of the dynamic relationships between the tangible and perceptual elements of an ECC can bring new meaning to the consideration of colour as an integral component of city design. The proposed concepts of environmental colour events and scenarios provide a foundation for both further theoretical inquiry and practical application of synthesised colour knowledge in the design of urban environments.Keywords:environmental colour composition, environmental colour design, colour event, colour scenario‘What is the colour of your favourite public place?’ Surprisingly, this simple question often causes confusion among many interviewees. Indeed, the complexity and ambiguity of visual information presented to viewers in a contemporary urban space make it difficult to determine what the prevailing spatial colour is. However,designers should not overlook the significant role of colour combinations in visual imagery and perceptual experiences in urban environments.The perceptual aspects of colour were first theoretically explored by Goethe. In a treatise published in 1810, Goethe reflected on the interaction of various colours placed in proximity and suggested that ‘if in this intermixture the ingredients are perfectly balanced that neither is to be distinctly recognised, the union again acquires a specific character, it appears as a quality by itself in which we no longer think of combination’ (Goethe, 1810: 277). The value of colour totality or wholeness can be expressed in terms of harmony. Harmonious and pleasant colour compositions might elicit feelings of joy and appreciation of visual experiences. In reality, when people walk along the shopping malls and streets or rest in city squares, they may not consciously notice specific artefact colours, but rather feel an emotional response to the overall atmosphere. From our observations, the expressions ‘this place makes me feel good’ or ‘it is quite a disturbing surrounding’ often substitute as assessments of the colour combinations displayed.Gothe’s colour theory has long been considered an intuitive, mostly poetic account. However, the relevance of his hypothesis to contemporary findings in the field of environmental colour psychology is undeniable. As Itten (1970: 21) states, ‘expressive colour effects – what Goethe called the ethic-aesthetic values of colour – likewise fall within the psychologist’s province’. Numerous studies conducted over the last three decades have specifically extended our understanding of the effects of colour on the psychological stances of the urban dweller. For instance, Mahnke (1998) suggests that patterns and combinations of colours in the urban environment trigger emotional responses on both conscious and unconscious levels. Obscure visual patterns and disharmonious colour schemes can cause visual disturbances, disorientation, stress or low mood. In contrast, harmonious and contextually tailored colour areas stimulate positive emotions, eliminate visual disorder and enhance social interaction (Mahnke, 1998; Porter & Mikellides, 2009). Given that colour is a sensory stimulus, it may also contribute to psychological under- or overstimulation of some individuals. Whereas overstimulating environment features exposed saturated colours,strong contrasts and flickering illumination. An understimulating setting is usually monochromatic and lacks contrast and visual accents. While sensory overstimulation may increase anxiety and depression, understimulation causes deprivation or excessive emotional responses (Franz, 2006; Mahnke, 2004). According to Day (2004), the relationships between urban forms, spaces and colour can be life sapping or life-filling.Over the last two decades, the use of innovative building materials and advanced lighting technologies has altered the complexity of colour patterns and visual experiences available to city dwellers. Porter and Mikellides (2009: 1) suggest that ‘facades can now change colour depending upon the perceptual point of view, they can thermochromatically colour-react to daytime and seasonal temperature shift, be chromatically animated by sensors, by light-projection systems or by plasma screens’.The increasing complexity of urban colour and the recognition of its psychological effects has prompted rethinking of the conceptual and methodological approaches to environmental colour design. The challenge for contemporary designers is understanding how evolving colour knowledge can be integrated with the fundamentals of colour design and how colour can be used to balance sensory stimulation and create desirable polychromatic experiences in urban contexts.Research in environmental colour psychology provides valuable information that can potentially guide design rationales but is not directly applicable to design methods (Anter & Billger, 2008). Sharpe (1981) stated that the extensive data on colour psychology must to be organised and explained before a useful design methodology can be formulated. However, few scholars pursue systematic studies in this field from a designer’s perspective.Some leading architects search for their own methods to approach polychromatic environmental design in a holistic way. For example, McLachlan (2014) provided an insightful account of the eight architectural practices known for their distinguished use of colour. Among others, she endorsed Sauerbruch and Hutton for their phenomenological approach to architectural colour and design of dynamic colour experiences. Similarly, Steven Hall received praise for his experimentation with thetransformative nature of colour and light. Mark Major (2009: 151–158) reviewed work that inspired expression of colour through light, as exemplified in the Zollverein Kokerei industrial complex in Gelsenkirghen, Germany and the Burj Al Arab tower in Dubai. He claims that ‘the seemingly infinite flexibility provided by the new generation of tools … allow[s] lighting designers, architects and artists to approach