文献阅读翻译
收藏知乎网友总结的23种英文文献翻译软件,助力文献阅读
01搜狗翻译搜狗翻译的文档翻译功能有三个优点：第一，可以直接上传文档，流程操作简单化，这才是一键翻译哇，我之前只能说是很多键……；第二，在线阅读翻译结果时，系统可实时提供原文与译文的双屏对照，方便对比查看；第三，译文可直接免费下载，方便进一步研读或分享。
02Google Chrome浏览器假设一个情景，你想在PubMed上找到以清华大学为第一单位的施一公教授的文章，那么，可以在Chrome浏览器上，登上PubMed，搜索格式为Yigong Shi Tsinghua University，即可找到其发表的文章。
接着，看上一篇蛮不错的，点击进去看看，然后，还是全英文。
这时候，你可以试下Chrome自带的网页翻译，真的可以秒翻译，将英文翻译为中文，而且还可以快速转换中/英界面。
03Adobe Acrobat笔者在这里给大伙介绍另一款秒翻译PDF文档的神器（笔者使用的Adobe Acrobat Pro DC，至于具体的下载和安装方式，读者可自行百度）。
但是，需要注意一点，这是Adobe Acrobat，而不是Adobe Reader。
在这里，请应许笔者介绍下开发出Adobe Acrobat的公司——Adobe。
Adobe，在软件界绝对是巨头中巨头的存在。
打个比方，我们常用的PS、PR、AE、In、LR等，无一例外都是领域中的顶尖水平，而且都是Adobe家的。
其中，Adobe家中就有一款几位出色的PDF编辑及处理软件——Adobe Acrobat。
（据说PDF作为国际通用的文件存储格式，也是依它而起）OK，进入主题，Adobe Acrobat是长这个样子的。
它可能干嘛呢？PDF 转word、图片合拼为PDF、编辑PDF等等，可以说，与PDF相关的，它都可以搞定。
那如何使用它来帮助我们翻译文献PDF呢？第一步，用它打开文献PDF文件；第二步，点击使用界面上的“文件”，接着点击“另存为”，选择存储格式为“HTML”，如下图；第三步，PDF文档在导出完成后，会得到两个文件，一是将PDF转为HTML格式的网页文件，另一个则是支持网页文件里面的图片（若删，网页里面的图片显示不出来）第四步，找到网页文件，打开方式选择Google Chrome浏览器，接着，结合Chrome浏览器的网页翻译，即可秒翻。
Unit2文献阅读与翻译第二章
Eg.1:Tension is building up.
形势紧张起来。 张力在增大。 电压在增加。 压力在增强。 ……
Eg.2: the English word of story
This war is becoming the most important story of this generation. (事件) It is quite another story now, for the leadership has changed. (情况) Some reporters who were not included in the session broke the story. (内情) A young man came to a police officer’s office with a story.
(3)Judging from the Context and Collocation
科技文献阅读和翻译
• • • • • • • • •
3. Webs for translating a. / b. / 4. the best webs for dictionary A. / B. / C. / D. / E. /
科技论文标题的写法
二、介词词组 介词词组由介词十名词或名词词组构成。如果整个标题就 是 一 个 介 词 词 组 的 话 ， 一 般 这 个 介 词 是 “ on” ， 意 思 是 “对……的研究”。 例如： From Knowledge Engineering to Knowledge Management (介词词组+介词词组) On the correlation between working memory capacity and performance on intelligence tests
学术论文的英文写作简介
(2) 关于建议可用如下表达方式。
① It is advantageous to (do) ② It should be realized (emphasized, stressed, noted, pointed out ) that … ③ It is suggested (proposed, recommended, desirable) that … ④ It would be better (helpful, advisable) that…
学术论文的英文写作简介
四、结尾部分 1、致谢 为了对曾给予支持与帮助或关心的人表示感谢，在论文之后，作 者通常对有关人员致以简短的谢词，可用如下方式： I am thankful to sb. for sth I am grateful to sb. for sth I am deeply indebted to sb. for sth Thanks are due to sb. for sth The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to sb. for sth. The author wishes to acknowledge sb. The author wishes to express his gratitude for sth.
