跨文化心理学-参考资料

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一、名词解释

ratchet effect 棘轮效应

The concept that humans continually improve on improvements, that they do not go backward or revert to a previous state. Progress occurs because improvements move themselves upward, much like a ratchet.

人类在改善的基础上不断改善，不会倒退或回到原先状态。之所以会出现这种发展进程是因为改善驱使人类不断前行，就像棘轮一样。这个现象叫做棘轮效应。

back translation 回译

A technique of translating research protocols that involves taking the protocol as it was developed in one language, translating it into the target language, and having someone else translate it back to the original. If the back-translated version is the same as the original, they are generally considered equivalent. If it is not, the procedure is repeated until the back-translated version is the same as the original.

将文稿由第一语言翻译成第二语言以后，让另一个人（这个人没有看过第一语言版本）将第二语言版本翻译回到第一语言。第一语言的两个版本如果意思相同，就可以认为翻译是对等的。如果意思不同，还需要重新进行翻译。这种翻译技术叫做回译。

cultural attribution fallacies 文化归因谬误

A mistaken interpretation in cross cultural comparison studies. Cultural attribution fallacies occur when researchers infer that something cultural produced the differences they observed in their study, despite the fact that they may not be empirically justified in doing so because they did not actually measure those culture factors.

研究人员在研究过程中发现了差异，就认为这些差异是由文化差异造成的，而事实上研究者并没有对文化因素进行测量，没有就心理差异和文化差异之间的关系进行探讨。跨文化研究中的这种错误叫做文化归因谬误。

equivalence 对等性，等价，等值，对等

Equivalence is a state or condition of similarity in conceptual meaning and empirical method between cultures that allows comparison to be meaningful.

为了使跨文化比较有意义，必须使不同文化中的概念意义和研究方法达到基本相同，这个状态叫做对等。

acculturation 跨文化融入（跨文化适应，文化融合）

The process of adapting to, and in many cases adopting, a different culture from the one in which

a person was enculturated.

个体在第一文化中受到文化化（文化濡化）而成长起来，后来遇到了与第一文化不同的第二文化，个体适应第二文化，在很多情形中接受第二文化。

enculturation 文化化（文化濡化）

The process of learning about and being indoctrinated into a culture.

个体学习和接受某一文化的过程。

stereotype threat 刻板印象威胁

The threat that others’ judgments or one’s own actions will negatively stereotype one in a domain (such as academic achievement).

担心自己的判断或者行为会加深外群体成员对本群体的消极刻板印象，这种担心就叫做刻板印象威胁。

gender-role ideology 性别角色观（社会性别角色观）

Judgments about what gender roles in a particular culture ought to be.

关于性别角色的理想状态（应该如何）的判断叫做性别角色观。

ingroup advantage 内群体优势（内群体情绪辨认优势）

The ability of individuals from a certain cultures to recognize emotions of others of the same culture relatively better than of those from a different culture.

个体对自己文化中的他人的情绪的辨认能力比较高，而对其他文化中的人的情绪的辨认能力比较低。这个现象叫做内群体优势。

same-race bias in the ability to recognize faces

面孔识别能力的同种族偏向

Same-race bias in the ability to recognize faces: Observers recognized individuals of their own race better than they did people of the other race.

观察者识别同种族面孔的效果要优于识别其他种族。

code frame switching (cultural frame switching) 规则框架切换（文化框架切换）

Code frame switching is the process by which bilinguals switch between one cultural meaning system and another when switching language.

Cultural frame switching is the ability of bicultural individuals to have multiple cultural systems in their minds, and to access one or the other depending on the context they are in.

规则框架切换：双语个体从说第一种语言转换成说第二种语言的时候，他头脑中的文化意义系统也发生了转换。这个转换过程叫做规则结构转换。

文化框架切换：双语个体的头脑中拥有多个文化系统，在不同情景中使用不同文化系统。这个转换过程叫做文化结构转换。

上述两种说法可以合并为：双语个体的头脑中拥有两个文化系统。当所用语言发生切换，或

者，所处情景发生变化，双语个体所用的文化系统也会随之发生切换。

foreign language effect 外语效应

A temporary decline in the thinking ability of people who are using a foreign language in which they are less proficient than their native tongue.

如果外语熟练程度不及母语，外语信息加工不仅导致语言类思维能力暂时下降，还会附带导致其它非语言类思维能力暂时下降。这就是外语效应。

high-context cultures 高语境文化

Cultures that promote communication in which many messages are conveyed indirectly in context rather than directly in verbal language.

很多信息通过背景间接传送而不是通过言语直接传送，这种文化叫做高语境文化。

low-context cultures 低语境文化

Cultures that promote direct communication in which messages are conveyed primarily and directly in verbal languages and the effects of context are minimized.

信息主要通过言语直接传送，背景的作用比较小，这种文化叫做低语境文化。

indigenous healing 本土治疗

Helping beliefs and practices that originate within a given culture or society, are not transported to or from other regions, and are designed for treating the inhabitant of given group.

本土治疗是发源于某个文化或社会的治疗观念和方法，它并不是由其它地区传入的，也未曾由本地区传至其它地区，它专门用于治疗某个群体的居民。

indigenous personalities 本土个性

Personality developed in a particular culture that are specific and relevant only to that culture.

