试谈英语研究论文写作常识
英文论文写作注意事项
c英文论文写作谈技巧论文写作中常出现的语法问题1. 主语和谓语的单数和复数要一致英语中名词有它的单数和复数形式，动词也有它的单数和复数形式, 二者要一致. 单数主语( subject) 名词要用动词(verb) 的单数(singular) 形式, 复数主语名词要用动词的复数(plural) 形式. 我们写中文的不太习惯英语的这种写法, 很难做到不假思索地配对, 需要特别留心才能不出错误，特别是当主语名词和动词被分开时. 试看下面的例句.A high percentage of peptides that are made of amino acids are present in the sample.A high percentage 才是真正的主语，而不是邻近的amino acids , 所以应该用单数形式.宜改为: A high percentage of peptides that are made of amino acids is present in the sample.让事情更复杂的是英语名词被分为不同的种类，其中的一类叫集合名词 . 它既可以当单数用词也可以当复数用. 集合名词当整体来讲时是单数，每个成员作为个体时用复数. The number of mice in the experiment was increased.A number of mice have died.All of the samples were analyzed.All of the safety procedures was strictly followed.代词none 既可以是单数也可以是复数. 当none 后面的词是单数时, 用单数动词. 当none 后面的词是复数时，用复数动词.None of the information was useful.None of the animals were starved.描写数量，重量，体积，时间等的词用单数，但如果是分次添加或减少时用复数. 在这个意义上同集合名词类似.1.5 ml was added.10 g was added .6 hours was the required incubation time.5 g were added stepwise.简写的数量单位，如mg, ml, s 等，单数和复数的写法是一样的, 如1mg, 5 mg.一些词如series, type, portion, class, 要用单数形式.A series of derivatives of penicillin was prepared.A large portion of the reports is focused on how to deal with the increased cost.Data, criteria, phenomena, media 是复数形式，他们的单数形式分别是datum, criterion, phenomenon, medium.2、修饰语同主语名词关系上要一致当用1 ) 动名词(gerund) ，2) 分词短句(participle) ，3) 不定式短句(infinitive) 作修饰语时，修饰语中的动词要同主句中的主语名词关系上要一致.科技杂志论文中有这种语法错误的情况较多. 严格来讲这只是种语法错误，一般不影响对句子的内容的理解，所以很多作者不太注意. 编辑和阅稿人有时也没有严格要求改正 . 比如下面就是Nature 杂志2006 年第439 卷中的一个例子.Using the enhancer GAL4/UAS expression system, short-term memory traces of aversive and appetitive olfactory conditioning have been assigned to output synapses of subsets of intrinsic neurons of the mushroom bodies.1) 动名词After finishing the purification, the activity of the isolated compound was then studied.We or I 是动名词finishing 形式上的主语，同主句的主语activity 不一致.宜改为: After purification was finished, the activity of the isolated compound was then studied. 或: After finishing the purification, we studied the activity of the isolated compound.Treated with the new drug, the blood cholesterol levels of participants were lowered by an average of 30%.宜改为: Treated with the new drug, participants showed an average of 30% decrease in their blood cholesterol levels.2) 分词短句The iron concentration was determined using the Fenton reaction method.The iron concentration 同using the Fenton reaction method 关系上不一致.宜改为: The iron concentration was determined by the Fenton reaction method.或: We determined the iron concentration using the Fenton reaction method.When measuring the atmospheric level of carbon dioxide, air samples from a remote place, such as an island, is preferred.宜改为: When the atmospheric level of carbon dioxide is measured, air samples from a remote place, such as an island, is preferred.3) 不定式短句To further investigate the potential role of biking in causing infertility, an expanded population of biking athletes was surveyed.不定式短语的形式主语是we or I ，同主句主语population 不一致.