文献阅读与翻译(精华版)
Unit 1 general description of literature reading and translation1.Definition of LiteratureLiterature is a general term for professional writings in the form of books, papers, and other documentations.As an important means for preserving knowledge, literatures have become precious resources or treasures for the mankind, which have greatly contributed to the social progress of the human race.2.Classification of Literature1) Textbooks（课本） a kind of professional writing（一种专业的写作）2) Monographs（专著） various viewpoints and discussions3) Papers（论文） the theoretical analysis and experimental descriptiontitle, author, affiliation, abstract, keywords, introduction, theoretical analysis and/or experimental description, results and discussion or conclusion, acknowledgments, references4) Encyclopedias(百科全书) every branch of knowledge5) Periodicals （期刊） a series of publications6)Special Documentation（特殊文档） all the printed materials3.Linguistic Features of Scientific Literaturestylistically (文体上) scientific literature is a kind of form writing;syntactically（结构上）scientific literature has rigorous grammatical structures and in most cases is rather unitary;Morphologically（语法上）scientific literaure is featured by high specialization,the use of technical terms and jargons ,unambiguous implication and the fixed sense of the wordPrinciples or Criteria of TranslationWhenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu’s three- character guide”-----xin, da, ya, namely, faithfulness (信), expressiveness (达), and elegance (雅). These three principle has always been regarded as a plumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people come to find some unsatisfactory aspects of the three-character guide and have put foreword a variety of new standards or criteria of translation. Despite a variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted by all, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy (忠实/准确) and that of smoothness (流畅). We may also take these two criteria as the principle scientific literature translation. By faithful/accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free form stiff formula and mechanical copying form dictionaries.Unit 2 professional papers2.1.Definition of professional papersA professional paper is a typewritten paper in which professionals present their views and research findings on a chosen topic. It is variously known as the “research paper”, “course paper”, “thesis paper” or “library paper”. The task of the author of a paper is essentially the same: to read on a particular topic, gather information about it, and report the findings in it.2.2.Classification of professional papers1)Report PaperThe report paper summarizes and reports the findings of another on a particular subject. The writer neither judges nor evaluates the findings, but merely catalogs them in a sensible sequence2) Research paperA research paper can be intelligent, well informed, interesting, and original in its conclusions.3) Course Papercourse papers are written after a specific course is learned or are designed at the end of a term. This type of paper is, therefore, also called “term paper”.4) Thesis Paperthe thesis paper takes a definite stand on an issue. A thesis is a proposition or point of view that a writer or speaker is willing to argue against or defend. A paper that argued for ratification of a certain event would therefore be a thesis paper. Writing