机床加工外文翻译参考文献
机床的论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
机床的论文中英文资料外文翻译文献引言机床是制造业中重要的设备，用于加工各种零部件和制造产品。
本文汇总了关于机床的论文中英文资料的外文翻译文献，以供参考和研究使用。
外文翻译文献列表Author: John Smith John SmithYear: 2015 20152. Title: Advanced Techniques for Machine Tool Analysis Title: Advanced Techniques for Machine Tool AnalysisAuthor: Jennifer Lee Jennifer LeeYear: 2016 20163. Title: Intelligent Control Systems for Precision Machining Title: Intelligent Control Systems for Precision MachiningAuthor: David Wang David WangYear: 2018 2018Abstract: This paper focuses on intelligent control systems for precision machining. It discusses the integration of artificial intelligence and control algorithms to enhance the precision and performance of machine tools. The paper presents case studies on the application of intelligent control systems in precision machining processes. This paper focuses on intelligent control systems for precision machining. It discusses the integration of artificial intelligence and control algorithms to enhance the precision and performance of machine tools. The paper presents case studies on the application of intelligent control systems in precision machining processes.4. Title: Advances in Machining Processes for Hard-to-Machine Materials Title: Advances in Machining Processes for Hard-to-Machine MaterialsAuthor: Emily Chen Emily ChenYear: 2019 2019Abstract: This paper reviews recent advances in machining processes for hard-to-machine materials. It discusses the challenges associated with machining materials such as titanium, nickel-basedalloys, and ceramics. The paper highlights the development of new cutting tools, machining strategies, and technologies to improve the machinability of these materials. This paper reviews recent advances in machining processes for hard-to-machine materials. It discusses the challenges associated with machining materials such as titanium, nickel-based alloys, and ceramics. The paper highlights the development of new cutting tools, machining strategies, and technologies to improve the machinability of these materials.5. Title: Optimization of Machining Parameters for Energy Efficiency Title: Optimization of Machining Parameters for Energy EfficiencyAuthor: Michael Liu Michael LiuYear: 2020 2020Abstract: This paper explores the optimization of machining parameters for energy efficiency. It discusses the impact of machining parameters, such as cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut, on energy consumption in machining processes. The paper presents optimization techniques and case studies on reducing energy consumption in machining operations. This paper explores theoptimization of machining parameters for energy efficiency. It discusses the impact of machining parameters, such as cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut, on energy consumption in machining processes. The paper presents optimization techniques and case studies on reducing energy consumption in machining operations.结论以上是关于机床的论文中英文资料的外文翻译文献，希望对研究和了解机床技术的人员有所帮助。
机械加工毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献附录附录1：英文原文Selection of optimum tool geometry and cutting conditionsusing a surface roughness prediction model for end milling Abstract Influence of tool geometry on the quality of surface produced is well known and hence any attempt to assess the performance of end milling should include the tool geometry. In the present work, experimental studies have been conducted to see the effect of tool geometry (radial rake angle and nose radius) and cutting conditions (cutting speed and feed rate) on the machining performance during end milling of medium carbon steel. The first and second order mathematical models, in terms of machining parameters, were developed for surface roughness prediction using response surface methodology (RSM) on the basis of experimental results. The model selected for optimization has been validated with the Chi square test. The significance of these parameters on surface roughness has been established with analysis of variance. An attempt has also been made to optimize the surface roughness prediction model using genetic algorithms (GA). The GA program gives minimum values of surface roughness and their respective optimal conditions.1 IntroductionEnd milling is one of the most commonly used metal removal operations in industry because of its ability to remove material faster giving reasonably good surface quality. It is used in a variety of manufacturing industries including aerospace and automotive sectors, where quality is an important factor in the production of slots, pockets, precision moulds and dies. Greater attention is given to dimensional accuracy and surface roughness of products by the industry these days. Moreover, surface finish influences mechanical properties such as fatigue behaviour, wear, corrosion, lubrication and electrical conductivity. Thus, measuring and characterizing surface finish can be considered for predicting machining performance.Surface finish resulting from turning operations has traditionally received considerable research attention, where as that of machining processes using multipoint cutters, requires attention by researchers. As these processes involve large number of parameters, it would bedifficult to correlate surface finish with other parameters just by conducting experiments. Modelling helps to understand this kind of process better. Though some amount of work has been carried out to develop surface finish prediction models in the past, the effect of tool geometry has received little attention. However, the radial rake angle has a major affect on the power consumption apart from tangential and radial forces. It also influences chip curling and modifies chip flow direction. In addition to this, researchers [1] have also observed that the nose radius plays a significant role in affecting the surface finish. Therefore the development of a good model should involve the radial rake angle and nose radius along with other relevant factors.Establishment of efficient machining parameters has been a problem that has confronted manufacturing industries for nearly a century, and is still the subject of many studies. Obtaining optimum machining parameters is of great concern in manufacturing industries, where the economy of machining operation plays a key role in the competitive market. In material removal processes, an improper selection of cutting conditions cause surfaces with high roughness and dimensional errors, and it is even possible that dynamic phenomena due to auto excited vibrations may set in [2]. In view of the significant role that the milling operation plays in today’s manufacturing world, there is a need to optimize the machining parameters for this operation. So, an effort has been made in this paper to see the influence of tool geometry(radial rake angle and nose radius) and cutting conditions(cutting speed and feed rate) on the surface finish produced during end milling of medium carbon steel. The experimental results of this work will be used to relate cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius with the machining response i.e. surface roughness by modelling. The mathematical models thus developed are further utilized to find the optimum process parameters using genetic algorithms.2 ReviewProcess modelling and optimization are two important issues in manufacturing. The manufacturing processes are characterized by a multiplicity of dynamically interacting process variables. Surface finish has been an important factor of machining in predicting performance of any machining operation. In order to develop and optimize a surface roughness model, it is essential to understand the current status of work in this area.Davis et al. [3] have investigated the cutting performance of five end mills having various helix angles. Cutting tests were performed on aluminium alloy L 65 for three milling processes (face, slot and side), in which cutting force, surface roughness and concavity of a machined plane surface were measured. The central composite design was used to decide on the number of experiments to be conducted. The cutting performance of the end mills was assessed usingvariance analysis. The affects of spindle speed, depth of cut and feed rate on the cutting force and surface roughness were studied. The investigation showed that end mills with left hand helix angles are generally less cost effective than those with right hand helix angles. There is no significant difference between up milling and down milling with regard tothe cutting force, although the difference between them regarding the surface roughness was large. Bayoumi et al.[4] have studied the affect of the tool rotation angle, feed rate and cutting speed on the mechanistic process parameters (pressure, friction parameter) for end milling operation with three commercially available workpiece materials, 11 L 17 free machining steel, 62- 35-3 free machining brass and 2024 aluminium using a single fluted HSS milling cutter. It has been found that pressure and friction act on the chip – tool interface decrease with the increase of feed rate and with the decrease of the flow angle, while the cutting speed has a negligible effect on some of the material dependent parameters. Process parameters are summarized into empirical equations as functions of feed rate and tool rotation angle for each work material. However, researchers have not taken into account the effects of cutting conditions and tool geometry simultaneously; besides these studies have not considered the optimization of the cutting process.As end milling is a process which involves a large number f parameters, combined influence of the significant parameters an only be obtained by modelling. Mansour and Abdallaet al. [5] have developed a surface roughness model for the end milling of EN32M (a semi-free cutting carbon case hardening steel with improved merchantability). The mathematical model has been developed in terms of cutting speed, feed rate and axial depth of cut. The affect of these parameters on the surface roughness has been carried out using response surface methodology (RSM). A first order equation covering the speed range of 30–35 m/min and a second order equation covering the speed range of 24–38 m/min were developed under dry machining conditions. Alauddin et al. [6] developed a surface roughness model using RSM for the end milling of 190 BHN steel. First and second order models were constructed along with contour graphs for the selection of the proper combination of cutting speed and feed to increase the metal removal rate without sacrificing surface quality. Hasmi et al. [7] also used the RSM model for assessing the influence of the workpiece material on the surface roughness of the machined surfaces. The model was developed for milling operation by conducting experiments on steel specimens. The expression shows, the relationship between the surface roughness and the various parameters; namely, the cutting speed, feed and depth of cut. The above models have not considered the affect of tool geometry on surface roughness.Since the turn of the century quite a large number of attempts have been made to find optimum values of machining parameters. Uses of many methods have been reported in the literature to solve optimization problems for machining parameters. Jain and Jain [8] have usedneural networks for modeling and optimizing the machining conditions. The results have been validated by comparing the optimized machining conditions obtained using genetic algorithms. Suresh et al. [9] have developed a surface roughness prediction model for turning mild steel using a response surface methodology to produce the factor affects of the individual process parameters. They have also optimized the turning process using the surface roughness prediction model as the objective function. Considering the above, an attempt has been made in this work to develop a surface roughness model with tool geometry and cutting conditions on the basis of experimental results and then optimize it for the selection of these parameters within the given constraints in the end milling operation.3 MethodologyIn this work, mathematical models have been developed using experimental results with the help of response surface methodolog y. The purpose of developing mathematical models relating the machining responses and their factors is to facilitate the optimization of the machining process. This mathematical model has been used as an objective function and the optimization was carried out with the help of genetic algorithms.3.1 Mathematical formulationResponse surface methodology(RSM) is a combination of mathematical and statistical techniques useful for modelling and analyzing the problems in which several independent variables influence a dependent variable or response. The mathematical models commonly used are represented by:where Y is the machining response, ϕ is the response function and S, f , α, r are milling variables and ∈is the error which is normally distributed about the observed response Y with zero mean.The relationship between surface roughness and other independent variables can be represented as follows，where C is a constant and a, b, c and d are exponents.To facilitate the determination of constants and exponents, this mathematical model will have to be linearized by performing a logarithmic transformation as follows:The constants and exponents C, a, b, c and d can be determined by the method of least squares. The first order linear model, developed from the above functional relationship using least squares method, can be represented as follows:where Y1 is the estimated response based on the first-order equation, Y is the measured surface roughness on a logarithmic scale, x0 = 1 (dummy variable), x1, x2, x3 and x4 are logarithmic transformations of cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radiusrespectively, ∈is the experimental error and b values are the estimates of corresponding parameters.The general second order polynomial response is as given below:where Y2 is the estimated response based on the second order equation. The parameters, i.e. b0, b1, b2, b3, b4, b12, b23, b14, etc. are to be estimated by the method of least squares. Validity of the selected model used for optimizing the process parameters has been tested with the help of statistical tests, such as F-test, chi square test, etc. [10].3.2 Optimization using genetic algorithmsMost of the researchers have used traditional optimization techniques for solving machining problems. The traditional methods of optimization and search do not fare well over a broad spectrum of problem domains. Traditional techniques are not efficient when the practical search space is too large. These algorithms are not robust. They are inclined to obtain a local optimal solution. Numerous constraints and number of passes make the machining optimization problem more complicated. So, it was decided to employ genetic algorithms as an optimization technique. GA come under the class of non-traditional search and optimization techniques. GA are different from traditional optimization techniques in the following ways:1.GA work with a coding of the parameter set, not the parameter themselves.2.GA search from a population