the use of colour in architecture in a progressive manner’ (Major, 2009: 154). Prominent lighting artist Yann Kersale (2009) describes his experimental installations on landmark buildings (designed by Jean Nouvel, Helmut Jahn and Patric Bochain) as articulating his vision of a ‘luminous, nocturnal architecture of colour and light’ (Porter & Mikellides, 2009). Despite individual contributions, a comprehensive colour design framework that can be utilised by mainstream architecture and urban design remains undeveloped.The methods for documenting and presenting colour design projects also require designers’ attention. Conventional architectural palettes and city colour plans are generally created under controlled lighting conditions and documented in the form of two-dimensional swatches that represent materials or pigments. In real settings, the harmonious colour combinations selected by a designer can be affected by the interplay between the visual elements presented and intervention by large-scale digital advertising. Neither architectural palettes nor city colour plans can adequately reflect dynamic changes in environmental conditions or describe the likely psychological experiences in actual urban spaces.These concerns have evolved into the concept of environmental colour composition (ECC), a holistic representation of an urban colour scheme. An ECC was initially defined by Ronchi (2002) as a synthesis of the colour of all visual elements within an urban setting, including natural elements, colours of built forms and urban elements as well as spatial and human activity patterns. This perspective aims to broaden the boundaries of an architectural palette and expand the traditional dimensions of colour in city design. However, its conceptual framework requires further clarification (specifically of the components of a contextual ECC) to provide the foundation for a shift in the colour design paradigm.In line with this need, we argue that a thorough interpretation the ECC phenomenon is a first step in developing a holistic approach to environmental colour design (ECD). A better understanding of the dynamic relationships between the tangible and perceptual elements of an ECC can bring additional meaning to the consideration of colour as an integral component of city design. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is (1) to elaborate on the conceptual definition of the ECC in the context of public urban areas and (2) to outline an alternative approach to ECD that is underpinned by the synthesis of traditional colour design methods and psychological perspectives.Environmental Colour Composition in Contemporary Urban Contexts In urban contexts, the concept of colour has traditionally been considered in terms of architectural colour palettes and city colour plans. The selection of colour in architecture is essentially concerned with the aesthetic quality of a building. Practically, an architectural palette may be used to highlight or camouflage an entire built form, to enhance tectonic facades or details and to express the personal style of a designer or brand. Instead, city colour plans have usually considered the role of an individual building within a public area and have pursued visual compatibility of architectural colours within that urban area.Several widely promoted approaches to polychromic urban architecture advocate the use of colour with reference to both location and historical and cultural traditions. For example, Giovanni Brino (2009) developed methods of colour restoration in historical city centres that were adopted by 50 Italian cities. The colour plan of Turin in Italy aimed to restore the colour of facades on a citywide scale with reference to a historical prototype that originated in the Baroque period and was recovered at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Significant aspects of the colour plan developed by the Conseil des Ediles were manifested in the uniformity of architectural colour according to a coordinated system.The focal point of Lenclos’s Geography of Colour was the use of colour palettes associated with a local identity and sense of place. In a detailed account of colourmeanings in urban environments, Lenclos (2009: 84–87) argued that colour is not an additional decoration, but rather a constituent of light that is influenced by climatic conditions, latitude, seasonal cycles and surface textures. His earlier work (1989) is associated with critical regionalism, but he has since built upon the transformative nature of contemporary colour that is sensitive to cultural, social, political and technological effects. From this new perspective, he stated: ‘I am convinced that we are now experiencing a very important period in which architectural colour, now expressed in materials and illumination rather than paint is creating a new chromatic dialectic between form, space, structure and light’ (2009: 86).Spillmann’s original palette for Kirchsteigfeld in Potsdam was inspired by the concept of ‘unity in diversity’ and aimed to consolidate urban relationships while providing ‘a colour- intense discrimination between public, semi-private and private spaces’ (Spillmann, 2009: 36). The novelty of Spillmann’s methodology has been underpinned by the integration of functional, environmental and social aspects of colour design in the contemporary built environment. He argued that ‘the most harmonious colour combination will lose its harmony if it does not correspond with specific human needs and activities, if it does not fit with the given surroundings, or if it does not sensibly interpret the building structure’ (cited in Schindler, 2004: 64).The conceptual frameworks developed by Bruno, Lenclos and Spillmann provided foundations for further exploration of colour phenomena in contemporary cities. For instance, Ronchi (2002) introduced another view of ECC that reflected the complexity and dynamics of colour images in