本土个性是在某文化中发展起来的个性。这种个性是该文化特有的，仅仅与该文化有关联。

cultural reaffirmation effect 文化重申效应

The amplified endorsement of home cultural values by bicultural individuals.

双语个体对祖国文化价值观的认可扩大化的现象叫做文化重申效应。

fundamental attribution error 基本归因误差

A tendency to explain the behaviors of others using internal attributions but to explain one’s own behaviors using external attributions.

对他人行为进行内归因，对自己行为进行外归因，这种倾向叫做基本归因误差。

self-serving bias 自我服务偏差

A bias in which people tend to attribute good deeds and successes to their own internal attribute bad deeds or failures to external factors.

在对自己进行归因时，将好事和成功归因于内在品质，将坏事和失败归因于外在因素，这种倾向叫做自我服务偏差。

explicit prejudice 外显偏见

Prejudice that is verbalized and thus made public.

言语公开表现出来的偏见叫做外显偏见。

implicit prejudice 内隐偏见

Prejudicial attitudes, values, or beliefs that are unspoken and perhaps even outside conscious awareness.

某些偏见性的态度、价值观或者信念没有用言语表达出来，甚至可能本人都没有意识到自己存在这些态度、价值观或者信念，这种偏见称为内隐偏见。

二、简答题

What are the differences between etics and emics?

Etics和emics这两个英文词汇有何差异？

Etics refer to those processes that are consistent across different cultures, that is, etics refer to universal psychological processes.

Emic refer to those processes that are different across cultures; emics, therefore, refer it culture-specific processes.

Etics是指各种文化普遍存在的心理过程，是各种文化共同拥有的。

Emic是指某些文化特有的心理过程，文化与文化之间存在差异。

What procedures can be used to establish linguistic equivalence?

哪些方法可以用来建立语言对等？

Linguistic equivalence: semantic equivalence of research protocols across the various languages. Two procedures used to establish linguistic equivalence:

(1) back translation. Back translation involves taking the reseach protocol in one language ,translating it to the other language (s),and having someone else translate it back to the original .

(2) Committee approach in which several bilingual informants collectively translate a research protocol into a target language.

建立语言对等性有两种方法：

（1）回译：将文稿由第一种语言翻译成第二种语言以后，让另外一个人将第二语言版本翻译回第一种语言（这个人没有看过第一种语言版本）。如果意思与最初的版本相同，就可以

认为它们是等价的。如果意思不同，还需要重新进行翻译。这种翻译技术叫做回译。

（2）集体翻译法：几个双语者合作将某内容集体翻译成目标语言。

According to Levine (1977), what is the order of the caregiving environment?

根据莱文(Levine, 1977)的观点，教养目标中的顺序是如何排列的？

LeVine(1977) has theorized that the caregiving environment reflects a set of goals that are ordered in importance.

First is physical health and survival.

Next is development of the capacity for economic self-sufficiency

Last are development of the behavioral capacities for maximizing other cultural values, such as morality, prestige and self-realization

在教养活动中：

首先要保证孩子身体健康，能够生存下来。

然后要培养孩子经济方面的独立能力。

最后要引导孩子形成正确的价值观念，例如道德观和荣辱观，等等。

According to the findings of Bruner, Oliver, and Greenfield (1966), what happens as Western children grow older? 根据布鲁纳、奥利弗和格林菲尔德（Bruner, Oliver, & Greenfield, 1966)的研究结果，西方儿童随着年龄增加，分类能力会发生哪些变化？

Young children in western cultures tend to group by color, as they grow older, they group by shape, and then by function.

西方儿童分类发展顺序：颜色—形状—功能

研究分类的跨文化差异的一个常见的方法是采用分类任务。当向被试呈现一些可以按照功能、形状或颜色分组的图片时，西方文化中的幼儿倾向于用颜色进行分类。随着年龄增长，他们会用形状分组，然后是用功能分组（Bruner, Oliver & Greenfield, 1966）。西方的成年人倾向于把所有工具放一组，把所有动物放在另一组，而不是把所有红色的事物放一起，或者把所有圆的事物放在一起。可以认为这种趋势是人类成熟的结果。但是如果给出相似的分类任务，非洲成年人表现出的明显趋势是按照颜色分组而不是按照功能分组（Greenfield, Reich & Oliver, 1966; Suchman, 1966）。这个现象说明，除了成熟之外，还有其它因素来解释分类标准转移（the category shifts）。

东亚人分组的方式大不相同。在Chiu（1972）的早期研究中，呈现给中国和美国儿童三组物体，要求他们从中选出两组相似的物体。美国儿童倾向于按照物体特征选择，而中国儿童倾向于按照背景或功能关系选择。例如说当呈现一个男人，一个女人和一个儿童时，美国儿童倾向于把男人和女人组成一组因为他们都代表成年人；而中国儿童根据亲密关系倾向于把母亲和儿童分成一组。最近Ji, Zhang, 和Nisbett（2004）进行了相似的研究，被试是美国人和会说两种语言的中国人（大陆和台湾），发现了相似的结果，表明分组类型上的文化差异并不受语言影响。

What were the findings of Gilovich et al. (1995, 2003) concerning the concept of regret in the United States? How about Chinese, Japanese, and Russians?