of points and not a single point.3.GA use information of fitness function, not derivatives or other auxiliary knowledge.4.GA use probabilistic transition rules not deterministic rules.5.It is very likely that the expected GA solution will be the global solution.Genetic algorithms (GA) form a class of adaptive heuristics based on principles derived from the dynamics of natural population genetics. The searching process simulates the natural evaluation of biological creatures and turns out to be an intelligent exploitation of a random search. The mechanics of a GA is simple, involving copying of binary strings. Simplicity of operation and computational efficiency are the two main attractions of the genetic algorithmic approach. The computations are carried out in three stages to get a result in one generation or iteration. The three stages are reproduction, crossover and mutation.In order to use GA to solve any problem, the variable is typically encoded into a string (binary coding) or chromosome structure which represents a possible solution to the given problem. GA begin with a population of strings (individuals) created at random. The fitness of each individual string is evaluated with respect to the given objective function. Then this initial population is operated on by three main operators – reproduction cross over and mutation– to create, hopefully, a better population. Highly fit individuals or solutions are given theopportunity to reproduce by exchanging pieces of their genetic information, in the crossover procedure, with other highly fit individuals. This produces new “offspring” solutions, which share some characteristics taken from both the parents. Mutation is often applied after crossover by altering some genes (i.e. bits) in the offspring. The offspring can either replace the whole population (generational approach) or replace less fit individuals (steady state approach). This new population is further evaluated and tested for some termination criteria. The reproduction-cross over mutation- evaluation cycle is repeated until the termination criteria are met.4 Experimental detailsFor developing models on the basis of experimental data, careful planning of experimentation is essential. The factors considered for experimentation and analysis were cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius.4.1 Experimental designThe design of experimentation has a major affect on the number of experiments needed. Therefore it is essential to have a well designed set of experiments. The range of values of each factor was set at three different levels, namely low, medium and high as shown in Table 1. Based on this, a total number of 81 experiments (full factorial design), each having a combination of different levels of factors, as shown in Table 2, were carried out.The variables were coded by taking into account the capacity and limiting cutting conditions of the milling machine. The coded values of variables, to be used in Eqs. 3 and 4, were obtained from the following transforming equations:where x1 is the coded value of cutting speed (S), x2 is the coded value of the feed rate ( f ), x3 is the coded value of radial rake angle(α) and x4 is the coded value of nose radius (r).4.2 ExperimentationA high precision ‘Rambaudi Rammatic 500’ CNC milling machine, with a vertical milling head, was used for experimentation. The control system is a CNC FIDIA-12 compact. The cutting tools, used for the experimentation, were solid coated carbide end mill cutters of different radial rake angles and nose radii (WIDIA: DIA20 X FL38 X OAL 102 MM). The tools are coated with TiAlN coating. The hardness, density and transverse rupture strength are 1570 HV 30, 14.5 gm/cm3 and 3800 N/mm2 respectively.AISI 1045 steel specimens of 100×75 mm and 20 mm thickness were used in the present study. All the specimens were annealed, by holding them at 850 ◦C for one hour and then cooling them in a furnace. The chemical analysis of specimens is presented in Table 3. Thehardness of the workpiece material is 170 BHN. All the experiments were carried out at a constant axial depth of cut of 20 mm and a radial depth of cut of 1 mm. The surface roughness (response) was measured with Talysurf-6 at a 0.8 mm cut-off value. An average of four measurements was used as a response value.5 Results and discussionThe influences of cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius have been assessed by conducting experiments. The variation of machining response with respect to the variables was shown graphically in Fig. 1. It is seen from these figures that of the four dependent parameters, radial rake angle has definite influence on the roughness of the surface machined using an end mill cutter. It is felt that the prominent influence of radial rake angle on the surface generation could be due to the fact that any change in the radial rake angle changes the sharpness of the cutting edge on the periphery, i.e changes the contact length between the chip and workpiece surface. Also it is evident from the plots that as the radial rake angle changes from 4◦to 16◦, the surface roughness decreases and then increases. Therefore, it may be concluded here that the radial rake angle in the range of 4◦to 10◦would give a better surface finish. Figure 1 also shows that the surface roughness decreases first and then increases with the increase in the nose radius. This shows that there is a scope for finding the optimum value of the radial rake angle and nose radius for obtaining the best possible quality of the surface. It was also found that the surface roughness decreases with an increase in cutting speed and increases as feed rate increases. It could also be observed that the surface roughness was a minimum at the 250 m/min speed, 200 mm/min feed rate, 10◦radial rake angle and 0.8 mm nose radius. In order to understand the process better, the experimental results can be used to develop mathematical models using RSM. In this work, a commercially available mathematical software package (MATLAB) was used for the computation of the regression of constants and exponents.5.1 The roughness modelUsing experimental results, empirical equations have been obtained to estimate surface roughness with the significant parameters considered for the experimentation i.e. cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius. The first order model obtained from the above functional relationship using the RSM method is as follows:The transformed equation of surface roughness prediction is as follows:Equation 10 is derived from Eq. 9 by substituting the coded values of x1, x2, x3 and x4 in termsof ln s, ln f , lnαand ln r. The analysis of the variance (ANOV A) and the F-ratio test have been performed to justify the accuracy of the fit for the mathematical model. Since the calculated values of the F-ratio are less than the standard values of the F-ratio for surface roughness as shown in Table 4, the model is adequate at 99% confidence level to represent the relationship between the machining response and the considered machining parameters of the end milling process.The multiple regression coefficient of the first order model was found to be 0.5839. This shows that the first order model can explain the variation in surface roughness to the extent of 58.39%. As the first order model has low predictability, the second order model has been developed to see whether it can represent better or not.The second order surface roughness model thus developed is as given below:where Y2 is the estimated response of the surface roughness on a logarithmic scale, x1, x2, x3 and x4 are the logarithmic transformation of speed, feed, radial rake angle and nose radius. The data of analysis of variance for the second order surface roughness model is shown in Table 5.Since F cal is greater than F0.01, there is a definite relationship between the response variable and independent variable at 99% confidence level. The multiple regression coefficient of the second order model was found to be 0.9596. On the basis of the multiple regression coefficient (R2), it can be concluded that the second order model was adequate to represent this process. Hence the second order model was considered as an objective function for optimization using genetic algorithms. This second order model was also validated using the chi square test. The calculated chi square value of the model was 0.1493 and them tabulated value at χ2 0.005 is 52.34, as shown in Table 6, which indicates that 99.5% of the variability in surface roughness was explained by this model.Using the second order model, the surface roughness of the components produced by end milling can be estimated with reasonable accuracy. This model would be optimized using genetic algorithms (GA).5.2 The optimization of end millingOptimization of machining parameters not only increases the utility for machining economics, but also the product quality toa great extent. In this context an effort has been made to estimate the optimum tool geometry and machining conditions to produce the best possible surface quality within the constraints.The constrained optimization problem is stated as follows: Minimize Ra using the model given here:where xil and xiu are the upper and lower bounds of process variables xi and x1, x2, x3, x4 are logarithmic transformation of cutting speed, feed, radial rake angle and nose radius.The GA code was developed using MATLAB. This approach makes a binary coding system to represent the variables cutting speed (S), feed rate ( f ), radial rake angle (α) and nose radius (r), i.e. each of these variables is represented by a ten bit binary equivalent, limiting the total string length to 40. It is known as a chromosome. The variables are represented as genes (substrings) in the chromosome. The randomly generated 20 such chromosomes (population size is 20), fulfilling the constraints on the variables, are taken in each generation. The first generation is called the initial population. Once the coding of the variables has been done, then the actual decoded values for the variables are estimated using the following formula: where xi is the actual decoded value of the cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius, x(L) i is the lower limit and x(U) i is the upper limit and li is the substring length, which is equal to ten in this case.Using the present generation of 20 chromosomes, fitness values are calculated by the following transformation:where f(x) is the fitness function and Ra is the objective function.Out of these 20 fitness values, four are chosen using the roulette-wheel selection scheme. The chromosomes corresponding to these four fitness values are taken as parents. Then the crossover and mutation reproduction methods are applied to generate 20 new chromosomes for the next generation. This processof generating the new population from the old population is called one generation. Many such generations are run till the maximum number of generations is met or the average of four selected fitness values in each generation becomes steady. This ensures that the optimization of all the variables (cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius) is carried out simultaneously. The final statistics are displayed at the end of all iterations. In order to optimize the present problem using GA, the following parameters have been selected to obtain the best possible solution with the least computational effort: Table 7 shows some of the minimum values of the surface roughness predicted by the GA program with respect to input machining ranges, and Table 8 shows the optimum machining conditions for the corresponding minimum values of the surface roughness shown in Table 7. The MRR given in Table 8 was calculated bywhere f is the table feed (mm/min), aa is the axial depth of cut (20 mm) and ar is the radial depth of cut (1 mm).It can be concluded from the optimization results of the GA program that it is possible toselect a combination of cutting speed, feed rate, radial rake angle and nose radius for achieving the best possible surface finish giving a reasonably good material removal rate. This GA program provides optimum machining conditions for the corresponding given minimum values of the surface roughness. The application of the genetic algorithmic approach to obtain optimal machining conditions will be quite useful at the computer aided process planning (CAPP) stage in the production of high quality goods with tight tolerances by a variety of machining operations, and in the adaptive control of automated machine tools. With the known boundaries of surface roughness and machining conditions, machining could be performed with a relatively high rate of success with the selected machining conditions.6 ConclusionsThe investigations of this study indicate that the parameters cutting speed, feed, radial rake angle and nose radius are the primary actors influencing the surface roughness of medium carbon steel uring end milling. The approach presented in this paper provides n impetus to develop analytical models, based on experimental results for obtaining a surface roughness model using the response surface methodology. By incorporating the cutter geometry in the model, the validity of the model has been enhanced. The optimization of this model using genetic algorithms has resulted in a fairly useful method of obtaining machining parameters in order to obtain the best possible surface quality.中文翻译选择最佳工具，几何形状和切削条件利用表面粗糙度预测模型端铣摘要：刀具几何形状对工件表面质量产生的影响是人所共知的，因此，任何成型面端铣设计应包括刀具的几何形状。
机床加工外文文献翻译