a thesis paper requires a writer to exercise judgment, evaluate evidence, and construct a logical argument, whereas writing a report paper does not2.3. Linguistic Features of Professional PapersFormal Style: A professional paper deals with the study of some objective facts or problems, and the conclusion that is drawn should be based on relevant data, not on personal likes and dislikes. Specialized Terms:The terms in professional papers are typically specialized. Even in the same field, the meanings of the same word may vary slightly due to its different collections.Take the word “normal” as an example. Generally, it means “iEee”; but in mathematics, it represents “法线”; and in the field of chemistry, “当量” Again the word “power.” In electronics, it is rendered as “电力” or “电源”; in mechanics, “动力”; whereas in mathematics, “幂”Rigid Sentence Structure:The arguments in professional papers will be convincing if they are presented concisely and concretely. A rigid sentence structure is therefore reflected to meet this requirement.Formatted Elements:Though there are no set rules, a complete professional paper in its finished form usually has a regular format composed of the following elements: the title, author(s), affiliation(s), abstract, keywords, introduction, body of the paper (theoretical description including calculation, inference, reasoning, conclusion, etc. or experimental description including techniques, methods, materials, results and analysis, etc.), acknowledgments, appendices, references or bibliography, etc.Different meaning of story(1)This war is becoming the most important story of this generation. Event这场战争将成为这一代人经历的最重大的事件。
ipad文献阅读翻译
iPad文献阅读翻译是一个将文献资料从英文翻译成中文的功能。
对于需要阅读英文文献，但英语水平不够高的用户来说，这个功能非常有用。
使用iPad上的翻译软件或在线翻译工具，用户可以将文献资料导入到软件中，选择翻译语言，然后软件会自动将英文翻译成中文。
一些翻译软件还支持实时翻译，用户可以在阅读文献的同时进行翻译。
此外，iPad文献阅读翻译还可以帮助用户更好地理解文献内容。
对于一些专业术语或复杂的句子结构，翻译软件可以提供准确的中文翻译，帮助用户更好地理解文献内容。
这有助于提高用户的阅读效率和阅读质量，让他们更好地掌握相关领域的知识。
需要注意的是，翻译软件并不能完全代替人工翻译，对于一些复杂的句子结构或专业术语，可能需要进行人工校对和调整。
此外，对于一些不常见的文献格式或特殊排版要求，翻译软件可能无法完全满足用户的需求。
因此，在使用iPad文献阅读翻译功能时，用户需要谨慎选择合适的翻译软件，并根据实际情况进行必要的调整和校对。
江苏大学研究生文献阅读与翻译作业
江苏大学研究生文献阅读与翻译作业(1)When I try to understand what it is that prevents so many Americans from being as happy as one might expect, it seems to me that there are two causes, of which one goes much deeper than the other.当我试图去理解是什么阻挡了许多美国人得到他们应有的快乐时，我脑海里出现两个原因，而其中一个原因更甚于另一个。
（2）It had been a fine ,golden autumn , a lovely farewell to those who would lose their youth, and some of them their lives, before the leaves turned yellow again in a peacetime fall.那是个天气晴朗的金色秋天，美好的秋色为那些青年们送别。
待到战后和平时期，黄叶纷飞的秋天再度来临时，当日的青年已经失去了青春，有的丧失了生命。
（1）It was a day as fresh as grass growing up and clouds going over and butterflies coming down can make it. It was a day compounded from silences of bee and flower and ocean and land , which were not silences at all, but motions, stirs, flutters, rising ,each in its own time and matchless rhythm.绿草萋萋，白云冉冉，彩蝶翩翩，这日子是如此清新；蜜蜂无言，春花不语，海波声歇，大地音寂，这日子是如此安静。
文献阅读翻译