宜改为: To further investigate the potential role of biking in causing infertility, we surveyed an expanded population of biking athletes.To confirm the diagnosis, blood test was ordered.宜改为: To confirm the diagnosis, the doctor ordered blood test.3.主语和主语的行动(谓语)在逻辑上要一致由于一些中文和英文的表达方式不同，把中文直接翻译成相应的英文会不讲. 一个经常被引用的语句是“price is cheap ”. 中文可以说价格便宜, 但英文只能说价格高或低. 物品可以说cheap or expensive. 用中文的表达方式来写英文, 会出现主语和主语的行动在逻辑上不一致. 在写一个句子时要注意行动的真正主语名词是什么. 下面是一些例子. The highest antibiotic production was obtained at 48 h.不是production 而是production yield.宜改为: The highest antibiotic production yield was obtained at 48 h.The scavenging activity for hydroxyl radicals was based on Fenton reaction.不是activity 而是assay of activity宜改为: The assay of scavenging activity for hydroxyl radicals was based on Fenton reaction. The pharmacological compounds of ginseng were identified.药物活性化合物应该是pharmacologically active compounds.宜改为: The pharmacologically active compounds of ginseng were identified.4、代名词和其代理的先行词要一致代名词和其代理的先行词要在人称,单数或复数,和性别上一致.一些常见的代词是: he, his ( 阳性单数); she, her ( 阴性单数); it, its ( 单数); they, their, these, those ( 复数); that, this ( 单数). 比如下面的例句中, compounds 和their 一致, protein 和it 一致.Many related compounds were synthesized and their antivirus activities were studied.Growth hormone is a protein. It promotes human body growth.下面的例句中,the 应该用their 取代.The potential antioxidant capacity of compound A and compound B could be deduced from the protective effects against oxidative stresses.宜改为: The potential antioxidant capacity of compound A and compound B could be deduced from their protective effects against oxidative stresses.用代名词时除了要保持一致外,还要避免代理不清的情况出现,以免不清楚它们到底指什么而引起误解．The crude sample was dissolved in water and extracted with organic solvent. It was then evaporatedto yield the product.It 指organic layer 还是指water layer? 不明确，最好不用it.宜改为：The crude sample was dissolved in water and extracted with organic solvent. The organic layer was then evaporated to yield the product.During meal hormones are released after which blood flow increases in the stomach.Which 既可以代表meal 也可以代表hormones, 容易产生误解.宜改为：During meal hormones are released. After their release stomach blood flow increases. 5、位置的强调作用在英语写作中，若要强调某件事情，就把它放在句子的前面. 中文写作中, 有关句子的条件, 时间等的修饰句都是放在前面，而主句总是放在后面. 而英文中即可以把条件或修饰句放在前面，也可以放在后面. 放在前面就表示你要强调修饰句的条件. 比如: Before the hurricane arrived, most of the people have moved out.Most of the people have moved out before the hurricane arrived.在英语中两种位置关系都可以. 前者强调在hurricane 来之前，后者强调moved out . 而在中文中，只有一种说法，反过来说” 大多数人都离开了在hurricane 来之前” 就不对了. 按中文的位置关系直译成英文, 往往会不确切. 同样按英文的位置关系直译成中文也是怪怪的. 我上小学的孩子回家来喊“ 我要吃冰激凌今天, 我没吃好长时间了”, 就是英文“I want ice cream today. I have not eaten it for a long time.” 的直接翻译.科技写作中，一般还是把主句先写出来，除非你想强调修饰的是条件．Through scavenging free radicals, antioxidants play an important role in protecting against complex diseases.宜改为：Antioxidants play an important role in protecting against complex diseases through scavenging free radicals.In microbial fermentation, phosphorus is commonly the major growth-limiting nutrient.