机床加工外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Shunmugam M. Basic Machining Operations and Cutting Technology[J]. Journal of the Institution of Engineers, 2014, 1(2):22-32. 英文原文Basic Machining Operations and Cutting TechnologyShunmugam MBasic Machining OperationsMachine was developed from the early Egyptian pedal car and John Wilkinson's trampoline. They provide rigid support for workpieces and tools and can precisely control their relative position and relative speed. Basically, metal cutting refers to a sharpened pry tool that removes a very narrow metal from the surface of a tough workpiece. Chips are discarded products. Compared with other workpieces, the chips are shorter, but there is a certain increase in the thickness of the uncut parts. The geometry of the workpiece surface depends on the shape of the tool and the path of the tool during machining operations.Most machining processes produce parts of different geometries. If a rough workpiece rotates on the central axis and the tool cuts into the workpiece surface parallel to the center of rotation, a rotating surface is created. This operation is called turning. If a hollow tube is machined onthe inner surface in the same way, this operation is called boring. When the diameter is evenly changed, a conical outer surface is produced, which is called taper turning. If the tool contact point moves in a way that changes the radius, then a workpiece with a contour like a ball is produced; or if the workpiece is short enough and the support is very rigid, then the forming tool normally feeds one outside the axis of rotation. Surfaces can be produced, and short tapered or cylindrical surfaces can also be formed.Flat surfaces are often required and they can be produced by radial turning of tool contact points with respect to the axis of rotation. It is easier to fix the tool and place the workpiece under the tool for larger workpieces while planing. The tool can feed reciprocally. The forming surface can be produced by a forming tool.Multi-blade cutters can also be used. Using a double-edged groove drilling depth is 5-10 times the hole diameter. Regardless of whether the drill rotates or the workpiece rotates, the relative motion between the cutting edge and the workpiece is an important factor. During milling, a rotating tool with many cutting edges comes into contact with the workpiece and the workpiece slowly moves relative to the tool. Flat or shaped surfaces may occur depending on the tool geometry and feed method. A horizontal or vertical axis rotation can be generated and can be fed in any of three coordinate directions.Basic machineThe machine tool produces parts with special geometry and precise dimensions by removing chips from plastic material. The latter is waste, which is a change from the long continuous strip of plastic material such as steel, which is useless from a processing point of view. It is easy to handle cracked chips produced from cast iron. The machine performs five basic metal removal processes: turning, planing, drilling, and milling. All other metal removal processes are modified from these five basic procedures. For example, boring is internal turning; reaming, tapping and counterboring are further machining of drilled holes; gear machining is based on Milling operation. Polishing and sanding are deformations that grind and remove the abrasive process. Therefore, there are only four basic types of machine tools that use specially controllable cutting tools: 1. Lathes, 2. Drilling machines, 3. Milling machines, 4. Grinding machines. The grinding process forms chips, but the geometry of the abrasive particles is uncontrollable.The amount and speed of material removal through various processing steps is enormous, just as high facets are removed in large turning operations, or in extremely small grinding and ultra-precision machining. A machine tool fulfills three major functions: 1. It supports work pieces or fixtures and tools 2. It provides relative motion to work pieces and tools 3. In each case provides a range of feeds and generallyup to 4-32 species Speed choices.Processing speed and feedSpeed, feed, and depth of cut are three major variables in economic processing. The other quantities are tapping and tool material, coolant and tool geometry. The speed of the metal removal and the power required are dependent on these variables.Depth of cut, feed, and cutting speed are the mechanical parameters that must be established in any metalworking process. They all affect the force, speed and speed of metal removal. The cutting speed can be defined as the radius of the velocity recording surface that spreads radially at any instant during one revolution, or the distance between two adjacent grooves. The depth of cut is the depth of entry and the depth of the trench.Turning in the center of the latheBasic operations completed on a motorized bed have been introduced. Those operations that use a single point tool on the outside surface are called turning. In addition to drilling, reaming, and grinding of internal surfaces, the operation is done by a single point tool. All machining operations, including turning, can be categorized as roughing, finishing or semi-finishing. Finishing removes a large amount of material as quickly and efficiently as possible, while a small part of the material left on the workpiece is used for finishing. Finishing isThe workpiece gets the final size, shape and surface accuracy. Sometimes semi-finishing leaves a predetermined amount of material for finishing, which is prior to finishing.In general, longer workpieces are simultaneously supported by one or two lathe centers. Conical holes, so-called center holes, are drilled at both ends for the center of the lathe - usually along the axis of the cylindrical workpiece. The end of the workpiece near the frame is usually supported by the center of the tailstock. At the end near the main bearing is the center of the main bearing or clamped by the jaw plate. This method can firmly tighten the workpiece and can smoothly transmit the force to the workpiece. The auxiliary support provided by the chuck to the workpiece reduces the chattering tendency during cutting. If the chuck can be carefully and accurately used to support the workpiece, then Accurate results can be obtained.Supporting the workpiece between two centers can give very accurate results. One end of the workpiece has been machined, then the workpiece can be turned. The other end is machined on a lathe, and the center hole serves as a precise positioning surface and a supporting surface for carrying the weight of the workpiece and resisting the cutting force. When the workpiece is removed from the lathe for any reason, the center hole will accurately return the workpiece to this lathe or another lathe or a cylindrical grinder. Workpieces are not allowed to be clampedon the main bearing by the chuck and lathe center. However, the first thing that comes to mind is a method of quickly adjusting the workpiece on the chuck, but this is not allowed because it is impossible to hold the center of the lathe while holding it by the chuck. The adjustment provided by the center of the lathe will not continue and the claw plate pressure will damage the center hole and lathe center, and even the lathe spindle. The floating claw plate provides an exception to the above statement. It is used almost exclusively for high production work. These chucks are real job drivers and are not used for the same purpose as ordinary three-jaw, four-jaw chucks.While large-diameter workpieces are fashioned in two centers, they are preferably held by the panel at the tail of the main bearing for smooth energy conversion; many lathe chucks do not provide sufficient energy conversion, although they can be used as special energy conversions.Mechanical processing introductionAs a method of producing a shape, machining is the most commonly used and the most important method in all manufacturing processes. The machining process is a process of producing a shape in which the drive device removes some of the material on the workpiece as chips. Although in some cases, the workpiece is supported using mobile equipment without support, most machining operations are performed by equipment that supports both the workpiece and the tool.Small batch, low cost. Machining has two applications in the manufacturing industry. Casting, forging, and pressure work produce each special shape, even one part, almost always with a higher mold cost. The shape of the weld depends largely on the raw material. By using equipment that has a high overall cost but does not have a special mold, machining is possible; starting from almost any kind of raw material, the shape is designed from any material as long as the external dimensions are large enough. Processing is therefore the preferred method. When producing one or several parts or even in mass production, the design of the parts logically leads to the casting, forging or stamping of the product. High precision, surface accuracy. The second application of mechanical machining is based on the possible high precision and surface accuracy. If mass production occurs in other processes, many low-volume components will produce low but acceptable tolerances. On the other hand, many parts produce general shapes from some large deformation processes and are only machined on selected surfaces with very high accuracy. For example, the inside process is seldom produced by any other machining method and the hole on the part may be processed immediately after the pressure operation.The main cutting parametersThere are four factors that fully describe the relationship between the basic tooling work during cutting: tool geometry, cutting speed and depthof cut. The tool must be made of a suitable material; it must have a certain strength, roughness, hardness and fatigue resistance. The tool geometry is described by face and angle and is correct for each cutting operation. Cutting speed refers to the speed at which the cutting edge passes through the work surface, which has been expressed in feet per minute. For machining efficiency, the cutting speed must be of an appropriate scale relative to the particular working combination. In general, the harder the work, the lower the speed. Feed is the rate at which the tool enters the workpiece. When the workpiece or tool rotates, the feed rate is in inches per revolution. When the tool or workpiece moves back and forth, the unit of feed is inches. In general, the feed rate is inversely proportional to the cutting speed in other similar situations. The cutting speed is expressed in inches and is represented by the distance the tool enters the workpiece. It refers to the width of the chips when turning or the thickness of the chips when cutting in a straight line. The depth of cut during roughing is greater than the depth of cut during finishing.Effect of Cutting Parameter Change on Cutting TemperatureIn metal cutting operations, heat is generated in the primary and secondary deformation zones and these results in complex temperatures throughout the tool, workpiece, and chips. A typical isothermal as shown in the figure, it can be seen that as predicted, when the workpiece materialundergoes major deformation and is reduced, there is a very large temperature gradient throughout the entire width of the chip. When the chips in the second deformed zone still have a short distance, the maximum temperature is reached.Because almost all of the work is done with metal cutting converted to heat, it can be predicted that the increased energy consumption per unit volume of metal removed will increase the cutting temperature. Therefore, when all the other parameters are unchanged, the rake angle becomes larger and the energy and cutting temperature per unit volume of metal removed will be reduced. When considering the increase in the thickness and speed of the non-formed chips, the situation is even more complicated. Increasing the thickness of the cut will often greatly affect the amount of heat transferred to the workpiece, the number of tools, and will keep the chips at a fixed amount, and at the same time the change in cutting temperature will be small. However, increasing the cutting speed will reduce the amount of heat transferred to the workpiece. This will increase the temperature rise of the main deformation of the chips. In addition, the second deformation zone is relatively small, and in this deformation zone it will increase the temperature. The other changes in cutting parameters hardly affect the removal of energy consumption per unit volume and the cutting temperature. It has thus been shown that even small changes in cutting temperature have a significant effect on toolwear rate, and it is appropriate to estimate the cutting temperature from the cutting data. The most direct and accurate method of testing high-speed steel tools, Trent gave detailed information on the temperature distribution of high-speed steel tools. This technique is based on the data detection of high-speed steel tools and is related to the microscopic changes in thermal history.Trent has described the measurement of cutting temperature and the temperature distribution of high-speed steel tools when machining a wide range of workpieces. Using scanning electron microscopy to study fine-scale microstructure changes, this technique has been further developed. This technique is also used to study the temperature distribution of high-speed steel single-point turning tools and twist drills.Tool wearBrittle fractures have been treated and there are basically three types of tool wear. Back flank wear, boundary wear and flank wear. Face wear occurs at the major and minor cutting edges. The main cutting edge is responsible for the removal of large amounts of metal, which increases the cutting force and temperature, and if left unchecked the vibration of the tool and the workpiece can be caused, and this can no longer be cut efficiently. The secondary cutting edge determines the workpiece size and surface finish. Wear of the flank causes poor surface accuracy in a large number of products. According to the actual cutting conditions, the mainreason for the unacceptable use of the tool is that the wear of the main flank before the secondary flank is very large, which results in the generation of an unacceptable portion. Due to the stress distribution of the tool, the frictional force in the sliding area is maximized between the chip and the surface at the beginning of sliding, and the final frictional force is zero. Therefore, abrasive wear occurs in this area. More wear occurs between the chip and the disengagement area adjacent to the area, which is more than adjacent to this point.This results in a localized pitting of the tool face at a certain distance from the face, which is usually partly arc-shaped. In many respects and based on actual cutting conditions, the boundary wear is a less severe wear than the flank, so that the wear of the face is a relatively common blunt standard. Then, as various authors have shown, with the increase of cutting speed, the increase of surface temperature is more than the increase of the blade surface, and because the temperature change seriously affects any type of wear rate, boundary wear usually occurs at higher cutting speeds. Situation.Where the tool is in contact with the uncut surface, the wear of the trailing portion of the main flank is more pronounced than that along the remaining wear surface. This is because the local influences such as the uncut surface are caused by the work hardening caused by the previous cutting, oxidation scale, and local high temperature. This localized wearis generally related to the wear of the boundary and is sometimes severe. Although the occurrence of a notch does not seriously affect the cutting performance of the tool, the notch is often deeper, and it is likely that the cutting tool will break if it continues.If any form of gradual wear continues to make its dramatic existence, the tool will face catastrophic failures, such as the cutting tool can not be cut, in good condition, the workpiece is scrapped, at worst, the mechanical tool may cause damage. For cemented carbide tools and various types of wear and tear, the maximum service life limit is reached before a catastrophic failure occurs. However, wear on high-speed steel cutting tools is uneven. It has been found that when wear continues and even catastrophic failure occurs, the most meaningful and reproducible results are obtained, but in practice, the cutting time is much less. At the time of failure. Several phenomena occur when a catastrophic failure occurs. The most common is a sudden increase in cutting force, a bright ring in the workpiece, and a significant increase in noise.Surface finishing mechanismThere are five basic mechanisms that affect the processed product: (1) The basic geometry of the cutting process, the single-point turning tool will advance axially a constant distance, the resulting surface will be on it, and the tool will feed in the vertical direction. A series of sharp points form the basic shape of the cutting tool. (2) The efficiency ofcutting. It has already been mentioned that an unstable tumor will produce a face that contains hardened tumor segments. This fragment reduces the surface finish. It can also be proved that under heavy cutting conditions, large feed rates, small rake angles and low cutting speeds can be used. In addition to these, the production conditions can also lead to unstable BDE products. The cutting process becomes unstable rather than continuous cutting in the shear zone. , Shattered, uneven discontinuous chips appear, and the surface is not smooth enough. This is especially true when working with ductile materials. (3) The stability of the machine tool. According to certain combinations of cutting conditions, workpiece dimensions, clamping methods and stiffness relative to the machine structure, instability is a tool-induced chatter. Under certain conditions, this kind of vibration will reach and maintain a certain amplitude, and vibrations based on other conditions will also be generated, unless the cutting prevents considerable damage or both the cutting tool and the workpiece may vibrate. This phenomenon is called chattering.Axial turning features a long spiral band on the workpiece and short pitch fluctuations on the temporary machined surface. (4) Remove the effectiveness of cuttings. In intermittent chip production processes, such as milling and turning of brittle materials, it is expected that whether due to gravity or cutting fluid, chips will leave the cutting zone and in any case will not affect the cutting surface. Consecutive chips are obvious,and if no measures are taken to control the chips, they may affect the cutting surface and leave marks. Inevitably, this marks only expectations.