季洛维奇等人(Gilovich et al., 1995, 2003)对美国人所做的后悔概念的研究得出了哪些结论？

中国人、日本人和俄罗斯人的情况又如何呢？

(1) Feeling of regret over inaction than action。未做比已做的后悔程度高。

(2) The emotion of regret, and the potential causes of it, appear to be universal. 后悔情绪以及后悔的原因，在全世界都是一样的。

What gender stereotypes do the studies show to be stable around the world?

研究表明，哪些性别刻板印象在全世界具有稳定性（一致性）？

Gender stereotypes around the world are rather stable. 性别刻板印象在全世界相当稳定。Men are viewed as active, strong, critical, conscientious, extraverted, and open. 男性被认为主动、强壮、有判断力、尽责、外向的和开放。

Women are viewed as passive, weak, nurturing, adaptive, agreeable, and neurotic. 女性被认为是被动、柔弱、善于带孩子、适应能力强、易相处和神经质（情绪不稳定）。

Is there any link between psychosocial factors and health/disease?

心理社会因素与健康和疾病有什么联系？

The Study of Type A personalities showed an increased risk for developing cardiovascular disease opened the door to health psychology.

Studies have documented the link between psychosocial factors and health/disease.研究证明心理社会因素与健康/疾病相关。

(1) Unemployment and mortality, 失业与死亡率有关联

(2) goal frustration and negative life events and gastrointestinal disorders,目标挫败、消极生活事件与肠胃不适有关联

(3) stress and the cold, etc.压力与感冒有关联

(4) SES is consistently associated with health outcomes with people of higher SES having better health (in mortality rates and almost every disease) than people of lower SES. 社会经济地位总是与健康状况具有稳定而密切的联系，社会经济地位高的人比社会经济地位低的人更健康（在死亡率和几乎所有疾病方面）。

What are the determinants of suicidal behavior?

自杀有哪些决定因素？（哪些因素影响自杀？）

(1) Social and cultural changes: Stresses are associated with social and cultural changes. 社会和文化的变革：社会和文化变革会带来压力

(2) Religious beliefs: Suicide is strictly forbidden in the Muslim and Jewish religions and was considered a mortal sin in the early history of Christianity.宗教信仰：在穆斯林和犹太宗教中，自杀是严厉禁止的，而且在基督教的早期历史中自杀被认为是不可饶恕的大罪。

What are the seven basic emotions expressed universally in all humans?

哪七种情绪是全人类都会表现出来的？

happiness 快乐

anger 愤怒

sadness 悲伤

disgust 厌恶

fear 惧怕

surprise 惊奇

contempt 鄙视

What are the linguistic terms used to describe the various aspects of language (e.g., lexicon)?

哪些语言词汇可以用来描述语言的要素？（语言有哪些要素？）

Which appear to apply to all languages in all cultures:

(1) The lexicon 词汇, or vocabulary, refers to the words contained in a language.

(2) The syntax and grammar 语法of a language refer to the system of rules governing word forms and how words should be strung together to form meaningful utterances.

(3) Phonology 语音refers to the system of rules governing how words should sound (pronunciation)in a given language.

(4) Semantics 语义refers to what words mean.

(5) Pragmatics 语用refers to the system of rules governing how language is used and understood in given social contexts.

What types do nonverbal behaviors include?

非言语性行为有哪些类型？

(1) Gestures 手势

American A-OK sign is an obscene gestures in many cultures of Europe 美国人的OK手势在欧洲许多文化中是下流手势。

(2) Gaze 注视

Contact cultures engage in more gazing and more direct orientation when interacting with others 当与他人发生相互作用时，接触文化注视较多，直接面对较多。

(3) Interpersonal Space人际空间

Arabs and Latin Americans interact with others at closer distance than Americans 阿拉伯人和拉丁美洲人互动时的距离比美国人要近。

What are the underlying elements of nonverbal behaviors?

非言语行为有哪些基本要素？

The underlying elements of nonverbal behaviors including:

信息Message: Information and meaning exchanged during communication.

编码Encoding: Process by which people select, imbed messages in signals, and send signals to others.

符号Signals: Specific verbal language and nonverbal behaviors that are encoded when message sent.

通道Channels: Sensory modalities by which signals sent and messages retrieved.

解码Decoding: Process by which people receives signal from encoder and translates those signals to meaningful messages.

What are the two characteristic of intercultural communication?

跨文化交流有哪两个特征？

Intercultural communication is communication between people of different cultural backgrounds. Interactants do not share same ground rules; they encode and decode using different cultural codes.

Intercultural communication can lead to:

（1）Uncertainty and ambiguity 不确定性和模糊性：在跨文化交流中信息解码者对信息编码者原意理解的准确程度低于文化内交流。

（2）Conflict 冲突：在跨文化交流中，对方行为往往与我们期望不符，我们有时会认为对方行为违反了我们的价值观和道德观。

What are the two views on influence of culture on psychopathology?

文化对精神疾病的影响存在哪两种观点？

There are two views on influence of culture on psychopathology:

(1) Cultural relativism: Abnormal behaviors can only be understood in the cultural framework within which they occur. 文化相对论：只有在变态行为所处的文化框架内才能很好地认识变态行为。

(2) Universalism: There are universalities in the underlying psychological mechanisms and subjective experiences of many psychological disorders; culture plays a role in the manifestations of abnormal behavior. 文化普世论：很多心理障碍的内在心理机制和主观体验存在普世性（共性）；但是，文化影响变态行为的具体表现。

What are the universal symptoms of schizophrenia?