urban settings. According to Ronchi (2002), an ECC includes the colours of natural elements, built forms and urban elements. Perception of ECC is influenced by pattern of spatial arrangements and human activities. A literature review revealed fragmented theoretical considerations that can be combined to enhance Ronchi’s (2002) definitions. Recently, Zennaro (2017) defined the factors that influence perception of environmental colour as the size and functional use of buildings and the dimensions of, and relationships between, urban elements such as streets and public squares. Further, he emphasised the importance of geographical location, history and cultural traditions. Based on thiscombined knowledge, the main elements of any ECC can be classified as shown in Figure 1.Fig. 1. Core Elements of Environmental Colour.The complexities and combinations of core ECC elements differ substantially between urban settings and depend on multiple factors. For example, certain colours presented in urban environments can be understood as measurable physical properties. Others correlate with visual experiences and are defined through the viewer’s perception. Thus, ECC has both tangible and intangible properties.In a practical sense, the classification described here can be used to assess the visual elements of an ECC within diverse historical and cultural conditions. Indeed, the original ECCs of Turin, Italy in the nineteenth century would be more unified in terms of colour compared to those in the city of Brisbane, Australia. The rapidly increasing complexity of ECCs in contemporary cities could be mainly attributed to changes in the density and volume of built forms; intervention of large-scale digital billboards and urban art installations; use of innovative colour-changing and highlyreflective materials; development of new lighting technologies and the introduction of media facades.In the Brisbane context, the media facades and laser light projections on buildings remain limited and circumstantial. In contrast, giant advertising boards frequently appear on the ground, midsections of high-rise buildings and even on the rooves of heritage buildings. In some cases, the dimensions of such boards are almost equal to or bigger than the host building itself (see Figure 2). The saturated and flickering images of a digital billboard may overpower architectural colour, create colour dissonance and affect the visual experiences of both pedestrians and vehicle commuters. When installed on historical buildings, these boards may compromise the historical and cultural value of the public space or produce undesirable symbolic associations.Fig. 2. Large digital board installations in Brisbane. These are found (a) on the roof of a historical building and (b) ground-standing digital board attached to a building used as abackground. Photographs are the authors’ own.Fig. 3. Expression of brand-related colours on buildings in Brisbane. Photographs are the authors’own.Another notable tendency in the use of colour is the expression of branding colour on facades. This means that entire commercial buildings have been painted in a brand-related colour without consideration of the potential effects of this approach on the perceived colour schemes (and thus, the appearance and aesthetics) of the surrounding area.A better understanding of the interrelated layers of colour in contemporary urban contexts may assist architects, urban designers and planners with surveying and analysing existing ECCs. This would allow development of a rationale for colour palette selection for singular infills or urban renewal proposals and for the approval of installations on existing buildings. Additionally, this knowledge may inform an alternative approach to ECD and suggest a more effective way of presenting the ECD product to clients, stakeholders and communities.Conceptualisation of Environmental Colour Events and ScenariosThe environmental colour event (ECE) hypothesis originated from Ronchi’s conception of ECC, but it celebrates the dynamic nature of colour in urban environments. This way of thinking was initially inspired by Cruz-Deiz’s (2009: 11) philosophical discourse, which claims that:Colour reveals itself as a powerful means to stimulate the perception of reality. Our conception of reality today is not that of 12th century man for whom life was a step towards eternity. On contrary, we believe in the ephemeral, with no past and no future, and where everything changes and is transformed in an instant. The perception of colour reveals such notions. It highlights space ambiguousness and ephemeral and unstable conditions, whilst underpinning myths and affections.Later in this discourse, Cruz-Deiz (2009: 56) interprets colour as an ephemeral event that takes place in space and time. This concept is based on his personal reflections and intuitive exploration. Cruz-Deiz does not elaborate on the essential properties of a colour event; however, the universality of his philosophical assumptionprovides a foundation for inferring environmental colour as a dynamic and spatiotemporal event.Building upon the Ronchi’s (2002) and Cruz-Deiz’s (2009) concepts, the ECE can be related to the ECC of an urban space within a variable timeframe. Therefore, an ECE is characterised by both static and dynamic properties. The static properties are representative of the inherent colours of the built forms and urban elements. They are associated with the functional use, aesthetic value or symbolic meaning of colour. The dynamic properties reflect changing conditions influenced by natural and coloured artificial light, running images of digital billboards, interactive art installations and human activity.Light and colour are inseparable factors in the process of environmental perception (Anter, 2000). During the day, the angle of natural light changes, which affects the appearance of perceived colours. Further, Tosca (2002) argues that