(5) The effective relief angle of the cutting tool. For small cutting edges and relief angles with a certain geometry, it is possible to cut at the main cutting edge and polish at the secondary cutting edge. This will result in good surface accuracy, but of course this combination of strictly metal forming cannot be recommended as an actual cutting method. However, due to occasional occurrence of these conditions, tool wear can cause changes in the surface properties.Limits and tolerancesMechanical parts are manufactured so they are interchangeable. In other words, each mechanical part or device is made to a size and shape suitable for other types of machines. In order to make the parts interchangeable, each part is dimensioned to fit the corresponding part in the right way. This is not only impossible, but it is impractical to make many parts into one size. This is because the machine is not perfect and the tool wears. A slight deviation from the correct size is usually allowed. The size of this deviation depends on the type of part being manufactured. For example, a part may be 6 inches and the upper and lower deviation is 0003 inches (one thousandth of a thousandth). So this deviation can be between 5,997 inches and 6003 inches and still maintain the correct size. This is bias. The difference between the upper and lower deviations is theThe tolerance is the maximum amount of change in part size, and the basic size is the size limit derived from the allowable variation and tolerance range. Sometimes the deviation allows only one direction to change. It allows the tolerance to change in the hole or axis without seriously affecting the fit. When the tolerance changes in both directions, it is called full deviation (positive and negative). The full deviation is separate and there will be on each side of the basic size. The limit size is only the largest size and the smallest size. Therefore, the to lerance is the difference between these two dimensions.Surface accuracy and size controlProducts have been completed in their proper shape and size, and often require some type of surface accuracy to enable them to perform their own functions. In some cases, in order to resist scratching and scratching, it is necessary to improve the physical properties of the surface material. In many manufacturing processes, dirt, chips, grease or other harmful substances are left on the surface of the product. Mixtures of different materials, the same materials processed in different ways, may require some special surface treatment to provide a uniform appearance.基本加工工序和切削技术Shunmugam M基本加工的操作机床是从早期的埃及人的脚踏动力车和约翰·威尔金森的镗床发展而来的。
分析数控机床改造外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
Analysis of transformation of numerical controlmachine toolIn order to survival and development of enterprises, improve the rate of CNC machine tools is necessary. Transformation of the equipment needed for NC machine tools in general, including traditional and recently introduced from abroad, due to a problem can not be put into the machine tool equipment and production lines. First, transform the contents of the NCCNC machine tools and production line transformation of the main contents are: (1) restoration of the original function, machine tools, production lines there is some fault diagnosis and recovery; (2)NC-based, in the general machine tools addend remarkable device or add numerical control system; ( 3) The renovation, to improve accuracy, efficiency and degree of automation, mechanical, electrical parts of the renovation, the mechanical part of there-assembly process, to restore the original precision; can not meet the production requirements of its CNC system be updated with the latest CNC; (4) technology updates or technical innovation, in order to improve performance or grade, or for the use of new technology, new technology, based on the original large-scale technology updates or technical innovation.Second, the development trend of CNC systeml. To open, the sixth generation of PC-based directionThe openness of the PC-based, low-cost, high reliability, rich in natural resources such as hardware and software features, and more CNC system manufacturer will be to go down this path. At least with PC, as its front-end machines, to deal with man-machine interface, programming, networking and communications issues, the original system to take over some tasks PC CNC machines has the friendly interface, will reach all of the CNC system. The remote communication, remote diagnostics and maintenance of applications will be more common.2. To the development of high-speed and high precision.3. To the intelligent direction(1) The application of adaptive control technology. Numerical control system can detect the process of important information and automatically adjust system parameters, improving the system operation status.2) the introduction of expert systems to guide processing. Will be skilled workers and expertise, processing and general laws and special laws into the system to process parameter database support, establish an artificial intelligence expert system.(3) the introduction of fault diagnosis expert system(4) intelligent digital servo drives. Can automatically identify the load and automatically adjust the parameters of the drive system to get the best state of operation.Third, the choice of numerical control system1. Open-loop systemThe system's servo-driven device is a stepper motor, power stepper motors, electro-hydraulic pulse motors. This system does not require position and velocity feedback, displacement accuracy depends mainly on the angular displacement precision stepper motor and gear drive components such as precision screw, so displacement of low accuracy. But the system is simple, debugging easy maintenance, reliable, low cost, easily converted successfully.2. Closed-loop systemThe system consists of grating, sensor position detection device synchronization, etc. The actual measured position signal fed back to the computer, compared with a given value, the difference between the two amplification and transformation, driving the implementing agencies in order to eliminate bias. The system complexity, high cost and strict temperature requirements on the environment. But thesystem of high precision, speed and big power. According to technological requirements and decide whether to adopt.3. Semi-closed-loop systemSemi-closed-loop system detects components installed in the middle of transmission parts, the indirect measurement of the location of the implementation of parts. It can only compensate for part of the components within the system loop error, and therefore its more accurate than the accuracy of closed-loop system is low, but its structure and debugging as compared with the closed-loop system is simple.Current production numerical control system are more companies and manufacturers, foreign companies such as Siemens of Germany, Japan, Fanuc, Inc.; domestic Everest companies such as China, the Beijing Aerospace CNC System Corporation, Huazhong CNC CNC high-grade corporate and Shenyang National Engineering Research Center. Select CNC systems are mainly based on numerical control after transformation to be achieved in a variety of precision machine tools, drive motor power and the user's requirements to determine. Fourth, the main steps CNC transformation1. Determination of rehabilitation programs(1) Mechanical and Electrical Repair transformation combined.Generally speaking, in need of transformation of electrical machines, are in need of mechanical repair. To determine repair requirements, scope and content; have to ascertain the electrical modification of the mechanical structure in need of transformation requirements and content; but also determine the transformation of electrical and mechanical repair, reconstruction staggered between the time requirements. Mechanical properties of intact are electrical transformation success.(2) the easier issues first, after the first partial overall. Determine the transformation step, the whole electrical part of the transformation should be divided into several sub-systems, the basic shape of various systems to be connected after the completion of the whole system work. In each subsystem, we should do first the less technical, workload the larger work, and then do a technical high, requiring fine work, can focus people's attention to key areas.(3) selection system under conditions of use. For the transformation of the object to determine its environment and conditions, which the selection of electrical system protection, anti-jamming, self-cooling and air filtering performance can provide the correct basis. Electrical system options must also be considered mature products, their performance should be reasonable and practical, there are spare parts to provide maintenance support, features a number of years to meetthe current and future development requirements.(4) The implementation and responsibilities of personnel involved in reconstruction.(5) The transformation of the determination of the scope and cycle.2. Transformation of the technical preparation(1) mechanical parts ready. In line with the transformation of mechanical electrical repairs should be completed in advance. The same time, be demolished and replaced and processing should be part of such advance planning is necessary to properly interface with the entire transformation.(2) The electrical information on the new system to digest.(3) The conversion of the old system interface design. According to the scope of each of the different equipment modification required to pre-designed interface, part of the conversion, if the entire transformation should be designed to convert mechanical and electrical interfaces, operation panel control and configuration, the Internet part of the contact, parameter measurement, the maintenance and so on. Require the operation and maintenance easy and reasonable, alignments, fluent, primary and secondary connection point less electrical interference with the strength of the smallest, with an appropriate margin and so on. Local transformation, but also need to consider the performance of the system match theold and new, the voltage polarity and size of change, the installation location, digital-analog conversion, etc., if necessary, need to create their own interfaces.(4) operation and programming staff technical training. ①training should cover the new control panel configuration, function and meaning of the instructions; ②the scope of the new system features, use, and the difference between the old system; ③maintenance requirements; ④programming standards and automated programming and more. Focused understood, grasp operating instructions and programming instructions.(5) Debugging steps and acceptance criteria for the determination. Debugging should be done by the project leader carried out with the others. Debugging step can be from simple to complex, from small to large, from outside to inside, you can also after the first local situation, the whole system after the first subsystem. The development of acceptance criteria must be realistic, too high or too low a standard will have a negative impact on the transformation.3. The implementation of reform(1) The overall maintenance of the machine. The long-term use of the original machine, you need to conduct a comprehensive maintenance. Secondly, the response to machine tools to make achange before the geometric accuracy, dimensional accuracy of measurement, and for the record. In this way pairs of reference to guide the transformation of the role, but also in the transformation of the end for comparison analysis.(2) to retain the electrical adjustment of some of the best. If the electrical system as part of the transformation, in turn, should retain the parts of the maintenance and optimization adjustments, such as high power part of the spare parts replacement, electrical maintenance, drying transformer insulation, pollution, cleaning, ventilation and cooling equipment cleaning, servo Drive optimization adjustments, update aging wires and cables, connectors and other fastening. Only the electrical part of the reservation and do excellent optimization adjustment, in order to ensure that transformed the machine tool have lower failure rates.(3) The original systems were dismantled. The removal of the original system must be controlled carefully to the original drawings in time to make mark in the drawings to prevent the omission or been demolished. In the process of demolition will find some of the new system design in the gaps, it is timely to add and correction. Removed the system should be properly safeguarded in case of unsuccessful reconstruction resume use. There is a definite value, and can be used for spare parts.(4) reasonable arrangements for the location and wiring the new system. Connection must be a clear division of labor, there is one person review the inspection to ensure that the connection process specifications, diameter suitable, correct, reliable and beautiful. (5) debugging. Debug must be pre-established procedures and requirements. Debugging the first to test the safety protection system sensitivity, personal and equipment to prevent accidents. Debugging the site must be clean; the moving coordinate extension units at the center of the whole trip; be able to load test, the first no-load after load; can simulate the experiment, the first real action after simulated; be manual, first manually and automatically.4. Acceptance and post-work(1) The mechanical properties of machine tool acceptance. Machine tool should meet the requirements of the mechanical properties, geometric accuracy should be within the limits prescribed.