精神分裂症有哪些普世症状？

Universal symptoms of schizophrenia: lack of insight, auditory and verbal hallucinations, and ideas of reference (assuming one is the center of attention).

世界卫生组织（WHO）研究发现，精神分裂症具有以下普世症状：

（1）缺乏悟性（自知力缺失）。特指病人对自身精神病状态的认识能力。否认有病，拒绝治疗。

（2）言语性幻听。幻觉是在客观现实中并不存在某种事物的情况下，患者却感知到他的存在。最常见的幻觉为幻听，周围没有人说话，患者却听到有说话声。例如，一位中年女性出去买东西，刚一出门就听到有个声音说：“长舌妇又出门了”。她听后十分气愤，扭头就回家，谁知声音马上又说：“假装什么呀”。

（3）关系妄想（想当然地自以为是注意中心）。患者坚信周围环境的各种变化和一些本来与他不相干的事物，都与他有关系。别人的谈话，无线电广播、报纸上的文章和消息是针对他而发的；别的人咳嗽、吐痰是表示轻视他等。

What symptoms are cross-culturally constant ways in which people experience depression?

抑郁症有哪些普世症状？

Universal symptoms of depression: loss of enjoyment, appetite, or sleep

世界卫生组织研究发现，抑郁症有以下普世共性：

(1)无愉快感。患者常诉说“活着没有意思”、“心里难受”等。

(2)进食障碍。很多患者没有节食时会伴有食欲下降或者亢进、体重显著减轻或者增加（例如，一个月内体重变化超过5%）。

(3)睡眠障碍。如失眠、早醒，或睡眠过多。几乎每天如此。

What will a culturally sensitive therapist will have acquired, according to Sue and Sue (2003)?

根据隋文和戴维·隋的说法，具有文化敏感性的治疗师应该具有哪些素质？

According to Sue and Sue(2003), a culturally sensitive therapist will have acquired:

根据隋文和戴维·隋的说法，具有文化敏感性的治疗师应该拥有以下素质：

（1）Knowledge of diverse culture and lifestyles. 了解各种文化和各种生活方式。

（2）Skill and comfort in using innovative treatment methods. 能创造性地使用各种治疗方法。（3）Actual experience working with culturally diverse clients. 在对不同文化患者进行治疗的过程中积累实际经验。

What methodological issues should be considered regarding empirical assessment of the independent versus interdependent self-construals in different countries?

在不同国家测量独立自我和依赖自我时应该考虑到哪些方法学问题？

(1) The studies suggested that Asians found it difficult to describe themselves in terms of abstract internal attributes such as “I am sociable” without specifying a relevant context (for example, at home, in school, or at work). 亚洲人不擅长用抽象词汇进行自我描述。

(2) With contextualized task, Americans may have felt awkward providing self-descriptions because their self-definitions typically are not qualified by specific situations. 美国不习惯根据具体情境进行自我描述。

What did Buss (1989) conclude regarding the cues valued by females and males?

巴斯(Buss, 1989)研究认为，男性和女性在择偶时分别重视哪些方面？

According to Buss (1989), mate selection preferences are universal.

择偶偏好具有普世性。

Females prefer：Financial prospects, Industriousness, Ambition, Older age. 女性喜欢的配偶：有经济前景、勤奋、有抱负、年长。

Males prefer：Youth, good looks, chastity. 男性喜欢的配偶：年轻、漂亮、贞洁。

What are the differences between organization culture and organizational climate?

组织文化和组织气氛这两个概念有何差异？

（1）Organizational culture is a meaning and information system shared within an organization and transmitted across successive generations of members, that allows the organization to survive and thrive. 组织文化是组织成员共有的、代代相传的意义和信息系统，它有助于组织生存和成长。

（2）Organizational climate refers to a shared perception of organizational policies, practices, and procedures. 组织气氛是指大家共同感知到的组织政策、惯例和规章。

（3）Organizational climate can probably be best understood as a manifestation of organizational

culture, which generally refers to a deeper, less consciously held set of values, attitudes, and meanings. 组织气氛可被理解为组织文化的具体表现，组织文化通常指比较深层的、难以意识到的价值观、态度和含意的集合。

三、问答题

How many factors influence culture?

哪些因素对文化有影响？

There are three factors influence culture:

(1)生态因素ecological factors, such as natural resources, climate, geography.

Natural resources 自然资源

A land void of natural resources may encourage teamwork, community spirit and interdependence. 自然资源贫乏的地区可能会鼓励其成员的团队精神、共有精神和相互依赖。

Climate 气候

Affect the clothes people wear, the types of foods they eat, storage and container systems for food supplies. 气候不同会影响人们的着装、食物的类型、食物的贮藏及包装系统。Geography 地理条件

People who live nearer the poles may organize their lives around available sunlight. 在极地附近生活的人们会尽量围绕可以获得的阳光来组织他们的日常活动。

(2)社会因素social factors, including population density, affluence, technology, government, institutions, media, sociocultural history and religion.

population density 人口密度

affluence 财富

technology 科技

government 政府

Institutions 机构

media 媒体

sociocultural history 社会文化历史

religion 宗教

(3)生物因素biological factors, groups of individuals with certain kinds of personalities and temperaments banded together in certain geographic regions and thus influenced culture.

拥有某种个性和气质的一群人，都聚居在某个地方，这样个性和气质就会影响文化。

What are the differences between culture and popular culture?