Hotel Security:The Needs of the Mature Age Market IntroductionRises in crime rates have more impact on some sections of the community than on others; older members of the community are particularly vulnerable. Individuals who have retired, or who no longer have dependent children, may have more disposable income to spend on recreation and tourism. The tourism industry has been quick to identify this market. Holiday and tour packages are now targeted specifically at the older tourist. Hotel companies offer incentives to those who have the leisure time to benefit from reduced tariffs in the low season or at other times of reduced occupancy. Hotels, however, are public places and individuals may naturally feel less secure than when they are in their home environment. It is important for hoteliers to focus on the security concerns of their guests.Hotel SecurityGuest security in hotels means those measures required to maintain a state of wellbeing, to protect life and property and to minimize the risk of disasters or crime. In recent years security in the Australian hotel sector has come to mean more than the protection of life and possessions. The very nature of the operation of hotels, providing for a cross-section of the population, most unknown to management, poses a threat to the security of the property and its bona fideguests.Modern standards of hotel security as required by law are constantly being revised in the light of court decisions that take into account the necessity to show “reasonable care” i n matters of guest security. Increasingly, courts deliver decisions about preventable acts that harm a guest on hotel premises. Courts in many countries have held and continue to hold that, if a manager is able to foresee danger to any guest, then action is required to deal with that danger. The implication of this trend for the hotel sector needs to be examined. To this end a research study was carried out in Australia to examine the perceptions of hotel security of the mature hotel guest. Previous ResearchThere is a lack of research in the literature on the security perceptions and attitudes of mature hotel guests. Much of what has been written about is anecdotal, appearing in trade magazines. Typically, this material reviews new security products and is aimed at practising managers. To give direction to the present research, therefore, consideration was given to studies that have generally examined the security concerns of hotel guests.DiscussionThe ten most important areas of concern in the present study, as indicated by themean for each question and ranging from most to least important, were: emergency telephone number by bed; well-lit hotel corridors; door security chains; security liability insurance; bomb threat procedures; security personnel trained in unarmed defence; security officers having knowledge of civil and criminal law; closed circuit TV in hotel car parks; advising guests of criminal activity near hotel; and, control of access to guest areas. Ten least important areas were (from least important): plain clothes security officers carrying firearms; uniformed officers carrying firearms; the searching of guest’s luggage; carrying of handcuffs by security personnel; number of arrests and convictions by hotel security being an important indicator of effectiveness; electronic “sweeping”; guards controlling hotel entrances; security patrols by plain clothes security personnel; security patrols by uniformed security personnel; and, the need for female security officers. This later ranking is an interpretation placed on the data by the researchers, as respondents were merely asked to strongly agree, or otherwise, with statements about security.When the results of both studies are compared in Table V, agreement on the non deployment of armed hotel security personnel is clear. There was no support