宜改为：Phosphorus is commonly the major growth-limiting nutrient in microbial fermentation. 主动句中事情的执行者( 作者) 放在前面，有强调事情的执行者( 作者) 的意思, 而不是要研究的事物. 被动句强调要研究的事物, 这也是为什么科技论文中被动句用得比较多的原因之一.We studied their effects on cell growth. 强调We.Their effects on cell growth were studied. 强调Their effects.6、修饰词和被修饰词要邻近科技写作要求严谨，明确.为了严格定义一个事物，往往要加上限制性的修饰词或短句.比如描写实验用的mice 时，一般不会只说mice ，而是用类似“NCI-H23 tumor bearing female athymic nude mice” 的描述. 前面有5个修饰词来定义研究用的mice 这时一般把最窄的定义写在最前面，最广的定义写在后面.修饰语要靠近同被修饰的对象. 因修饰语和被修饰的词被隔开，而造成意思混乱的情况很多. 下面是一些例子 .Inhibition of Acid B on xanthine oxidase was also reported.Inhibition of 后面应紧跟xanthine oxidase , 而不是Acid B, 隔开后句子就很难读.宜改为：Inhibition of xanthine oxidase by Acid B was also reported.The chelating activities for ferrous ion of the Acid B were assessed.The chelating activities 后面应紧跟Acid B , 而不是ferrous ion.宜改为：The chelating activities of the Acid B for ferrous ion were assessed.Reducing power represents the electron donating capacity, which may serve as a significant indicator of potential antioxidant activity.用which 开头的修饰句, 是要修饰reducing power , 而不是修饰electron donating capacity , 所以要紧跟在reducing power 后面.宜改为：Reducing power, which may serve as a significant indicator of potential antioxidant activity, represents the electron donating capacity. 或: Reducing power represents the electron donating capacity. It may serve as a significant indicator of potential antioxidant activity.7、主语和谓语在句子中的位置要靠近要使句子的可读性强, 有两个因素特别需要注意. 一是句子的长短要合适. 研究表明一个句子中有1 3-20 个字时最合适阅读. 太短的句子有零碎的感觉，而太长的句子读起来有困难. 二是主语和谓语动词要靠近. 如果被隔开太远，就会有被隔离的感觉, 句子读起来就会比较困难，虽然从语法上来讲是可行的. 这主要同人类大脑处理文字信息的过程和方式有关. 当人们读到主语时，自然而然地期望知道主语后面的行动, 也就是结果. 在行动( 谓语) 出现之前, 读者需要记住主语是什么，同时又要阅读和理解下面的文字，读起来很累. 就像要屏住呼吸等待要发生的事情, 只有当谓语出现，知道了主题的行动后，才能呼出这口气. 时间长了自然不舒服.Lincomycin , one of the lincosamide antimicrobial agents which was first isolated more than fifty years ago , is used as a major antibiotic for the treatment of diseases caused by most Gram-positive bacteria.宜改为：Lincomycin is one of the lincosamide antimicrobial agents which were first isolated more than fifty years ago. It is used as a major antibiotic for the treatment of diseases caused by most Gram-positive bacteria.8、名词作形容词科技写作中经常会用名词来作为形容词使用，如room temperature, university researchers. 当用一个名词来修饰另一个名词时，意义一般都很清楚. 但当三个名词放在一起，或两个名词前再加一个形容词时，就要小心. 有的情况下, 3 个或 3 个以上的名词放在一起，表达的意思很清楚，也是一种很简洁的表达方式. 如: blood white cell number, prostate cancer patient, Beijing University medical school student. 但有时会有多种讲法. Top university researchers 可以是researchers of (only) top university 也可以是(all) university researchers who are top. 多个名词排在一起，即使表达明确，也给拥挤的感觉. 应避免使用多个名词的修饰方式. 最好的办法是用介词或其它方式来把他们分开, 以便清楚表达它们的修饰关系. 多个名词罗列的情况经常发生，下面多举一些例子.H e wrote the quality control group reports.宜改为：He wrote the reports of the quality control group.The patient showed chronic liver disease symptoms.宜改为：The patient showed symptoms of chronic liver disease.The human brain oxygen level is quite high.宜改为：The oxygen level in human brain is quite high.Their specific inhibition producing effects on fat containing food intake were assessed.