文化与大众文化有何不同？

Culture: A unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival, pursue happiness and

well-being, and derive meaning from life. 文化：群体共享的并世代传承的独特的意义与信息系统，它有助于群体满足基本生存需要，追求快乐、幸福，获得生命意义。

Popular culture: trends in music, art and other expressions popular among people 大众文化：音乐、艺术或其他表现形式在大众中的流行趋势。

Like culture, sharing of an expression and its value by a group of people

如同文化一样，大众文化也是某群人所共有的表达方式或者价值观。

Two differences: 两者的区别

(1) Culture: System of rules that cut across attitudes, values, opinions, beliefs, norms and behaviors文化：贯穿于态度、价值观、观点、信念、社会规范和行为的规则系统。Popular culture: Does not involve sharing wide range of psychological attributes across various psychological domains大众文化：在不同的心理领域并没有共同心理特点

(2) Culture: Stable over time across generations文化：在不同代辈之间是稳定的

Popular culture: Values or expressions that come and go as fads or trends within few years大众文化：某种价值观念或表现形式在短短几年之内潮涨潮落。

How many types of response bias do you know?

你知道哪些反应偏差（反应偏向）？

(1) Socially desirable responding, tendency to give answers that make oneself look good. 社会赞许性反应：选择让自己看上去表现良好的反应倾向。

(2) Acquiescence bias, tendency to agree rather than disagree with items. 同意偏向：对问卷题目做出同意而非不同意的选择倾向。

(3) Extreme response bias, tendency to use the ends of a scale. 极端反应偏向：选择量表中的两个极端的倾向。

(4) Reference group effect: tendency to implicitly compare themselves with others in their group. 参照群体效应：无意识地与群体中的他人进行比较的倾向。当在量表上做等级评定时人们倾向于与他人做出内隐社会比较，而不是按照自己的个人想法——自我价值体系来判断（Peng, Nisbett, & Wong, 1997）。也就是说，在填写量表时，人们会无意识地与群体中的他人进行比较。例如，日本人在问卷中似乎表现得相当个人主义，甚至比美国人还要个人主义。但是Heine等人（2002）声称，出现这种情况的原因可能是这些日本人在打分时无意识地与群体中他人进行比较的结果，而群体中的他人实际是相当集体主义的，因此显得这些人的个人主义程度非常高。同样的，美国人集体化程度很高的结果，是由于与群体中其他个体主义程度很高的人的无意识比较的结果。

Are there any ways to handle the problems of nonequivalence?

如何处理不对等（不等价）问题？

Four different ways to handle the problems of nonequivalence:

Poortinga认为有四种方法可以用来处理跨文化研究的非对等性问题

（1）不做比较（preclude comparison）。最保守的方法就是研究者一开始就不做比较，断言比较没有任何意义。

（2）减少非对等性（reduce the nonequivalence ) 。有些研究者会把研究分为对等和不对等两个部分，然后再次关注对等部分。例如，如果研究者使用包含20题的量表来测量两种文

化的焦虑水平，发现量表整体是不对等的，那么他/她可以会对20题中的各个题目逐题进行对等分析，然后重新计分，仅仅计算具有对等性的题目。然后在重新计分的基础上进行跨文化比较。

（3）解释非对等性（interpret the nonequivalence）。研究者可以把解释非对等性作为有关文化差异的信息的一个重要部分。

（4）忽略非对等性（ignore the nonequivalence）。、有些跨文化研究人员只是简单地忽略非对等性，盲目相信所用量表在不同文化中具有对等性，尽管这个信念缺乏证据支持。

What are the three major categories of temperament described by Thomas and Chess (1977)?

托马斯和切斯（Thomas & Chess, 1977)将气质分为哪三种类型？

Temperament is a biologically based style of interacting with world. Thomas and Chess (1977) have described three major categories of temperament:

(1) Easy: regular, adaptable, mildly intense style容易型气质：行为有规律、适应性强和行为适度紧张。

(2) Difficult: intense, irregular, withdrawing style困难型气质：紧张的、没有规律、退缩的类型

(3) Slow to warm up: need time to make transition迟缓型气质：互动和体验的改变需要时间

What questions are raised by cross-cultural research on Piaget's theory?

跨文化研究对皮亚杰理论提出了哪些问题？

（1）Do Piaget’s stages occur in the sam e order in different cultures? 皮亚杰的各阶段在不同文化中是否是以相同顺序出现的？

Yes.

（2）Are the ages that Piaget associated with each stage of development the same in all cultures?皮亚杰发展阶段的具体年龄在所有文化中是否相同？

No, cultural variations exist. 不，存在文化差异

（3）Are there variations with in, rather than between, Piaget’s stages?在皮亚杰的各个阶段内，而非阶段之间，有没有文化差异？

Yes, There is a considerable cultural variation in the order in which children acquire specific skills within Piaget’s stages.是的，在皮亚杰的阶段内，儿童习得具体能力的顺序方面存在相当大的文化差异。

（4）Do non-Western cultures regard scientific reasoning as the ultimate developmental end point? 非西方文化是否把科学推理看作是最终的发展目标?

No 不是

Ex) Islamic educational systems. Its primary goal was to transmit faith, general knowledge, and a deep appreciation for poetry and literature.例如伊斯兰教育系统。它的主要目标是传播信仰、一般知识和对诗词和文学的深刻领会。

What were the findings of Masuda and Nisbett's (2001) cross cultural study with Japanese and Americans?