contemporary cityscapes are significantly influenced by both natural light and artificial illumination, the latter of which makes it possible to visually modify the appearance of objects and space independent of viewing angles, distance and movement. Thus, Tosca (2002: 442) defines two distinct images: ‘the cityscape of daylight and that of the artificial light’. For examples of this in Brisbane, see Figure 4.Figure 4. Brisbane city: morning and night. Photographs are the authors’.Lenclos (2009: 86) draws a parallel with Tosca (2002) and suggests that:Yet another phenomenon is commonly seen in today’s cities across the world where buildings are no longer designed to function as an architectural event to be expressed during the light of day. Using a programmed choreography of coloured light, they can transform into a dynamic after-dark spectacle which can either complement or contrast with their daytime appearance. Well-known examples of this dual existence are found in Jean Nouvel’s Agbar Tower in Barcelona which, after nightfall, assumes a new and vibrant persona.Presumably, illumination as a design element of ECE allows linkage of day and night-time visual experiences. Dynamic lighting setups can be created to smooth the transition between sunlight and nocturnal ambience by balancing visual stimulation within changing conditions. Purpose-selected coloured lighting may emphasise the symbolic meaning of local colour and enhance the cultural identity of an urban area.The idea of continuity in visual experiences relates to our original interpretation of environmental colour scenarios. Following the definition of ECE, an environmentalcolour scenario (ECS) is a coordinated set of recurring ECEs linked by a thread of identifiable colour leitmotifs. Hypothetically, a designed colour scenario contributes to harmonious and balanced relationships between the static and dynamic colours of an urban setting. Additionally, the variations of ECEs within a designed scenario enrich visual experiences. Inference of ECS as a holistic design approach is ontologically rooted in the ‘primary design’ theory invented by Castelli. The theory shifts focus in colour design towards the non-material—or so-called ‘soft’—aspects, which generally remain secondary in design rationales and are often underestimated by architects (Thackara, 1985: 28). These soft aspects include colour, light, microclimate, decoration and even odour and background sound. Castelli (cited in Mitchell, 1993) claims that his design approach intentionally eliminates forms and considers colour, light, texture and sound as means of design. He also emphasised the limitations of the traditional two-dimensional presentation of architectural designs. According to Castelli (cited in Mitchell, 1993: 88), two-dimensional architectural drawings ‘tend to stress the objective properties of a product and neglect the subjective aspects, including sensual qualities’.Mitchell (1993) positioned ‘primary design’ within the contextual design trend that is considered a catalyst for the user’s perceived aesthetic experience. In keeping with contextual design traditions, an ECS is primarily concerned with experiences of colour and light in urban environments. This design approach aims to create a context in which an ECE will be perceived. However, a question that arises is whether the proposed concepts of ECS may inform applicable design methods.The description of an ECD methodology is outside the scope of this paper. Rather, we hope to initiate debate on this important topic. Ronchi (2002) defines ECD as ‘a holistic approach to the design of environmental colour composition on different spatial scales, which involves a parallel analysis of architectural, semiotic, illumination-related data as well as human-environment interaction’. This definition underlines the fundamental procedural differences between ECD and the more traditional application of colour in form design.From our perspective, as a tangible element of an ECE, an environmental colourpalette can be created using the fundamental principles of colour harmonies and contrasts.Environmental colour and material palettes can be documented and matched to the NCS colour order system in a conventional way. The initial environmental colour palette can be merged with a lighting design to create desirable visual experiences bounded by an ECS. ECEs can only be understood through perception and emotions. Psychological responses to environmental colour are subjective and difficult to assess. However, an augmented reality simulation may allow prospective users to virtually experience a singular ECE or a whole ECS and then describe their emotions using appropriate psychometric charts. To achieve a realistic presentation, the augmented simulation should integrate measurable parameters and perceived characteristics of an ECS. To make this process more user-centred, the initial design objectives can be modified based on the users’ responses. While the process described may sound complicated, it could be simplified by a thorough design application program. We believe that many practicing architects and urban designers would agree that there is a need for an application to merge theoretical and multidisciplinary colour knowledge in a meaningful way.In conclusion, a better understanding of the complexity and psychological effects of ECCs in contemporary urban settings can guide a more informed and user-responsive approach to ECD. The proposed concepts of ECE and ECS provide a foundation for further theoretical inquiry and the development of an applicable design methodology that could be used by practicing architects, urban designers and planners. The exploration of ECS in urban contexts reveals opportunities for a holistic approach to ECD based on an appreciation of both colour theories and designs for positive visual experiences.中文译文城市环境色彩设计初探摘要城市色彩的日益复杂和人们对其心理效应的日益认识，促使人们对当前环境色彩设计的概念和方法进行了重新思考。