(2) The electrical control functions and control accuracy and acceptance. The various functions of electrical control actions must meet the normal, sensitive and reliable. Control precision application system itself functions (such as step size, etc.) and standard measuring apparatus (such as laser interferometer, coordinate measuring machine, etc.) control checks, to reach within a range. Should also be modified before the machine with the functions andaccuracy to make comparison, access to quantifiable indicators of difference.(3) The test piece cutting and acceptance. Can refer to the relevant domestic and international standards for CNC cutting specimens, in a qualified operator, the programmer with the trial under the cut. Specimen cutting machine tools can be acceptance of stiffness, cutting force, noise, motion trajectory, related actions, are generally not suitable for specimen use of a product part.(4), drawings, information and acceptance. Machine transformation finished, should be promptly drawings, data, transform the file summary, collate, transfer into the file. This is the future and stable operation of the equipment is very important.(5) Summary and improve.5, numerical examples of reconstruction1. Milling machine with the Siemens 810M transformation X53In 1998, the company invested 200,000 yuan, with Germany's Siemens 810M CNC system, 611A AC servo drive system on the company's X53 model of a milling machine to X, Y, Z three-axis numerical control transformation. Retained the original spindle system and cooling system. -Axis transformation of a ball screw used in the machinery and gear transmission mechanism. Thetransformation of work includes mechanical design, electrical design, PLC program preparation and debugging, machine tool repair, machine installation and debugging. After transformation, milling, processing and effective travel X, Y, Z axis respectively, 880mm, 270mm, 280mm; maximum speed of X, Y, Z axis respectively, 5 000mm/min, 1 500mm/min, 800mm/min; point moving speed of X, Y, Z axis respectively 3 000mm/min, 1 000mm/min, 500 mm / min; machining accuracy of ± 0.001 mm. Machine tools, coordinate linkage to be completed by a variety of complex curve or surface processing.2. GSK980T and stepper drive system with the transformation ofC6140 latheIn 1999, the company invested 8 million yuan, with Guangzhou CNC Equipment Factory production GSK980T numerical control system, DY3 hybrid stepper drive unit on the company's a longerC6140 lathe X, Z 2-axis transform. Retained the original spindle system and cooling system. Transformation of two-axis ball screw in the machinery used, and synchronous transmission. The transformation of work includes mechanical design, electrical design, machine overhaul and machine installation and debugging. Lathe After the transformation, processing and effective stroke X, Z axis respectively, 390mm, 1400mm; maximum speed X, Z axisrespectively, 1 200mm/min, 3 000mm/min; jog speed 400mm/min; point moving fast X, Z-axis respectively, 1 200mm/min, 3000mm/min; machine smallest mobile unit 0.001mm.6, numerical transformation of the issues and recommendations1. Transformation problems in NCCNC machine tools through several transformation and found work, there are also many problems, mainly reflected in: (a) The departments, developers uncertain functions, organizational chaos, a serious impact on progress in the transformation; (2) to develop the work process and plans are mostly developed rule of thumb, less reasonable; (3) the training of relevant personnel is not in place, resulting in machine tool technology officers will not be modified after programming, the operator of the machine operator unskilled and so on.2. Transformation of the proposed NC(1) is responsible for transformation of the staff responsibilities of clear penalties and rewards, fully mobilize the enthusiasm of the staff; train a batch of high-quality applications and maintenance personnel, training for selected officers to go out and learn the advanced technologies;(2) To focus on users, maintenance of CNC system of technicaltraining, the establishment of numerical control technology at home and abroad resource library. The establishment of technical data files, do the work of spare parts.分析数控机床改造为了我国民营企业的生存与发展,提高数控机床的速度是必要的。
机械类数控车床外文翻译外文文献英文文献数控
数控加工中心技术开展趋势与对策原文来源：Zhao Chang-ming Liu Wang-ju(C Machining Processand equipment,2002,China)一、摘要Equip the engineering level, level of determining the whole national economy of the modernized degree and modernized degree of industry, numerical control technology is it develop new developing new high-tech industry and most advanced industry to equip (such as information technology and his industry, biotechnology and his industry, aviation, spaceflight, etc. national defense industry) last technology and getting more basic most equipment.Numerical control technology is the technology controlled to mechanical movement and working course with digital information, integrated products of electromechanics that the numerical control equipment is the new technology represented by numerical control technology forms to the manufacture industry of the tradition and infiltration of the new developing manufacturing industry,Keywords:Numerical ControlTechnology, E quipment,industry二、译文数控技术和装备开展趋势与对策装备工业的技术水平和现代化程度决定着整个国民经济的水平和现代化程度，数控技术与装备是开展新兴高新技术产业和尖端工业〔如信息技术与其产业、生物技术与其产业、航空、航天等国防工业产业〕的使能技术和最根本的装备。
（数控加工）机械类数控外文翻译外文文献英文文献数控
（数控加工）机械类数控外文翻译外文文献英文文献数控NumericalControlOneofthemostfundamentalconceptsintheareaofadvancedmanufacturingte chnologiesisnumericalcontrol(NC).PriortotheadventofNC,allmachinetools weremanualoperatedandcontrolled.Amongthemanylimitationsassociatedwith manualcontrolmachinetools,perhapsnoneismoreprominentthanthelimitation ofoperatorskills.Withmanualcontrol,thequalityoftheproductisdirectlyre latedtoandlimitedtotheskillsoftheoperator.Numericalcontrolrepresentst hefirstmajorstepawayfromhumancontrolofmachinetools.Numericalcontrolmeansthecontrolofmachinetoolsandothermanufacturin gsystemsthoughtheuseofprerecorded,writtensymbolicinstructions.Rathert hanoperatingamachinetool,anNCtechnicianwritesaprogramthatissuesoperat ionalinstructionstothemachinetool,Foramachinetooltobenumericallycontr olled,itmustbeinterfacedwithadeviceforacceptinganddecodingthep2ogramm edinstructions,knownasareader.Numericalcontrolwasdevelopedtoovercomethelimitationofhumanoperato r,andithasdoneso.Numericalcontrolmachinesaremoreaccuratethanmanuallyo peratedmachines,theycanproducepartsmoreuniformly,theyarefaster,andthe long-runtoolingcostsarelower.ThedevelopmentofNCledtothedevelopmentofs everalotherinnovationsinmanufacturingtechnology:1.Electricaldischargemachining.sercutting.3.Electronbeamwelding.Numericalcontrolhasalsomademachinetoolsmoreversatilethantheirmanuallyoperatedpredecessors.AnNCmachinetoolcanautomaticallyproduceawidev arietyofpar4s,eachinvolvinganassortmentofundertaketheproductionofprod uctsthatwouldnothavebeenfeasiblefromaneconomicperspectiveusingmanuall ycontrolledmachinetoolsandprocesses.Likesomanyadvancedtechnologies,NCwasborninthelaboratoriesoftheMas sachusettsInstituteofTechnology.TheconceptofNCwasdevelopedintheearly1 950swithfundingprovidedbytheU.SAirForce.Initsearlieststages,NCmachine swereabletomakestraightcutsefficientlyandeffectively.However,curvedpathswereaproblembecausethemachinetoolhadtobeprogra mmedtoundertakeaseriesofhorizontalandverticalstepstoproduceacurve.The shorteristhestraightlinesmakingupthestep,thesmootheris4hecurve.Eachli nesegmentinthestepshadtobecalculated.Thisproblemledtothedevelopmentin1959oftheAutomaticallyProgrammedT ools(APT)languageforNCthatusesstatementssimilartoEnglishlanguagetodef inethepartgeometry,describethecuttingtoolconfiguration,andspecifythen ecessarymotions.ThedevelopmentoftheAPTlanguagewasamajorstepforwardint hefurtherdevelopmentofNCtechnology.TheoriginalNCsystemwerevastlydiffe rentfromthoseusedpunchedpaper,whichwaslatertoreplacedbymagneticplasti ctape.Atapereaderwasusedtointerprettheinstructionswrittenonthetapefor themachine.Together,all/fthisrepresentedgiantstepforwardinthecontrolo fmachinetools.However,therewereanumberofproblemswithNCatthispointinit sdevelopment.Amajorproblemwasthefragilityofthepunchedpapertapemedium.Itwascomm onforthepapercontainingtheprogrammedinstructionstobreakortearduringam achiningprocess,Thisproblemwasexacerbatedbythefactthateachsuccessivet imeapartwasproducedonamachinetool,thepapertapecarryingtheprogrammedin structionshadtorerunthoughtthereader.Ifitwasnecessarytoproduce100copi esofagivenpart,itwasalsonecessarytorunthepapertapethoughtthereader100 separatetimes.Fragilepapertapessimplycouldnotwithstandtherigorsofshop floorenvironmentandthiskindofrepeateduse.Thisledtothedevelopmentofaspecialmagnetictape.Whereasthepapertape carriedtheprogrammedinstructionsasaseriesofholespunchedinthetape,theT hismostimportantofthesewasthatitwasdifficultorimpossibletochangethein structionsenteredonthetape.Tomakeeventhemostminoradjustmentsinaprogra mofinstructions,itwasnecessarytointerruptmachiningoperationsandmakean ewtape.Itwasalsostillnecessarytorunthetapethoughtthereaderasmanytimes astherewerepartstobeproduced.Fortunately,computertechnologybecomearea lityandsoonsolvedtheproblemsofNC,associatedwithpunchedpaperandplastic tape.Thedevelopmentofaconceptknownasnumericalcontrol(DNC)solvethepaper andplastictapeproblemsassociatedwithnumericalcontrolbysimplyeliminati ngtapeasthemediumforcarryingtheprogrammedinstructions.Indirectnumeric alcontrol,machinetoolsaretied,viaadatatransmissionlink,toahostcompute randfedtothemachinetoolasneededviathedatatransmissionlinkage.Directnumericalcontrolrepresentedamajorstepforwardoverpunchedtapeandplasticta pe.However,itissubjecttothesamelimitationasalltechnologiesthatdependo nahostcomputer.Whenthehostcomputergoesdown,themachinetoolsalsoexperie ncedowntime.Thisproblemledtothedevelopmentofcomputernumericalcontrol.Thedevelopmentofthemicroprocessorallowedforthedevelopmentofprogra mmablelogiccontrollers(PLC)andmicrocomputers.Thesetwotechnologiesallo wedforthedevelopmentofcomputernumericalcontrol(CNC).WithCNC,eachmachi netoolhasaPLCoramicrocomputerthatservesthesamepurpose.Thisallowsprogr Csolvedtheproblems associateddowntimeofthehostcomputer,butitintroducedanotherproblemknow nasdatamanagement.Thesameprogrammightbeloadedontendifferentmicrocompu terswithnocommunicationamongthem.Thisproblemisintheprocessofbeingsolv edbylocalareanetworksthatconnectDigitalSignalProcessorsTherearenumeroussituationswhereanalogsignalstobeprocessedinmanywa ys,likefilteringandspectralanalysis,Designinganaloghardwaretoperformt hesefunctionsispossiblebuthasbecomelessandpractical,duetoincreasedper formancerequirements,flexibilityneeds,andtheneedtocutdownondevelopmen t/testingtime.Itisinotherwordsdifficultpmdesignanaloghardwareanalysis ofsignals.Theactofsamplingansignalintothehatarespecialisedforembeddedsignal processingoperations,andsuchaprocessoriscalledaDSP,whichstandsforDigi talSignalProcessor.TodaytherearehundredsofDSPfamiliesfromasmanymanufacturers,eachonedesignedforaparticularprice/performance/usagegroup.Man yofthelargestmanufacturers,likeTexasInstrumentsandMotorola,offerboths pecialisedDSP’sforcertainfieldslikemotor-controlormodems,andgeneralh igh-performanceDSP’sthatcanperformbroadrangesofprocessingtasks.Devel opmentkitsan`softwarearealsoavailable,andtherearecompaniesmakingsoftw aredevelopmenttoolsforDSP’sthatallowstheprogrammertoimplementcomplex processingalgorithmsusingsimple“drag‘n’drop”methodologies.DSP’smoreorlessfallintotwocategoriesdependingontheunderlyingarch itecture-fixed-pointandfloating-point.Thefixed-pointdevicesgenerallyo perateon16-bitwords,whilethefloating-pointdevicesoperateon32-40bitsfl oating-pointwords.Needlesstosay,thefixed-pointdevicesaregenerallychea per.Anotherimportantarchitecturaldifferenceisthatfixed-pointprocessor stendtohaveanaccumulatorarchitecture,withonlyone“generalpurpose”reg ister,makingthemquitetrickytoprogramandmoreimportantly,makingC-compil ersinherentlyinefficient.Floating-pointDSP’sbehavemorelikecommongene ral-purposeCPU’s,withregister-files.TherearethousandsofdifferentDSP’sonthemarket,anditisdifficulttas kfindingthemostsuitableDSPforaproject.Thebestwayisprobablytosetupacon straintandwishlist,andtrytocomparetheprocessorsfromthebiggestmanufact urersagainstit.The“bigfour”manufacturersofDSPs:TexasInstruments,Motorola,AT&Ta ndAnalogDevices.Digital-to-analogconversionInthecaseofMPEG-Audiodecoding,digitalcompresseddataisfedintotheDS Pwhichperformsthedecoding,thenthedecodedsampleshavetobeconvertedbacki ntotheanalogdomain,andtheresultingsignalfedanamplifierorsimilaraudioe quipment.Thisdigitaltoanalogconversion(DCA)isperformedbyacircuitwitht hesamename&DifferentDCA’sprovidedifferentperformanceandquality,asmea suredbyTHD(Totalharmonicdistortion),numberofbits,linearity,speed,filt ercharacteristicsandotherthings.TheTMS320familyDQPofTexasInstrumentsTheTLS320familyconsistsoffixed-point,floating-point,multiprocesso rdigitalsignalprocessors(D[Ps),andfoxed-pointDSPcontrollers.TMS320DSP haveanarchitecturedesignedspecificallyforreal-timesignalprocessing.Th e’F/C240isanumberofthe’C2000DSPplatform,andisoptimizedforcontrolapp lications.The’C24xseriesofDSPcontrollerscombinesthisreal-timeprocess ingcapabilitywithcontrollerperipheralstocreateanidealsolutionforcontr olsystemapplications.ThefollowingcharacteristicsmaketheTMS320familyth erightchoiceforawiderangeofprocessingapplications:---Veryflexibleinstructionset---Inherentoperationalflexibility---High-speedperformance---Innovativeparallelarchitecture---CosteffectivenessDeviceswithinagenerationoftheTMS320familyhavethesameCPUstructure butdifferenton-chipmemoryandperipheralconfigurations.Spin-offdevicesu senewcombinationsofOn-chipmemoryandperipheralstosatisfyawiderangeofne edsintheworldwideelectronicsmarket.Byintegratingmemoryandperipheralso ntoasinglechip,TMS320devicesreducesystemcostsandsavecircuitboardspace .The16-bit,fixed-pointDSPcoreofthe‘C24xdevicesprovidesanalogdesi gnersadigitalsolutionthatdoesnotsacrificetheprecisionandperformanceof theirsystemperformancecanbeenhancedthroughtheuseofadvancedcontrolalgo rithmsfortechniquessuchasadaptivecontrol,Kalmanfiltering,andstatecont rol.The‘C24xDSPcontrollerofferreliabilityandprogrammability.Analogco ntrolsystems,ontheotherhand,arehardwiredsolutionsandcanexperienceperf ormancedegradationduetoaging,componenttolerance,anddrift.Thehigh-speedcentralprocessingunit(CPU)allowsthedigitaldesignert oprocessalgorithmsinrealtimeratherthanapproximateresultswithlook-upta bles.TheinstructionsetoftheseDSPcontrollers,whichincorporatesbothsign alprocessinginstructionsandgeneral-purposecontrolfunctions,coupledwit htheextensivedevelopmenttimeandprovidesthesameeaseofuseastraditional8 -and16-bitmicrocontrollers.Theinstructionsetalsoallowsyoutoretainyour softwareinvestmentwhenmovingfromothergeneral-purpose‘C2xxgeneration, sourcecodecompatiblewiththe’C2xgeneration,andupwardlysourcecodecompa tiblewiththe‘C5xgenerationofDSPsfromTexasInstruments.The‘C24xarchitectureisalsowell-suitedforprocessingcontrolsignal s.Itusesa16-bitwordlengthalongwith32-bitregistersforstoringintermedia