増田和尼斯比特（Masuda & Nisbett, 2001）对日本人和美国人所做的跨文化研究得出了哪些结论？

Results from first task (recall task):

When asked to recall objects in a scene: (1) No differences in recalled focal object of scene between Americans and Japanese; (2) Japanese remembered more background objects. 结果：第一项任务（回忆任务）的结果：

（1）美国被试和日本被试在回忆场景中的重点物体时并没有差异；（2）日本被试会记住更多的背景物体

Result from second task (recognition task):

第二项任务（再认任务）的结果：

（1）Japanese were more influenced by changes in background information in recognition tasks. 日本被试在再认任务中更容易受背景信息的变化的影响

（2）Background did not affect the Americans.背景信息不会影响到美国人

What aspects of health do culture influence?

文化影响健康的哪些要素？

Culture can influence health in many ways. Culture affects:

(1) Attitudes about health care and treatment 对健康保健和治疗的态度

(2) Attributions about the causes of health and disease processes 对健康和疾病的归因

(3) The availability of health care and health care delivery systems 健康保健的可获得性和健康保健供给制度

(4) Help-seeking behaviors 求医行为

What are the barriers to effective intercultural communication?

不同文化间有效交流会碰到哪些障碍？

1. Assumptions of similarities 假设相似。People may naively assume that others are the same as they are, or at least are similar enough to make communication easy.

2. Language differences 语言差异。When people are trying to communicate in a language in which they are not entirely fluent, people often think that a word, phrase, or sentence has one and only one meaning—the meaning they intend to convey.

3. Nonverbal misinterpretations 非言语误解。Misunderstandings in relation to the interpretation of nonverbal behaviors can easily lead to conflicts or confrontations that break down the communication process.

4. Preconceptions and stereotypes 成见和偏见。Overreliance on stereotypes can prevent us from viewing others and their communications objectively, and from searching for cues that may help us interpret their communications in the way they were intended.

5. Tendency to evaluate （负面）评价倾向。Different cultural values may generate negative evaluations of others.

6. High anxiety or tension 高度焦虑或紧张。Intercultural communication episodes are often associated with greater anxiety and stress than are more familiar intracultural communication situations. Too much anxiety and stress can lead to dysfunctional thought processes and behaviors.

What are the cross-cultural differences have been found with schizophrenia?

关于精神分裂症的研究发现了哪些跨文化差异？（精神分裂症有哪些跨文化差异？）

（1）Rate of recovery 康复速度

Patients in Colombia, India, and Nigeria recovered at faster rates than did those in England, the Soviet Union, and the US. 与英国、苏联和美国患者相比，哥伦比亚、印度、尼日利亚患者康复速度较快。

（2）Symptom expression 症状表现

Patients in the US were less likely to demonstrate lack of insight and auditory hallucinations than were Danish or Nigerian patients. 与丹麦或尼日利亚患者相比，美国的患者较少表现出缺乏悟性和幻听。）

Japanese schizophrenics are more likely than their European American counterparts to be withdrawn and passive, conforming to cultural values. 与欧裔美国人相比，日裔美国人精神分裂症患者的退缩、被动和遵守文化价值观的可能性比较高。

（3）Diagnosis 诊断

Leff (1977) found that US psychiatrists were more likely to give diagnoses of schizophrenia than were psychiatrists in England, and less likely to give diagnoses of depression. 列夫发现，与英国精神病医生相比，美国精神病医生给出精神分裂症诊断的可能性比较高（美国和英国分别占精神病患者的61.5%和33.9%），而给出抑郁症诊断的可能性比较低（美国和英国分别为4.7%和24.1%）。

What were the three dimensions that Pfeiffer (1982) identified for understanding culture-bound syndromes? (According to Pfeiffer (1982), how do culturally unique disorders arise?)?

法伊弗（Pfeiffer, 1982）认为，可以从哪三个方面来认识文化特有的心理障碍？

These culturally unique disorders arise from:

(1) Culture-specific areas of stress, including family and societal structures and ecological conditions.

(2) Culture-specific shaping of conduct and interpretations of conduct may mean that certain cultures implicitly approve patterns of exceptional behavior.

(3) How culture interprets exceptional behavior will be linked to culture-specific interventions.

上面几行字的大概意思是：

（1）压力来源：不同文化有不同压力，包括来自家庭、社会和生态领域的压力都可能存在差异。

（2）异常行为的产生过程：不同文化的行为塑造模式是不同的，对相同行为存在不同解释，这些会在不知不觉中促进或者妨碍异常行为的发生。

（3）异常行为的干预方式：不同文化对异常行为的解释不同，会导致对心理障碍的干预方式也存在差异。

What are the barriers to seeking treatment for ethnic groups within the United States (reasons for underutilization of mental health services)?