for this concept, as it received the lowest overall rating. Other responses are less easy to classify. The statement “When it comes to hotel security, prevention is better than cure”, which was included a s a check for consistency, received a mean score of 4.698 and rated a tied second place. This contrasts with the respondents’ perceptions on preventative security measures, for example uniformed security patrols. Only ten respondents agreed and twostrongly agreed with the need for security patrols.There is considerable clustering of the data that correspond to items 5, 10, 13, 17 and 22. These relate to security patrols by uniformed personnel, security departments that have a high level of detection are effective departments; carrying of handcuffs by security personnel; electronic sweeping to prevent eavesdropping; and a statement that says “the standard of security in hotels is adequate”. This would appear to indicate that a majority of the respondents were indifferent about these aspects of security. An inspection of the means and standard deviations of these items supports this contention.ConclusionThis research has indicated some areas that the industry may wish to consider for the development and adoption of standards of security. The provision of door security chains, ranked number 3 in Rutherford and McConnell’s research and number 4 in the present study illustrates this, and relates to the provision of reasonable care by the management of the hotel.It has been suggested that the concept of “reasonable care” should be the basis of all security policies[13]. This requirement is derived from common law, under whicha citizen may sue another individual or corporation. For a plaintiff to win a negligence case, four elements must be present. The first is duty; there is a duty on persons to exercise reasonable care in their dealings with other people. Second is a breach of that duty. The third is proximate cause; lack of reasonable care should be the primary reason for the plaintiff to bring a complaint. Finally, there is the matter of damages. The plaintiff should have incurred damages for which he or she is seeking recompense. It might be inferred from this that there is a duty on the hotel management, for example, to equip doors with security chains. It is the duty of the guest to use them to prevent intruders from entering the room.If the hotel does not equip guest rooms with this relatively inexpensive security precaution and the guest is subsequently robbed or harmed by an intruder, then it can be strongly argued that the hotel management did not exercise reasonable care by not providing a door chain. More importantly, was the fact that a chain was not provided the proximate cause of the guest being robbed? If this is the case then the hotel is liable. If courts subsequently find in favour of the guest then it may be argued that door security chains have become a de facto security requirement.A lack of agreed industry standards for security may lead to hotels having court mandated standards imposed upon them. These de facto standards may be at odds withthe level and types of security that this study appears to suggest is acceptable for an important part of the Australian hotel market. With the rising crime statistics management need to be aware of the possibility of unacceptable security requirements being imposed.These results have obvious implications for the management of security in hotels. There is a need for industry wide standards of security. Development of such standards is a significant feature of risk management and should be a high priority for the industry.酒店安全:成熟年龄市场的需求一、摘要犯罪率的上升更多地影响了社会上的部分人；旧社会的成员，特别容易受影响。