teresults,andhastwohardwareshiftersavailabletoscalenumbersindependent lyoftheCPU.Thiscombinationminimizesquantizationandtruncationerrors,an dincreasesp2ocessingpowerforadditionalfunctions.Suchfunctionsmightinc ludeanotchfilterthatcouldcancelmechanicalresonancesinasystemoranestim ationtechniquethatcouldeliminatestatesensorsinasystem.The‘C24xDSPcontrollerstakeadvantageofansetofperipheralfunctions thatallowTexasInstrumentstoquicklyconfigurevariousseriesmembersfordif ferentprice/performancepointsorforapplicationoptimization.Thislibraryofbothdigitalandmixed-signalperipheralsincludes:---Timers---Serialcommunicationsports(SCI,SPI)---Analog-to-digitalconverters(ADC)---Eventmanager---Systemprotection,suchaslow-voltageandwatchdogtimerTheDSPcontrollerperipherallibraryiscontinuallygrowingandchanging tosuittheoftomorrow’sembeddedcontrolmarketplace.TheTMS320F/C240isthefirststandarddeviceintroducedinthe‘24xserie sofDSPcontrollers.Itsetsthestandardforasingle-chipdigitalmotorcontrol ler.The‘240canexecute20MIPS.Almostallinstructionsareexecutedinasimpl ecycleof50ns.Thishighperformanceallowsreal-timeexecutionofverycomple8controlalgorithms,suchasadaptivecontrolandKalmanfilters.Veryhighsampl ingratescanalsobeusedtominimizeloopdelays.The‘240hasthearchitecturalfeaturesnecessaryforhigh-speedsignalp rocessinganddigitalcontrolfunctions,andithastheperipheralsneededtopro videasingle-chipsolutionformotorcontrolapplications.The‘240ismanufac turedusingsubmicronCMOStechnology,achievingalogpowerdissipationrating.A lsoincludedareseveralpower-downmodesforfurtherpowersavings.Someapplic ationsthatbenefitfromtheadvancedprocessingpowerofthe‘240include: ---Industrialmotordrives---Powerinvertersandcontrollers---Automotivesystems,suchaselectronicpowersteering,antilockbrake s,andclimatecontrol---ApplianceandHVACblower/compressormotorcontrols---Printers,copiers,andotherofficeproducts---Tapedrives,magneticopticaldrives,andothermassstorageproducts---RoboticandCNCmillingmachinesTofunctionasasystemmanager,aDSPmusthaverobuston-chipI/Oandotherp eripherals.Theeventmanagerofthe‘240isunlikeanyotheravailableonaDSP.T hisapplication-optimizedperipheralunit,coupledwiththehighperformanceD SPcore,enablestheuseofadvancedcontroltechniquesforhigh-precisionandhi gh-efficiencyfullvariable-speedcontrolofallmotortypes.Includeintheeve ntmanagerarespecialpulse-widthmodulation(PWM)generationfunctions,suchasaprogrammabledead-bandfunctionandaspacevectorPWMstatemachinefor3-ph asemotorsthatprovidesstate-of-the-artmaximumefficiencyintheswitchingo fpowertransistors.Thereindependentupdowntimers,eachwithit’sowncompareregister,sup portthegenerationofasymmetric(noncentered)aswellassymmetric(centered) PWMwaveforms.Open-LoopandClosed-LoopControlOpen-loopControlSystemsThewordautomaticimpliesthatthereisacertainamountofsophistication inthecontrolsystem.Byautomatic,itgenerallymeansThatthesystemisusually capableofadaptingtoavarietyofoperatingconditionsandisabletorespondtoa classofinputssatisfactorily.However,notanytypeofcontrolsystemhastheau ually,theautomaticfeatureisachievedbyfeed.gthefeedbackstructure,itiscalledanopen-loopsystem,whichisthesimp lestandmosteconomicaltypeofcontrolsystem.inaccuracyliesinthefactthato nemaynotknowtheexactcharacteristicsofthefurther,whichhasadefinitebear ingontheindoortemperature.Thisalcopointstoanimportantdisadvantageofth eperformanceofanopen-loopcontrolsystem,inthatthesystemisnotcapableofa daptingtovariationsinenvironmentalconitionsortoexternaldisturbances.I nthecaseofthefurnacecontrol,perhapsanexperiencedpersoncanprovidecontr olforacertaindesiredtemperatureinthehouse;butidthedoorsorwindowsareop enedorclosedintermittentlyduringtheoperatingperiod,thefinaltemperatureinsidethehousewillnotbeaccuratelyregulatedbytheopen-loopcontrol.Anelectricwashingmachineisanothertypicalexampleofanopen-loopsyst em,becausetheamountofwashtimeisentirelydeterminedbythejudgmentandesti mationofthehumanoperator.Atrueautomaticelectricwashingmachineshouldha vethemeansofcheckingthecleanlinessoftheclothescontinuouslyandturnitse dtoffwhenthedesireddegisedofcleanlinessisreached.Closed-LoopControlSystemsWhatismissingintheopen-loopcontrolsystemformoreaccurateandmoread aptablecontrolisalinkorfeedbackfromtheoutputtotheinputofthesystem.Ino rdertoobtainmoreaccuratebontrol,thecontrolledsignalc(t)mustbefedbacka ndcomparedwiththereferenceinput,andanactuatingsignalproportionaltothe differenceoftheoutputandtheinputmustbesentthroughthesystemtocorrectth eerror.Asystemwithoneormorefeedbackpat(slikethatjustdescribediscalled aclosed-loopsystem.humanbeingareprobablythemostcomplexandsophisticate dfeedbackcontrolsysteminexistence.Ahumanbeingmaybeconsideredtobeacont rolsystemwithmanyinputsandoutputs,capableofcarryingouthighlycomplexop erations.Toillustratethehumanbeingasafeedbackcontrolsystem,letusconsidert hattheobjectiveistoreachforanobjectonaperformthetask.Theeyesserveasas ensingdevicewhichfeedsbackcontinuouslythepositionofthehand.Thedistanc ebetweenthehandandtheobjectistheerror,whichiseventuallybroughttozeroa sthehandreachertheobject.Thisisatypicalexampleofclosed-loopcontrol.However,ifoneistoldtoreachfortheobjectandthenisblindolded,onecanonlyrea chtowardtheobjectbyestimatingitsexactposition.ItisAsantherillustrativ eexampleofaclosed-loopcontrolsystem,showstheblockdiagramoftherudderco ntrolsystemofThebasicalementsandtheblocadiagramofaclosed-loopcontrols ystemareshowninfig.Ingeneral,theconfigurationofafeedbackcontrolsystem maynotbeconstrainedtothatoffig&.Incomplexsystemstheremaybemultitudeof feedbackloopsandelementblocks.数控在先进制造技术领域最根本的观念之壹是数控（NC）。
数控加工工艺 外文文献
英文原文CNC Machining ProcessFirst, our country's history of the development of numerical control system1. Our country since 1958, by a group of research institutes, colleges and universities and a few started to CNC Machine Tool Plant of the research and development system. At that time, due to the low level of domestic electronic components, such as the department of economic constraints, lack of a larger development.2. In the reform and opening up, China's numerical control technology gradually achieve substantial development. After "65" (81 ---- 85 years) the introduction of foreign technology, "75" (86 ------ 90 years) of the digestion and absorption and the "Eighth Five-Year Plan" (91 ~ 1 -95 years) National Organization of scientific and technological, that makes our country's CNC technology has a qualitative leap in acceptance at that time, through research and identification of country products including Beijing Everest's Chinese I, central China's central NC I and a few high-end Shenyang National Engineering Research Center for Control of Blue-I, as well as other through the "National Quality Supervision and Test Center machine" test NC system of qualified domestic companies such as Nanjing, four products.3. China's CNC machine tool manufacturing industry in the 80's had the stage of rapid development, many machine tool plant products from traditional products to the NC transition. But, generally speaking, the technological level is not high, the quality of the poor, so in the early 90's facing the country's economy from a planned economy to a market economy and adjust the transfer went through the most difficult years of the Depression period, the production capacity at that time down to 50 %, more than four month inventory. From 1995, "Ninth Five-Year Plan" to expand domestic demand from the country after the machine tool market to start, so as to reinforce the approval of imports of CNC equipment, investment focused on support for key numerical control system, equipment, technologies of CNC equipment has played a significant role, especially in 1999, the country's defense industry to civilian industry and the key to putting in a lot of technical department funds, to enable CNCequipment manufacturer market thriving. Three, CNC Technology and Equipment of cars cut CNC Lathe Machining Lathe technology and processing technology similar to, but because of CNC lathe is a fixture, for automatic processing of all finish turning process, which should pay attention to the following aspects.1. A reasonable selection cutting for the high-efficiency metal-cutting processing, the processed materials, cutting tools, cutting conditions is the three major elements. These determine the processing time, tool life and processing quality. Cost-effective processing methods must be a reasonable choice of the cutting conditions. Three elements of cutting conditions: cutting speed, feed rate and cutting depth of the damage directly caused by the tool. With the increase in cutting speed, tool tip temperature will rise; will have mechanical, chemical, thermal wear and tear. 20% increase in cutting speed; tool life will reduce the 1 /2. Feed conditions and the relationship between tool wear and tear at the back of a very small area of. However, the feed rate, cutting temperature rise, wear big behind. Than the impact of cutting speed on tool small. Depth of cut on the tools did not affect the cutting speed and feed rate, but at small cutting depth of cut when cutting materials have been hardened layer, which will affect the tool life. The user is processed according to the material, hardness, cutting status, material type, feed rate, cutting depth, such as the option of using the cutting speed. The most appropriate selections of processing conditions are at the basis of these factors is selected. Have rules, stability, worn and tear is to achieve the ideal conditions for life. However, in actual operation, the selection tool life and tool wear, the size of changes in processing, surface quality, cutting noise, heat processing and so on. In determining the processing conditions required to study the actual situation. The heat-resistant alloys such as stainless steel and hard materials, the coolant can be used best to use rigid blade.2. Reasonable selection tool1) when rough, it is necessary to choose high strength, good durability tool, in order to meet the rough knife when eating large back volume, the feed requirements.2) Fine car, it is necessary to choose high precision, durability good tool to ensure that the requirements of machining accuracy.3) In order to reduce tool change time and convenience of the knife should be used machines and machine folder knife blade.3. A reasonable selection Fixture1) General selection try the work piece clamping fixture to avoid the use of a dedicated fixture;2) positioning the base parts overlap so as to reduce the positioning error.4. To determine the processing routeprocessing route is the index-controlled machining process, tool parts relative trajectory and direction of Sports.1) Should be able to ensure the machining accuracy and surface roughness requirements;2) should try to shorten the processing route, reducing travel time and air knives.5. Processing route of contact with allowanceAt present, CNC lathes have not yet achieved the universal access to conditions, the general should be put on too much rough margin, especially with forging, casting hard cushion cortex in general lathe processing. Must be such as CNC lathe, the need to pay attention to process flexibility.6. Fixture to install the main pointsat present, the hydraulic clamping chuck and hydraulic cylinder are connected by the rod of the implementation, in Figure 1. Hydraulic clamping chuck as follows: First of all, by moving on hand to unload the nut hydraulic cylinder, the discharge of SLIDE, and back-end from the spindle out, and then move the hands to unload screw chuck can be disposed of under the chuck. Four, effectively turning a reasonable Save processing time Index Turning Center's G200 integrated processing unit with a modular, high-power two-axis linkage axis function, thus further shortening the processing time. With other means of job-axis opposite to the concept of clamping, the use of the product can be integrated intelligent processing unit in place so that the work piece clamping and automatic processing. In other words, the automatic setup will not be affected by the processing of another axis, a feature that can be shortened about 10% of the processing time. In addition, the Four processing very quickly, youcan simultaneously have two processing tool. When the machine is put into use in pairs, the efficiency becomes more apparent. In other words, the conventional hard turning and setting two cars can parallel machine. Turning conventional vehicles and hardware differences between the tool and focused only in the coolant system thermostat. However, conventional processing is different: both can be used conventional processing and a tool carrier for processing Tailstock; and hardware when using a tool only. In both types of machine tools can be carried out on the hard dry processing, only the manufacturer's technology program designed to balance the need to beat time, and Index of the module structure of machine tools to provide them with greater flexibility. To improve the productivity of high-precision with the continuous improvement of production efficiency, the user also made for a very high accuracy requirements. Turning Center G200 used for processing, the cold start up to four parts processing required to achieve tolerances of 卤6mm. Processing process, the accuracy is usually maintained at 2mm. Index so made available to the company's clients are high-precision, high efficiency, the integrity of the program, and programs to provide such high precision, requiring careful choice of spindle, bearings and other features. G200 Turning Center Landshut, Germany, BMW car factory in the application of the company achieved good results. The plant is not only the production of engines, but also by the production of cast light metal parts, plastic decorative items inside the vehicle and steering axis. Consider the quality of supervisory staff, and its very precise machining accuracy: tolerance bands for 卤15mm, for bearing tolerance 卤6.5mm. In addition, the processing of the universal joints of the Index companies use automatic intelligent processing unit. The first two parts are used for turning centers before playing pre-processing, post-processing line measurement, and then sent through the conveyor belt for hobbling, cleaning and quenching treatment. The last process using the second processing system Index. G200 Turning Center by two steering knuckle on the car bearing hard. In the machine tool to complete the online survey, then to the discharge unit. Processing unit fully integrated into the layout of the workshop, and in line with ergonomic requirements, covers an area of greatly reduced, and only two staff members to the custody ofmanufacturing cells. Friday, CNC turning and G00 in the magical effect of the skills to ensure dimensional accuracy CNC turning processing technology has been widely used in mechanical manufacturing industry, how efficient, reasonable, and completed by the quality of the work piece by the amount of processing, each engaged in the trade of engineering and technical personnel more or less have their own experience. I engaged in CNC teaching, training and processing for many years, accumulated a certain amount of experience and skills, is to CNC Equipment Factory Guangzhou GSK980T series of machine tool production, for example, introduce a few skills in CNC turning. First, the program first sentence skills G00 We now have access to textbooks