美国少数民族寻求心理治疗存在哪些障碍？（心理健康服务没有得到充分利用的原因有哪些？）

Reasons for underutilization of mental health services 心理健康服务没有得到充分利用的原因

（1）Shame, loss of face, active avoidance of morbid thoughts, attributions of causes of mental illness to biological factors, and fear of a system not set up to deal well with cultural differences (for Asian Americans) 害羞、丢脸、主动回避病态思想、把心理疾病归因为生理因素、担心服务系统没有考虑到文化差异（亚裔美国人）

（2）Individuals may be encouraged to rely on own willpower to confront problems (for African Americans)患者可能被鼓励依靠自己的意志力来对抗所面临的问题（非洲裔美国人）

（3）Cultural belief that sickness comes from disharmony with oneself, one’s community, and nature (for Native Americans) 文化信念认为疾病来源于自我、群体和自然不和谐（土著美国人）

（4）Cause of mental disturbances is attributed to evil spirits (for Latinos). 将心理困扰归因为邪恶的灵魂（拉丁裔美国人）

（5）Mistrust and stigma (for all ethnic groups). 不信任和感到羞耻（所有其他少数民族群体）

What challenges may arise during treatment when the clinician and patient differ with respect to their cultural backgrounds (What issues should be considered when treating ethnic minorities)?

如果医生与患者文化背景不同，那么，治疗过程可能会面临哪些挑战？（少数民族心理治疗应该注意哪些事项？）

Issues to consider when treating ethnic minorities:

(1) Understanding culturally different ways of thinking about illness and expressing thoughts about illness. 对疾病的认识和主诉方式存在跨文化差异。

(2) Correct interpretation of nonverbal communication. 非言语符号的解释存在跨文化差异。

(3) Taking into account how cultures vary on importance of hierarchy in interpersonal relationships. 人际关系中的等级的重要性存在跨文化差异。

(4) Treatment expectations (to be directive or nondirective). 治疗预期存在跨文化差异。

(5) Recognizing role of extended families in many cultures. 认识到扩大家庭的作用。

How did Markus and Kitayama (1991) use the independent versus interdependent self-construal framework to explain cross-country differences in self-perception?

马库斯和北山（Markus & Kitayama, 1991）是如何使用独立自我和依赖自我解释理论来解释自我知觉的跨国家差异的？

马库斯和北山（Markus & Kitayama, 1991）使用独立自我和依赖自我解释理论来解释自我知觉的跨国家差异。

With an independent construal of self, one's internal attributes such as abilities and personality traits are the most salient self-relevant information in self-perception. (in Western or individualistic cultures) 拥有独立自我解释的人，在自我知觉时更倾向于将内部特质，例如把能力、人格特质，看成是最显著的与自我相关的信息。（西方或个人主义文化中）With an interdependent construal of self, one thinks self in particular social relationships (for e xample, “me” with family members, “me” with my boyfriend) or in specific contexts (“me” in school, “me” at work). (in non-Western or collectivistic cultures) 拥有依赖自我解释的人，在特定的社会关系中（例如与家庭成员在一起的“我”，与男朋友在一起的“我”）或者特定的情境中（例如学校里的“我”，工作中的“我”）来认识自我。（非西方或集体主义中）

Are there any conflicts in intercultural marriages?

跨文化婚姻可能会产生哪些冲突？

Areas of potential conflict because of culture: 跨文化婚姻可能会在以下方面产生哪些冲突：

(1) Expression of love and intimacy. 亲密行为和爱的表达方式

(2) Nature of commitment and attitudes toward marriage. 对婚姻的承诺和态度的性质

(3) Child rearing. 孩子的教养方式

(4) Attitudes toward sex roles. 对于性别角色的态度

(5) Money management. 金钱管理

(6) Attitudes toward relationships with extended family. 对扩大家庭的态度

(7) Differences in definitions of marriage. 婚姻定义的差异

How can intercultural couples overcome obstacles in their relationships to build successful marriages？

跨文化夫妻如何克服跨文化障碍以创建成功婚姻呢？

（1）Communication 沟通交流对于搞好人际关系非常重要，对于建设好跨文化婚姻尤其重要。以下是应对差异的三种方法：

（2）Capitulation: give up one’s own cultural behaviors and accept the other’s position occasionally. 屈服：完全放弃自己的文化行为，完全接受对方观点。（0+1=1）

（3）Compromise: find a mutual point, with both partners partially giving up their positions and partially accepting each other’s.妥协：双方都放弃自己的部分观点，同时接受对方的部分观点，达成共识。（0.5+0.5=1）

（4）Coexistence: both partners live with their r espective differences by accepting each other “as they are” in their marriage.共存：夫妻双方在婚姻中接受对方现状，生活中保留各自的差异。（1+1=2）

What are characteristics of individualistic cultures and collectivistic cultures regarding ingroups and outgroups?

在内群体和外群体方面，个人主义和集体主义文化各有什么特征？

（1）In Individualistic cultures, people个人主义文化中

----People have more ingroups 人们有更多的内群体

----People are not attached to any single ingroup, because there are numerous ingroups to which they can be attached 人们并不依附于任何单个内群体，因为他们有很多内群体可以依附。----Survival of the individuals and the society is more dependent on the successful and effective functioning of individuals rather than groups. 个体和社会的生存更多地依赖于个体而非群体的成功和有效的运作。

----People make fewer distinctions between in- and outgroups

人们较少对内群体和外群体做出区分。

（2）In Collectivistic cultures, people集体主义文化中

----People have fewer ingroups人们有相对较少的内群体。

----People are attached to the ingroups to which they belong人们非常依赖他们所属的内群体。----Survival of the individuals and the society is more dependent on the successful and effective functioning of the groups rather than individuals个体和社会的生存更多地依赖于群体而不是个体的成功和有效的运作。

----People make greater distinctions between in- and outgroups others.人们经常对内群体和外群体做出明确区分。

How many factors do you know that contribute to ethnocentrism and prejudice?