医学英语文献阅读二翻译
Unit OneText A： Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal1.Perhaps the most enduring --- certainly the most quoted --- tradition in thehistory of medicine is the Hippocratic Oath. Named after the famous Greek physicianHippocrates, this oath was written as a guideline for the medical ethics of doctors.Although the exact words have changed over time, the general content is the same- an oath to respect those who have imparted their knowledge upon the science ofmedicine, and respect to the patients as well as the promise to treat them to thebest of the physicians' ability.或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊著名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人，尊重病人，尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。
Who was Hippocrates, and Did he Write the Oath?2.For a man considered by many to be the 'Father of Medicine', little is known aboutHippocrates of Cos. He lived circa 460-380 BC, and was the contemporary of Socratesas well as a practising physician. He was certainly held to be the most famousphysician and teacher of medicine in his time. Over 60 treatises of medicine, calledthe Hippocratic Corpus have been attributed to him; however, these treatises hadconflicting contents and were written some time between 510 and 300 BC, and thereforecould not all have been written by him.作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最著名的医师和医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专著——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手.3.The Oath was named after Hippocrates, certainly, although its penmanship is stillin question. According to authorities in medical history, the contents of the oath suggest that it was penned during the 4th Century BC, whichmakes it possible that Hippocrates had himself written it. Anyway, regardless ofwhether or not Hippocrates himself had written the Hippocratic Oath, the contentsof the oath reflect his views on medical ethics.这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的，虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。
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信用合作社的会员增长，多个成员团体以及代理控制问题Keith J.Leggett，Robert W.Strand 美国银行家协会，美国，华盛顿特区20036-3902，北部康涅狄格大道11202001年8月30日接收摘要从1982开始，联邦信贷联盟监管机构允许信用合作社添加多个会员组。
该政策在1988年被美国最高法院驳回，但之后美国国会在晚些时候使其重新生效。
允许信用社附加多个会员组，大大促进了行业的快速发展。
为信用社增加无关的群体扩大，所有权和控制权的分离增加的前景，创造了潜在的代理控制问题。
这可能是由一信用合作社一人一票的治理结构形成的。
本研究发现的证据表明，由于信用社增加会员组和成员，代理问题才发展。
如果一个信用联盟，接纳多个会员组，当会员增加时，管理层显然是能够把剩余收益又会员（在净息差高的形式）向自己引导（更高的工资和运营费用）。
©2002爱思维尔科学公司版权所有。
JEL分类:G21；G28；G34关键词:信用联社；公司治理结构1.介绍Keith J.Leggett，Robert W.Strand/金融经济学回顾Ⅱ（2002）37-46信用合作社资产数据来源据国家信用合作社管理局在过去的二十年里，美国信用社行业又有飞速增长。
如图1所示，在这个时期行业资产年均增长近11%，大部分的增长可以归因于在1982年由美国国家信用合作社管理局（NCUA）的一个决定。
联邦政府特许的信用合作社的监管机构允许不同的会员团体加入。
在最高法院裁定NCUA多个集团政策违反了联邦信用社法案之后，国会于1998年考证了立法监管机构的行为。
最近发生的这些事情可能会影响管理者和信用合作社所有者之间的权力平衡。
不像其他存款金融机构（银行和储蓄机构），由于他们无需被征联邦所得税，信用合作社享受补贴收入。
管理者可能会充分利用统治结构请求更大份额的税务补贴。
信用社是免税的金融机构。
*联系人/：+1-202-663-5506；传真：+1-202-828-4547电子邮箱：****************(K.J.Leggett).在那里，输入的用户（储户）同时也是输出的用户（借款人）。
存款代表机构所有权股票；然而，不管股票/存款的持有数额，声明每个储户/股东只有一票投票权。
信用社会员团体数量规模的增长是否会增加信用社治理公司的顾虑值得探索。
公司管理继而成为了金融文献1的重点。
但是，合作互助机构（被会员和顾客合法拥有和控制）为了不引起注意，大部分工作还是由股东会处理。