and CNC turning technical books, procedures are set up the first sentence of work piece coordinate system, that is, G50 X,Z in the first sentence as a process. According to the directive, a coordinate system can be set so that the tool at a point in this coordinate system as coordinates (X, Z) (In this paper, the origin of work piece coordinate system are set at the right end of the work piece surface). Programming using this method, the knife, the knife must be moved to the established position of G50 can be set for processing, identify the location of the process is as follows.1. of a knife, the rough work piece clamping good;2. Spindle is to hand round the base right side knife flat work piece surface A;3. Z-axis fixed, the release of the tool along the X axis points to C, type G50 Z0, the point of computer memory;4. Program entry mode, type G01 W-8 F50, turning out to be one step work piece;5. X-axis fixed, the release of the tool along the Z-axis points to C, stop turning out measuring the diameter of the work piece level, the importation of G50 X, computer memory that point;6. Program entry mode, enter the G00 X伪Z尾, programming tool runs the specified procedure to the starting point, and then enter the G50 X,Z, procedures for the origin of the computer memory. The above-mentioned steps, the steps that the tool 6 at X,Z Office location is essential; otherwise, the work piece coordinate system will be modified, not the normal processing of the work piece. Processing has been theexperience of the people all know that the above position will be the tool to the cumbersome process of X,Z Department, in the event of an accident, X or Z-axis without servo, tracking error, power outages happen, etc., the system can restart, after restart system loss of G50 work piece coordinate values set by the memory, "reset back to zero run" is no longer working, will need to re-run the tool and reset to X,Z location G50. If it is production, processing, after the End of a return to the starting point for continued processing under the G50 is, in the process some errors on the work piece coordinate system may be modified. In view of the first sentence of the above procedures using G50 work piece coordinate system set up many defects, I will want to approach the work piece coordinate system fixed on the machine will process the first sentence changed to G50 X,Z after G00 X,Z, problem solved. The course of its operation only to find G50 using the above-mentioned five-step process before, that is, 1,2,3,4,5 steps to achieve, it will run the tool to a safe location, out of process, and can run automatically. Even if power outages and other unforeseen circumstances occur, restart the system, in the Edit mode to move the cursor without affecting the safe processing of the work piece processing process program segment, according to automate the processing can continue. First sentence of the above procedure to replace G50 with G00 is the substance of the work piece coordinate system fixed on the machine, no longer limited to the origin G50 X,Z process constraints, without changing the work piece coordinate system, easy operation, reliability, and received an unexpected effect. Chinese metal processing onlineSecond, control of dimensional accuracy skills1. To amend the value of a knife up to ensure dimensional accuracyFirst on the knife because of error or other causes beyond the work piece work piece error tolerance, can not meet the processing requirements, can be added by modifying the knife so that the work piece size to meet the requirement to ensure that the radial dimensions are as follows:a. absolute coordinate input methodAccording to the "big decrease, a small increase" principle, a knife up at 001 ~ 004 modified. Such as cut off on the 2nd slot at a big size work piece 0.1mm, and 002showed up knives are X3.8, may enter the X3.7, to reduce the knife on the 2nd meeting.b. the relative coordinate method as in the previous case, enter 002 knife fill U-0.1, also the same result.Similarly, the axial size of the control also and so on. Such as cylindrical with a knife on the 1st axis somewhere above processing, size, long 0.1mm, can be completed at 001 knife enter W0.1.2. Semi-finishing to ensure that the impact of the elimination of screw gap dimensional accuracyFor the majority of CNC lathe using a longer time, because of the effects of screw space and processing of the work piece dimensions are often unstable situation. At this time, we can rough after finishing a half-space to eliminate the effects of screw. 1, such as a knife with G71 cylindrical rough, you can fill in the 001 knife enter U0.3, call the G70 a fine car, parking measurements, and then fill in the 001 knife enter U-0.3, once again calling a G70 Finish . Finish a half after this time, eliminating the effects of screw clearance to ensure the stability of the dimensional accuracy.3. To ensure dimensional accuracy Programmer a. to ensure dimensional accuracy absolute programming there is an absolute and relative programming. Programming refers to the relative curve in the processing, the location of the end of the line segment to the starting point for the coordinates of the segment and to determine the origin of the coordinate system. In other words, programming is relatively often at the origin of the coordinates transform, continuous displacement is bound to result in a cumulative error, the absolute programming are in the processing of the whole process, have a relatively unified reference point, that is, coordinates of the origin, so the accumulated error over the relative Programming small. CNC turning work piece, the work piece precision radial dimension than the axial size of the general high precision, it is in the preparation of procedures, the use of the radial size of the absolute best programming, taking into account the processing and the convenience of programming, often used sizes of axial relative programming, but the essential axial size, the use of the absolute best programming.b. to ensure dimensional accuracy numerical conversionA lot of cases, the pattern on the size of the baseline and benchmark the size of the required programming inconsistent and should be first on the base pattern size coordinates converted to programming in size. Figure 2b, in addition to size of 13.06mm, the rest is marked directly by Figure 2a and size to be converted by the program size. One of,Φ29.95mm, Φ16mm and the three dimensions of 60.07mm respectively limit the size of two average size after the programming.4. Modify the program and control the size of premium knivesCNC Machining, we often encounter such a situation: the procedure to run automatically after stopping measurement and found that fail work piece size, size irregular Change. Such as a knife with 1 cylindrical work piece processing as shown in Figure 3, the post-roughing and semi-finishing parking measurements, the size of the radial axis paragraph as follows: Φ30.06mm, Φ23.03mm and Φ16.02mm. In this connection, I used a knife to amend the procedures and methods make up the remedy, as follows: a. modify the program X30 original program unchanged, X23 changed X23.03, X16 changed X16.04, As a result, are in excess of the shaft above the name of tolerance uniform size 0.06mm; b. knife to fill Knife on the 1st at 001 imported premium U-0.06. After these procedures and a two-pronged knife revised up, and then call the refined procedures, the general size of the work piece can be effectively guaranteed. CNC Turning CNC program is based on automated processing, the actual processing, and the operator only has a strong ability to use the program instructions and a wealth of practical skills in order to produce high-quality processing, processing high-quality work piece.Six, CNC machine tool troubleshooting methods and their attention to matters Missions usually take part in because of repair, some repair experience, combined with the relevant theories are described in the following list, to initiate. First, troubleshooting methods(1) initialization reset Law: Under normal circumstances, because of instantaneous alarm system failure can be hardware reset or system power switch in order to remove the fault, if the system is down because of the storage area, plug thecircuit board or battery less pressure lead to confusion, it must be clear to initialize the system, removing the former should pay attention to make copies of recorded data, if initialization can not be ruled out after the failure remains, were carried out in hardware diagnosis.(2) Parameters to change, actual procedures: system parameters are determined based on system functions, parameter settings may cause system errors or failures of a functional null and void. Sometimes, because of procedural errors can be caused by user downtime, this system can be used to block search function to check and correct all errors, in order to ensure its normal operation.(3) Regulation, the best method of adjustment: adjustment is one of the simplest ways. By adjusting the potentiometer to amend system failures. Repair such as in a factory, the system displays chaotic scene, with normal post-conditioning. Such as in a factory, the spindle brake at start-up and skidding when belt because of its large spindle load torque, and drives set the ramp-up time is too small, the normal post-conditioning. Optimize the system to adjust servo drive system with mechanical drag system the best way to match the General regulation, the approach is very simple, with a multi-line recorder or dual trace storage oscilloscope, respectively, observe instructions and the speed of feedback or response to the relationship between current feedback. By adjusting the ratio of the speed regulator factors and integration time to achieve servo system so that there are high dynamic response characteristics, but not the best job status oscillation. NOT at the scene of the oscilloscope or recorder circumstances, based on experience, that is, adjust so that the electrical start-up, and then slowly adjust to the reverse, until you can eliminate the shock.(4) spare parts to replace the Law: The best diagnosis of spare parts to replace bad circuit board, and start to do the initialization, so that the normal operation of machine tools quickly, and then repair or rework bad board, which is currently the most commonly used anti - approach it.(5) To improve the quality of the power law: the use of the existing power supply, to improve the power supply fluctuations. For high-frequency interference filteringcapacitor can be used by these preventive measures to reduce the power supply board failure.(6) Maintenance of information-tracking: some large manufacturing company based on actual work because of design defects caused by accidental failure, continuously modify and improve the system software or hardware. These changes to the form of constant repair information available to maintenance personnel. Used as the basis for troubleshooting can be completely right troubleshooting.Second, the repair should pay attention to matters(1) removed from a whole block on the circuit board, the Record should be noted that the relative position should be to connect the cable number, for fixed installation of the circuit board, it should be removed before and after the press-fit parts and screws for the record. Demolition under the pressure parts and screws should be placed on a dedicated box, so as to avoid loss, the assembly, the box should be all things to use, or incomplete assembly.(2) Electric iron should be placed on the front easily, away from the circuit board repair. Jerdonii Dressing should be appropriate in order to adapt to the welding circuit and to avoid bumps when welding other components.(3) Measuring the resistance between lines should be off the power, measured resistance should be measured the exchange of red and black table pen twice a year toa large value for the reference value.(4) Circuit board has solder brush most films, it should be measured to find the corresponding point of the solder joint as a test, not to eradicate the solder film, there is some insulation board all the brush layer, only in the spot with a blade scratch Department insulating layer.(5) Should not be arbitrarily cut off the printed circuit. Some maintenance personnel must have experience in repair of household appliances, used to check the line, but the numerical control equipment on the circuit boards are double-sided or multi-hole metal plate of plate, printing and dense fine-line, once cut off the hard welding, and easy to cut off tangent when the adjacent line, again some point, a cut off at one line, and should not make it and line out, need to do to cut off a few lines.(6) Should not be removed components. Some maintenance personnel to determine fault components in the absence of circumstances that is the seat of your pants a component breaks down, removed immediately, so that a higher rate of miscarriage of justice, human element removed have a higher failure rate.(7) Should be used to demolish suction devices and suction devices tin rope, should not have the hardware check. Long time heating pad should not be the same and repeat the demolition in order to avoid pad damage.(8) Replacement of the device, the pin should be the appropriate treatment, welding should not be used in welding acidic oil.(9) Record on the circuit switch, the jumper position, it should not be changed. Control for more than two inspections, or swap components on-board when the attention of the components of the tag in order to avoid confusion, which can not work well plate.中文译文数控加工工艺一，我国数控系统的发展史1.我国从1958年起，由一批科研院所，高等学校和少数机床厂起步进行数控系统的研制和开发。
关于数控车床编程外文文献翻译中英文翻译外文翻译