你知道哪些因素会导致民族优越感和偏见？

（1）Outcomes of social biology and evolution: Sentiments about ethnicity and race are logical extensions of kinship sentiment—that is, the favoring of kin over nonkin. 社会生物学和进化的结果：民族和种族的感情是亲属感情（人们喜欢有亲属关系的人的程度超过没有亲属关系的人）的合理延伸。

（2）Intergroup conflict and power: The competition that naturally occurs among groups in any society produces prejudicial and discriminatory thoughts, feelings, and actions among both those in power and those without. 群际冲突和权力：群体间自然发生的竞争使得有权人和无权人之间产生了偏见性和歧视性的思想、感情和行为。

（3）Social and cultural factors: Society may promote ideological prejudice and institutional discrimination to impose inferior status among some groups 社会文化因素：社会促进了将思想偏见和制度化歧视强加给社会地位低下的群体成员。

（4）Authoritarian personality：Prejudicial thoughts and feelings and discriminatory behaviors are an integral part of authoritarian personalities. 专制型个性：偏见思想和感情以及歧视行为是专制型人格的重要组成部分。

（5）Contact with outgroup members reduces his commitment to the original ingroups. 与新文化的实际接触，会提高个体在新文化中的安全感，降低个体对原初内群体的承诺，这有助于个体适应新的文化。

（6）Exposure to differences can lead to negative attitudes and emotions. 接触到文化之间的差异，有时可能会对其他文化诱发出消极态度和情绪。

How many dimensions of work-related values did Hofstede identify?

霍夫斯泰德认为与工作有关的价值观有哪几个维度？

Hofstede's five dimensions: 霍夫斯泰德认为与工作有关的价值观有以下五个维度：

（1）Power Distance refers to the degree to which different cultures encourage or maintain power and status differences between interactants.

权力距离是指不同文化在多大程度上促进或维护权力和地位在人群中的差异性分配。

High Power Distance 高权力距离文化的特征:

——develop rules, mechanisms, and rituals that serve to maintain and strengthen status relationships among members. 制定规章、机制和形式程序以维持和强化成员间的等级关系。

——foster organizations with greater centralization of organization and process, taller organizational pyramids, larger wage differentials, etc. 鼓励组织权力集中化，金字塔结构较高，工资差距较大。

（2）Uncertainty Avoidance: the degree to which different societies and different cultures develop ways to deal with the anxiety and stress of uncertainty. 不确定性规避是指不同文化在多大程度上采取措施应对不确定性所带来的焦虑和紧张。

High Uncertainty Avoidance 高不确定性规避文化的特征:

——develop highly refined rules and rituals that are mandated and become part of the company rubric and normal way of operating. 制定非常详细的规章和程序，这些规章和程序需要强制执行，并成为公司正常行为方式。

——Companies are rule-oriented. 公司是规则导向的（按章办事）。

（3）Individualism-Collectivism: the degree to which individuals will sacrifice personal goals for the sake of their ingroup. 个人主义与集体主义维度是指个体在多大程度上愿意为了内群体目标而牺牲个人目标。

Collectivistic cultures 集体主义文化的特征：

——Foster more compliance with company policies and more conformity in group behavior 鼓励员工遵守公司和组织的规章制度，与群体行为保持一致。

——Foster greater degree of reliance on group work and group orientation to company and organizational tasks 对于公司和组织的任务，鼓励群体工作和群体取向。

——Value harmony within groups and likely to engage in behaviors that ensure harmony 重视群体内部和谐，积极构建和谐公司和组织。

——BUT freedom, independence, and initiative are normally frowned upon 不赞成自由、独立性和主动性。

（4）Masculinity-Femininity：the degree to which a culture will foster, encourage, or maintain differences between males and females. 男性化与女性化维度是指文化培养、鼓励和维护男女差异的程度。

High Masculinity-Femininity 男性化程度较高的文化的特征：

——Greatest degree of sex differences in work-related values. 在工作价值观中，对男女的看法差异很大。

——Managers value leadership, independence, and self-realization. 管理者重视领导行为、独立性和自我实现。

——Employees regard earning, recognition, advancement, and challenge as more important.

员工比较看重收入高低、受赏识程度、晋升机会和工作的挑战性。

——Organizational interests, needs, and goals are viewed as a legitimate reasons to interfere in the personal lives of employees. 组织利益、需要和目标被视为可以妨碍员工私生活的正当理由。

——Fewer women in better-paid jobs. 在高收入工作中女性较少。

——Greater job stress. 工作压力较大。

（5）Long- versus Short-Term Orientation：degree to which cultures encourage delayed gratification of material, social, and emotional needs. 长期取向与短期取向是指文化在多大程度上鼓励对物质、社会和情感需要的延迟满足。

Long-Term Orientation 长期取向的文化的特征:

——Unequal status relationships lead to a stable society. 地位不平等有助于社会稳定。——The family is typical of all social organizations. 社会组织具有家庭特征。——Differentiate more between elders and youngsters and between brothers and sisters. 男女有别，长幼有序。

——Believe humility is a great human virtue. 谦虚是美德。

——Focus on building relationships. 重视建立人际关系。

——Integrate business and family lives. 工作与家庭融为一体。

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