本文增加了对合作机构的研究，特别是信用合作社。
此外，这项研究验证了一个机构的增长如何影响公司管理。
这项研究发现会员增长可以减少成员/顾客对公司的控制，允许管理层取得更多的收益。
因此看来，会员增长和联邦多群体政策能够培养信用社管理层的控制问题的能力。
2.文献综述对于为只自己利益而不为这些合作机构的成员/顾客的利益服务的行为范围，金融文献中已有了长期讨论。
由Fama和Jensen（1983a,b)撰写的开创性论文认为管理层的请求被合作股东的权力所限制，即使没有从事代理业务或要约收购。
（但是注意，自愿清算是少数选择）Kane和Hendershott（1996）认为信用合作社的会员资格和合作结构会鼓励管理层和会员一起遏制过度掌权问题。
另一方面，Rasmusen（1988）和Fama以及Jensen认为合作的成员/顾客不大可能像股东那样通过参与董事会会议或投票来左右管理层。
他们还认为，合作社的董事会不大可能被股东会监管或取代决策权。
Staatz（1987）提出了三个关于同一个合作机构中管理层和成员/顾客目标背离的理由：-管理过程不能被市场价值所监控，也不能被敌意收购所挑战。
-合作社在二级市场缺乏对成员/顾客能力的限制，使他们趋向于资产组合多元化的投资。
-只要成员/顾客积极参与该组织就能够请求索取剩余收益。
在最近的一些实证工作中，合作的信用机构管理层顾及自己利益的程度被列入考察范畴。
Mester（1991）发现互助储蓄机构的运作效率低于股东拥有的机构；她解释这个结果是带着私心经营的证据。
Stewart（1997）观察到相比互助储蓄银行，信用合作社存在更高的管理额外津贴。
最近的相关立法已经改变了信用社的整体环境，并且创造了扩展相关文献的需要。
直到20世纪80年代，任何一个信用社的会员都被组织用公共债券限制，会员们必须相互关联，如为同一雇主工作，属于同一个协会或居住在同一个社区。
1982年，NCUA开始允许信用合作社让没有关联的成员组成新的会员领域--创建多样化的公共债券信用合作社。
美国最高法院在1998年宣布这一政策非法。
1998年下旬，国会通过制定信贷工会成员访问法推翻了规定。
该法案允许联邦信用合作社添加无关联的成员直到到达3000人这个数值。
但是，当99%的雇员都是低于这个门槛时，这种限制实际上是无意义的（美国商务部，1997）。
如果在增加的成员不足以组成一个信用社的情况下，该法案还允许NCUA 同意参加这个信用社的人数超过3000人。
这项政策通过对其他独立团体的并购和合作促进了信用合作社会员的增长。
党信用合作社的人数由1982年的16594人下降到1999年的10628人，信用合作社的平均规模却是过去的四倍多，从1982年的81/2百万美元到1999年的39百万美元。
个别机构的增长多数是从信用合作社的额外无关的成员开始。
在1999年末期，有3192个联邦特许的有多样的组织宪章的信用合作社。
多年以前，Berle和Means（1932）假设所有权和控制权是分离的，共同管理将变得不那么有效。
目前的问题是：多样化的成员组合和额外的成员怎样影响信用合作社的公共管理怎样给予特殊的管理结构？最新的一些文献已经在研究这些问题了。
Johnson（1995）调查了犹他州受正式特许的信用合作社，发现对会员开放的信用合作社不大重视成员利益，并且比对会员封闭的信用合作社更没有效率。
Girton和Schmid（1998）发现当会员数量增加时，奥地利合作银行的绩效趋向恶化，并建议将所有权与控制权分离。
Leggett和Strand（1999）发现管理层通过增加信用合作社的会员数目为自己获利的证据。
1例如，Emmons和Schmid(1999),Gorton和Schmid(1998),Leggett和Strand(1999),及Valnek(1999).3.代理管理争端如果一个机构为了让所有者的利益最大化而不受管理，那么就会存在代理问题。
也就是说，如果剩余的收入不是单独分配到所有者的利益上，代理问题就会存在2。
对于信用合作社，剩余收入的语气受益者是储户/股东3。
在多数明确地为了满足会员需求而建立的信用合作社，还不是会员的借款人或者潜在储户被认为是合适的受益者，任何一位成员都可以参与。
另一方面，如果管理层在某种程度上通过给予公务员或其他雇员过多的利益来索取相当一部分剩余收益，那么就会有代理问题。
当信用合作社发展和会员增加时，潜在的代理问题有这样几个原因。
第一，规模发展鼓励了管理的职业化，可能疏远管理层与会员。
就在二十世纪七十年代，会员中的志愿者管理了多家信用合作社。
但是当机构通过增加成员不断扩大时，不从属于机构会员的全职管理者的需求变的旺盛。
根据最近的调查，拥有94%会员的64%的信用合作社现在雇用全职管理者（全国信用合作社协会，2001）。
第二，会员扩增的同时，会员/所有者可能对监察管理关心得更少。
信用合作社有独特的“一人一票”制度，每当有新会员加入时每位成员都会感到无能为力；许多会员不再行使他们自己的权利和监督管理层的责任。
根据最近的调查（国家信用合作社协会，1999），在董事会选举中，随着机构的扩大投票的参与率下降了。
特别是对于小型的信用合作社（低于200000美元资产），投票参与率为26.1%。
对于2亿美元到5亿美元资产的信用合作社，投票率跌到了6.2%的低水平。
调查表明单一债券信用合作社比起多组资产信用合作社拥有更高的投票率。
此外，管理层有动机去发展一个机构。
Rosend等信用合作社执行团体的通过调查发现首席执行官的报酬和信用合作社的资产，会员规模以及信贷资产规模之间有明显的正相关关系。
因此，公共债券限制的减少可能允许管理者从会员中分离出来。
这也会因为管理目的的分歧扩大而提高代理问题发生的几率。
4.假设信用社代理问题的缺失或存在显然是由于剩余收益的分配。
剩余收益可由储户和借款人/业主，和一些在高的存款利率和较低的借贷利率，换句话说，低净利率的一些组合形式的潜在成员。
另一方面，较高的净息差表明，剩余收益正在被避免分配给业主和潜在成员的管理。
更多直接对剩余价值管理链的证据在经营费用和工资中被可见。
管理可以转移剩余收益对自己增加工资或非金钱的费用（例如培训，工作条件，旅行等）。
为试验这样的分配，可以寻找高水平的直接雇员进行补偿或者把经常费用作为制度的平均资产，即提高效率。
总之，任何下列较高水平的变量表明了信用社代理问题的存在：（1）净利息率（2）相对于资产的雇员报酬（3）相对于资产的经营费用（4）对平均资产的回报。
问题是这些代理问题的症状变得更加明显，例如，信用社增加成员和员工群体。
5.数据表1统计资料的平均描述平均样品完整样品单一组多组2根据《帕尔格雷夫货币金融大辞典》，当负责人聘用一名经理人来执行特定的任务时代理问题就会出现，然而经理人与负责人目标不一致。
（Reichelstein,1992,p.23）3采用几个例子来考察出现代理问题的程度。
，概括地，这些例子可以分为：（1）储户和贷款人利益最大化（Smith,1984）,（2）效率最大化(Murray&White,1980),(3)成长最大化（Pearce ,1984）测试总量5822 2596 3226政府福利989 384 605制造业福利1494 681 813军事福利147 33 114服务业福利1246 504 742资产（单位：百万）$38.5 $18.4 $53.5*成员数7019 3053 9984*资本占资产14.0% 15.9% 12.5%*贷款/存款73.8% 72.1% 75%*平均资产回报率0.68% 0.67% 0.68%拖欠贷款占平均资产 1.36% 1.74% 1.08%*净息差 4.34% 4.35% 4.32%营业费用占平均资产 3.87% 3.69% 3.98%*工资和福利占平均资产 1.91% 1.82% 1.97%**统计不同于但一组0.1%的信心水平。
从1999年个人信用社的财务报告研究这些问题开始。
这份报告是由每个联邦保险的信用社每半年提供给NCUA，包括联邦政府特许和州，联邦保险机构等。
资料组被限制，为了分析员工群体的历练过程和增加数量的影响。