关于数控车床编程外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译英文原文On the NC latheCNC machine tool numerical control machine tools (Computer numerical control machine tools) abbreviation, is provided with a program control system of automatic machine tools. The logic control system can deal with the control code or other symbolic instruction specified program, and decoding the digital code, said information carrier, through the numerical control device input. After processing by CNC device control signals, control the machine movements, by drawing the shape and size requirements, will be automatically processed by the parts.Features: CNC machine tool operation and monitoring of all completed inthe numericalcontrol unit, it is the brain of CNC machine tools. Compared with the general machine tools, CNC machine tools has the following characteristics:● the processing object adaptability, adapt to the characteristics of mold products such as a single production, provide the appropriate processing method for die and mould manufacturing; ● high machining accuracy, processing with stable quality; ● can coordinate linkage, processing complex shape parts;● machining parts change, only need to change the program, can save the preparation time of production;● the machine itself high precision, rigidity, can choose the am ount of processing good, high productivity (3~5 times as common machine);The machine is a high degree of automation, reducing labor intensity;● conducive to the production management modernization. The use of CNC machine tools and the standard code of digital information processing, information transmission, the use of computer control method, has laid the foundation for the integration of computer aided design, manufacturing and management;● on the operators of higher quality, higher demands for the repair ofthe technical staff;● high reliability.Composition: CNC machine tools in general by the input medium, man-machine interactive equipment, CNC equipment, feed servo drive system, spindle servo drive system, the auxiliary control device, feedback apparatus and adaptive control device etc.. [4] in NC machining, NC milling processing is the most complex, need to solve most problems. NC programming of NC line in addition to CNC milling, cutting, CNC EDM, CNC lathe, CNC grinding, each with its own characteristics, servo system is the role of the motion signal is convertedinto the machine moving parts from the numerical control device of pulse. Concrete has the following parts: the structure of CNC machine tools.Driver: he is driving parts of CNC machine tools, actuator, including spindle drive unit, feeding unit, spindle motor and feed motor. He through the electric or electro-hydraulic servo system to realize the spindle and feeddrive under the control of numerical control device. When several feed linkage, can complete the positioning, processing line, plane curve and space curve.The main performance (1) the main dimensions. (2) the spindle system. (3) feed system. (4) tool system.(5) electrical. Including the main motor, servo motor specifications and power etc.. (6) cooling system. Including the cooling capacity, cooling pump output. (7) dimensions. Expressed as length * width * height.Development trend of CNC lathe:High speed, precision, complex, intelligent and green is the general trend in the development of CNC machine tool technology, in recent years, made gratifying achievements in practicality and industrialization. Mainly in the:1 machine tool composite technology to further expand with the CNC machine tool technology, composite processing technology matures, including milling - car compound, car millingcompound, car - boring - drill - gear cutting compound, composite grinding, forming, composite processing, precision and efficiency of machining isgreatly improved. \processing factory\the development of compound processing machine tool is the trend of diversified.Intelligent technology 2 CNC machine tools have a new breakthrough, in the performance of NC system has been reflected more. Such as: automaticallyadjust the interference anti-collision function, after the power of workpiece automatically exit safety power-off protection function, machining parts detection and automatic compensation function of learning, high precisionmachining parts intelligent parameter selection function, process automatic elimination of machine vibration functions into the practical stage, intelligent upgrade the function of machine and quality.The 3 robots enable flexible combination of flexible combination of higher efficiency of robot and the host are widely used, make flexible line more flexible, extending the function, flexible line shorten further, more efficient. Robot and machining center, milling composite machine, grinder, gear processing machine tool, tool grinding machine, electric machine, sawing machine, punching machine, laser cutting machine, water cutting machine etc. various forms of flexible unit and flexible production line has already begun the application.4 precision machining technology has the machining precision of CNC metal cutting machine tools from the yarn in the original (0.01mm) up to micronlevel (0.001mm), some varieties has reached about 0.05 μ M. Micro cutting and grinding machining of ultra precision CNC machine tools, precision can reach about 0.05 μ m, shape precision can reach about 0.01 μ M. Special processing precision by using optical, electrical, chemical, energy can reach nanometer level (0.001 μ m). By optimizing the design of machine tool structure, machine tool parts of ultra precision machining and precision assembly, using high precision closed loop control andtemperature, vibration and other dynamic error compensation technology, improve the geometric accuracy of machine tool processing, reduce the shape of error, surface roughness, and into the submicron, nano super finishing tiThe 5 functional component to improve the performance of functional components are at a high speed, high precision, high power and intelligent direction, and obtain the mature application. A full digital AC servo motor and drive device, high technology content of the electric spindle, linear motor, torque motor, linear motion components with high performance, application of high precision spindle unit and other function parts, greatly improving the technical level of CNC machine tools.The feed drive system of CNC lathe: Effect of feed drive system,The feed drive system of CNC machine tools will be received pulse command issued by the numerical control system, and the amplification and conversion machine movements carry the expected movement.Two, the feeding transmission system requirementsIn order to guarantee the machining accuracy of NC machine tool is high,the feed drive system of transmission accuracy, sensitivity high (fast response), stable work, high stiffness and friction and inertia small, service life, and can remove the transmission gap. Category three, feed drive system 1, stepping motor servo system Generally used for NC machine tools. 2, DC servo motor servo systemPower is stable, but because of the brush, the wear resulting in use needto change. Generally used for middle-grade CNC machine tools. 3, AC servomotor servo systemThe application is extremely widespread, mainly used in high-end CNC machine tools. 4, the linear motor servo systemNo intermediate transmission chain, high precision, the feed speed, no length limit; but the poor heat dissipation, protection requirements are particularly high, mainly used for high-speed machine.Driving component four, feed system 1, the ball screw nut pairNC machining, the rotary motion into linear motion, so the use of screwnut transmissionmechanism. NC machine tools are commonly used on the ball screw, as shownin Figure 1-25, it can be a sliding friction into rolling friction, meet the basic requirements of the feed system to reduce friction. The transmissionside of high efficiency, small friction, and can eliminate the gap, no reverse air travel; but the manufacturing cost is high, can not lock, size is not too big, generally used for linear feed in small CNC machine tool. 2, rotary tableIn order to expand the scope of the process of NC machine tools, CNC machine tools in addition to make linear feed along the X, Y, Z three coordinate axes, often also need a circumferential feed movement around Y or Z axis. Circular feed motion of CNC machine tools in general by the rotary table to realize, for machining center, rotary table has become an indispensablepart of. Rotary table of commonly used CNC machine tools in the indexing table and NC rotary table. (1) indexing tableIndexing table can only finish dividing movement, not circular feed, it is in accordance with the instructions in the NC system, when indexing will work together with the workpiece rotation angle. When indexing can also use manual indexing. Provisions of indexing table is generally only rotary angle (such as 90, 60 and 45 degree). (2) NC rotary tableNC rotary table appearance similar to the indexing table, but the internal structure and function is not the same. The main function of the NC rotary table is based on the numerical control device sends command pulse signal, complete circumferential feed movement, various arc processing and surface processing, it can also be graduation work. 3, guideRail is an important part of feed drive system, is one of the basic elements of the structure of machine tool, rigidity, precision and accuracy of NC machine tool which determines to a large extent retention. At present, guide the NC machine tool are sliding rail, rolling guideway and hydrostatic guideway. (1) sliding guideSliding guide rail has the advantages of simple structure, easy manufacture, good stiffness, vibration resistance and high performance, widely used in CNC machine tools, the use of most metal plastic form, known as the plastic guide rail, as shown in figure 1-26.On characteristics of the plastic sliding guide: friction characteristicis good, good wear resistance, stable movement, good manufacturability, low speed. (2) rolling guideRolling guide is placed in the rail surface between the ball, roller or needle roller, roller, the rolling friction instead of sliding surface of the guide rail between wipe.Rolling guide rail and the sliding rail, high sensitivity, small friction coefficient, and the dynamic, static friction coefficient is very small, so the motion is uniform, especially in the low speed movement, the stick-slip phenomenon is not easy to occur; high positioning accuracy,repeatability positioning accuracy is up to 0.2 μ m; traction force is small, wear small, portable in movement; good precision, long service life. But the vibration of rolling guide, high requirements on protection, complicated structure, difficult manufacture, high cost.Automatic tool changer:One, the function of automatic tool changerAutomatic tool changing device can help save the auxiliary time of CNC machine tools, and meet in an installation completed procedure, stepprocessing requirements. Two, on the requirement of automatic tool changerNumerical control machine tool for automatic tool changer requirement is: tool change quickly, time is short, high repetitive positioning accuracy, tool storage capacity is sufficient, small occupation space, stable and reliable work. Three, change the knife form 1, rotary cutter replacementIts structure is similar to the ordinary lathe turret saddle, according to the processing of different objects can be designed into square or six angle form, consists of the NC system sends out the instruction to the rotary cutter.2, the replacement of the spindle head tool changeThe spindle head pre-loaded required tools, in order to machining position, the main motor is switched on, drives the cutter to rotate. The advantage of this method is that eliminates the need for automatic clamping, cutting tool, clamping and cutting tool moving and a series of complex operation, reducetool change time, improve The ATC reliability. 3, the use of changing toolThe processing required tools are respectively arranged in the standard tool, adjust the size of the machine after certain way add to the knife, the exchange device from the knife and the spindle take knife switch.感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。
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机床加工外文翻译参考文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)基本加工工序和切削技术基本加工的操作机床是从早期的埃及人的脚踏动力车和约翰·威尔金森的镗床发展而来的。
它们为工件和刀具提供刚性支撑并可以精确控制它们的相对位置和相对速度。
基本上讲，金属切削是指一个磨尖的锲形工具从有韧性的工件表面上去除一条很窄的金属。
切屑是被废弃的产品，与其它工件相比切屑较短，但对于未切削部分的厚度有一定的增加。
工件表面的几何形状取决于刀具的形状以及加工操作过程中刀具的路径。
大多数加工工序产生不同几何形状的零件。
如果一个粗糙的工件在中心轴上转动并且刀具平行于旋转中心切入工件表面，一个旋转表面就产生了，这种操作称为车削。
如果一个空心的管子以同样的方式在内表面加工，这种操作称为镗孔。
当均匀地改变直径时便产生了一个圆锥形的外表面，这称为锥度车削。
如果刀具接触点以改变半径的方式运动，那么一个外轮廓像球的工件便产生了；或者如果工件足够的短并且支撑是十分刚硬的，那么成型刀具相对于旋转轴正常进给的一个外表面便可产生，短锥形或圆柱形的表面也可形成。
平坦的表面是经常需要的，它们可以由刀具接触点相对于旋转轴的径向车削产生。
在刨削时对于较大的工件更容易将刀具固定并将工件置于刀具下面。
刀具可以往复地进给。
成形面可以通过成型刀具加工产生。
多刃刀具也能使用。
使用双刃槽钻钻深度是钻孔直径5-10倍的孔。
不管是钻头旋转还是工件旋转，切削刃与工件之间的相对运动是一个重要因数。
在铣削时一个带有许多切削刃的旋转刀具与工件接触，工件相对刀具慢慢运动。
平的或成形面根据刀具的几何形状和进给方式可能产生。
可以产生横向或纵向轴旋转并且可以在任何三个坐标方向上进给。
基本机床机床通过从塑性材料上去除屑片来产生出具有特别几何形状和精确尺寸的零件。
后者是废弃物，是由塑性材料如钢的长而不断的带状物变化而来，从处理的角度来看，那是没有用处的。
很容易处理不好由铸铁产生的破裂的屑片。
机床执行五种基本的去除金属的过程：车削，刨削，钻孔，铣削。
所有其他的去除金属的过程都是由这五个基本程序修改而来的，举例来说，镗孔是内部车削；铰孔，攻丝和扩孔是进一步加工钻过的孔；齿轮加工是基于铣削操作的。
抛光和打磨是磨削和去除磨料工序的变形。
因此，只有四种基本类型的机床，使用特别可控制几何形状的切削工具1.车床，2.钻床，3.铣床，4.磨床。
磨削过程形成了屑片，但磨粒的几何形状是不可控制的。
通过各种加工工序去除材料的数量和速度是巨大的，正如在大型车削加工，或者是极小的如研磨和超精密加工中只有面的高点被除掉。
一台机床履行三大职能：1.它支撑工件或夹具和刀具2.它为工件和刀具提供相对运动3.在每一种情况下提供一系列的进给量和一般可达4-32种的速度选择。
加工速度和进给速度，进给量和切削深度是经济加工的三大变量。
其他的量数是攻丝和刀具材料，冷却剂和刀具的几何形状，去除金属的速度和所需要的功率依赖于这些变量。
切削深度，进给量和切削速度是任何一个金属加工工序中必须建立的机械参量。
它们都影响去除金属的力，功率和速度。
切削速度可以定义为在旋转一周时速度记录面相对任何瞬间呈辐射状扩散的针，或是两个相邻沟槽的距离。
切削深度是进入的深度和沟槽的深度。
在车床中心的车削在机动车床上完成的基本操作已被介绍了。
那些用单点刀具在外表面的操作称为车削。
除了钻孔，铰孔，研磨内部表面的操作也是由单点刀具完成的。
所有的加工工序包括车削，镗孔可以被归类为粗加工，精加工或半精加工。
精加工是尽可能快而有效的去除大量材料，而工件上留下的一小部分材料用于精加工。
精加工为工件获得最后尺寸，形状和表面精度。
有时，半精加工为精加工留下预定的一定量的材料，它是先于精加工的。
一般来说，较长的工件同时被一个或两个车床中心支撑。
锥形孔，所谓的中心孔，两端被钻的工件适于车床中心-通常沿着圆柱形工件的轴线。
工件接近为架的那端通常由尾架中心支撑，在靠近主轴承的那端由主轴承中心支撑或由爪盘夹紧。
这种方法可以牢固的加紧工件并且能顺利地将力传给工件；由卡盘对工件提供的辅助支撑减少切削时发生的颤振趋势，如果能小心准确地采用卡盘支撑工件的方法，则可以得到精确的结果。
在两个中心之间支撑工件可以得到非常精确的结果。
工件的一端已被加工，那么工件便可车削了。
在车床上加工另一端，中心孔充当精确定位面和承载工件重量和抵制切削力的支撑面。
当工件由于任何一原因从车床上移除后，中心孔将准确地使工件回到这个车床上或另一个车床上或一个圆柱磨床上。
工件不允许被卡盘和车床中心夹在主轴承上。
然而首先想到的是一个快速调整卡盘上工件的方法，但这是不允许的因为在由卡盘夹持的同时也由车床中心支撑是不可能的。
由车床中心提供的调整将不能持续并且爪盘的压力会损坏中心孔和车床中心，甚至是车床主轴。
浮动的爪盘为上述陈述提供了一个例外，它几乎完全使用在高生产工作上，这些卡盘是真正的工作驱动者并且不为同样的目的如普通的三爪，四爪卡盘使用。
而大直径的工件有时装在两个中心，它们最好有由面板夹持在主轴承尾部来顺利得到能量转换；许多车床夹头并不能足量的转换能量，虽然可以作为特殊的能量转换。
机械加工介绍作为产生形状的一种方法，机械加工是所有制造过程中最普遍使用的而且是最重要的方法。
机械加工过程是一个产生形状的过程，在这过程中，驱动装置使工件上的一些材料以切屑的形式被去除。
尽管在某些场合，工件无支承情况下，使用移动式装备来实现加工，但大多数的机械加工是通过既支承工件又支承刀具的装备来完成。
小批量，低成本。
机械加工在制造业上有两个应用。
是铸造，锻造和压力工作，产生每一个特殊形状，甚至一个零件，几乎总有较高的模具成本。
焊接的形状很大程度上取决于原材料。
通过利用总成本高但没有特殊模具的设备，加工是有可能的；从几乎任何形式的原材料开始，只要外部尺寸足够大，由任意材料设计形状。
因此加工是首选的方法，当生产一个或几个零件甚至在大批量生产时，零件的设计在逻辑上导致铸造，锻造或冲压制品。
高精度，表面精度。
机械加工的第二个应用是基于可能的高精度和表面精度的。
如果在其他工序中大批量生产，很多低量零件会产生出低的但可接受的公差。
另一方面，许多零件由一些大变形过程产生一般的形状，并且只在具有很高精度的选定面加工。
举例来说，内线流程是很少产生任何方式以外的其他机械加工并且紧接着压力操作后零件上的小洞可能被加工。
主要的切削参数在切削时基本工具工作的关系充分描述的方法有4个因素：刀具几何形状，切削速度和切削深度。
刀具必须由适当的材料做成；它必须有一定的强度，粗糙度，硬度和抗疲劳度。
刀具几何形状由面和角度描述，对每一种切削操作都是正确的。
切削速度是指切削刃通过工作面的速度，它已每分钟通过的英尺数表示。
对于加工效率，切削速度相对于特殊工作组合必须具有适当规模。
一般来讲，工件越硬，速度越小。
进给是刀具进入工件的速率。
当工件或刀具旋转时，进给量的单位是英寸每转。
当刀具或工件往复移动时，进给量的单位是英寸没次，总的来说，在其他相似情况下进给量与切削速度成反比。
切削速度用英寸表示，是刀具进入工件的距离表示的，它是指车削时屑片的宽度或是直线切削时屑片的厚度。
粗加工时切削深度比精加工的切削深度大。
切削参数的改变对切削温度的影响在金属切削作业中热量产生于主要和第二变形区而这些结果导致了复杂温度遍布于刀具，工件和屑片。
一个典型的等温先如图所示，它可以看出正如预测的，当工件材料经历主要变形，被减切时，有一个非常大温度梯度遍布于屑片的整个宽度。
当第二变形区的屑片还有一小段距离就达到了最大温度。
因为几乎所有的工作都以金属切削转化为热量而完成，可以预测去除每一单位体积的金属所增加的能量消耗将会提高切削温度。
因此在所有其他参数不变，前角变大时，将减少去除每单位体积金属的能量和切削温度。
当考虑到增加未形成屑片的厚度和速度，情况就更复杂了。
增加切削厚度往往会大大影响热量传给工件，刀具的多少，而且会使屑片停留在一个固定数额，同时切削温度的变化也会很小，可是增加切削速度会减少传递给工件的热量，同时这将增大屑片主要变形的温升。
此外，第二变形区是比较小的，在这个变形区会提高温度。
切削参数的其他变化几乎不影响去除每单位体积的能量消耗和切削温度。
因此已经表明，即使是切削温度的小规模变化对刀具磨损率也有重大影响，从切削数据来估计切削温度是恰当的。
检测高速钢工具最直接最准确的方法，特伦特给出了高速钢工具温度分布的详细资料。
该技术是基于高速钢刀具的数据检测并与对热历史的微观变化有关。
特伦特已经描述了切削温度的测量和加工大范围工件时高速钢工具的温度分布。
使用扫描电子显微镜来研究精细尺度微观结构变化，这项技术已得到了进一步发展。
这项技术也用于研究高速钢单点车刀和麻花钻的温度分布，刀具磨损脆性断裂已经得到了处理，刀具磨损基本上有三个类型。
后刀面磨损，边界磨损和前刀面磨损。
刀面磨损发生在主切削刃和次切削刃。
主切削刃负责去除大量金属，这增加了切削力和温度，如果任其发展会导致刀具和工件的振动，这就再不能高效率地切削了。
次切削刃决定工件尺寸和表面精度，后刀面的磨损会导致大量产品出现较差的表面精度。
根据实际切削条件，刀具不可用的主要原因在于主刀面先于次刀面的磨损非常大，这导致了一个不可接受部分的产生。
因为刀具的应力分布，刚开始滑动时，滑动区域的摩擦力在屑片和面之间达到最大，最后摩擦力便为零。
因此磨料磨损发生在这个区域，在屑片与相离处更多的磨损发生在与该区域相邻处，这比相邻于这点的更多。
这导致了刀具面的局部点蚀与这面有一定距离，这面通常有一部分是圆弧形的。
在许多方面并基于实际切削条件，边界磨损相比后刀面是一个较不严重的磨损，因此刀面磨损是一种较常见磨钝标准。
然后，由于各样作者表明，伴随着切削速度的增加面温度的增加量多于刀面的增加量，而由于温度变化严重影响任一类型的磨损率，边界磨损通常发生在较高切削速度的情况下。
刀具与未切削面相接触的地方，主刀面磨损的尾部的磨损比沿着剩余磨损面的地方更明显。
这是因为局部影响如未切削面是由先前的切削，氧化规模，局部高温所形成的加工硬化而造成的。
这个局部磨损一般与边界磨损有关，有时还很严重。
虽然出现凹口不会严重影响刀具的切削性能，凹口是往往比较深，如果继续切削刀具很可能断裂。
如果任何形式的渐进磨损让其戏剧性的继续存在，刀具将面临灾难性的故障，如刀具再不能切割，在好的情况下，工件报废，最坏时，机械工具可能造成损坏。
对于硬质合金刀具和各类型的磨损，在出现灾难性故障之前达到最长使用使用寿命的极限。
但对于高速钢切削工具的磨损是不均匀的，目前已发现当磨损继续并甚至出现灾难性故障时，便可得到最有意义的和可以复制的结果，当然在实践中，切削时间远远少于故障时间。