宜改为：Their specific effects of inhibition on the intake of fat containing food were assessed. The present investigation evaluated various specific drug sample combinations.宜改为：The present investigation evaluated various combinations of specific drug samples9、句子的时态科技论文中基本上只用现在时和过去时两种时态.有的作者偶尔会使用完成时.完成时一般只用于多次并一直在研究的情况.其他的时态用得很少.论文中的时态有它特定的意义.时态用来表明科研成果的认知程度.当描述已发表的文献成果时,用现在时,因为已发表的成果被承认是事实.描述未发表的实验和结果时,用过去时，因为还没有得到承认,并且是写论文以前做的事情.由于科技论文中的时态的特定用法，写作中经常需要转换时态.一句话中都可能用两个时态.总起来说，Abstract 中要讲述自己的实验和结论,要用过去时.Introduction中要总结文献和问题, 以现在时为主,也用一些过去时.Methods 和Results 都是讲自己的实验和结果,用过去时.而Discussion中则需要根据描述文献还是自己的实验，需要交换使用现在时和过去时.在引述文献结果时，过去发表的结论可以认为是已经被承认的事实，应该用现在时.但引述过去的实验时,特别是以作者为主语时,因是过去做的事情，应该用过去时.Wang showed that the rate of growth is dependent on temperature.Smith studied the growth rate and reported that it is dependent on temperature.若作者不是主语, 而作者的研究是主语时，用现在时.Investigation by Wang shows that the rate of growth is dependent on temperature.当描述自己的实验和实验结果时，应用过去时. 因为是在写文章以前做的事情, 并且还没被接受为事实( 发表) .We measured its plasma concentration and found that it was two times higher in obesity patients than in normal population.讲述table 或figure 中显示的结果时，可以用现在时.Table 4 shows that growth was dependent on temperature.计算的结果和统计分析结果应该用现在时.The calculated value is significantly lower indicating most of the dissolved compound was degraded.10、主动句和被动句许多人认为科技论文都应该用被动句，不要加入个性的成分. 现在越来越多的杂志提倡使用主动句, 因为主动句更简洁和明确.把“ it is reported by the authors of this paper that” 改为“ We reported that” 就显得更简要和直接. 下面是个例子:In 2002 we reported the synthesis of anthramycin analogues and their DNA binding activities studied by gel electrophoresis.但实验部分还是主要使用被动句. 用“The drug concentration was measured by HPLC” 而一般不用“ We measured the drug concentration by HPLC”.11、标点符号的使用英文科技论文写作中经常使用的标点符号有逗号，句号和分号.冒号和问号使用的情况很少，而惊叹号几乎就不会被使用.现在分号使用的也逐渐减少,一般用句号取代.一篇论文中只是使用逗号和句号也是正常的.句号的使用比较明确,下面主要对逗号的使用作一些说明.逗号虽然很小，但要表达清楚你要传达的信息却离不开它.比如下面的例子，没有逗号时句子不好读.加逗号后,逗号放在不同的地方,意思完全不同.Although it was incubated at 50 o C for 24 hours no reaction occurred.Although it was incubated at 50 o C for 24 hours, no reaction occurred.Although it was incubated at 50 o C, for 24 hours no reaction occurred.逗号是用来分开两个独立的句子，下面的句子是可以的.Ethanol is used to replace gasoline, and it is produced from corn.下面的句子就不合适, 因为逗号后面不是一个完整的句子.Ethanol is used to replace gasoline, and is produced from corn.当一个长的语句出现在句子的前面时，要用逗号分开. 若语句不长, 不需要停顿，也可以不用逗号.During the process of solvent removal, some crystalline solid was formed.During the process precipitate was formed.12、数字的写法科技论文离不开数字. 数字的一种写法是用英文字，如three, thirteen. 另一种是写阿拉伯数字. 具体用哪种写法可参照以下几个简单的规则.1 ) 少于10 的整数用英文字，大于或等于10 的数字用阿拉伯数字.thee experimentsone assay23 birds6,500 miles2 ) 有小数点和单位的数字用阿拉伯数字.1.2 hours5 percent3 amPage 33 ) 在句子开头的数字用英文字 .英语的一个句子的开始是用大写字母来表明的. 如果是一个数字, 那就不能起到表示一个句子开始的作用. 所以不能用数字开始一个句子. 这时要把数字用英文字写出, 或最好能修改句子，不用数字开头. 一个经常被使用的办法是把表示数量的数字放到括号中去.10 ml ethanol was added.Ten ml ethanol was added.Ethanol (10 ml) was added.30 eggs were used daily during the study.宜改为：During the study, 30 eggs were used daily.4 ) 当两个数字前后并列出现时, 一个要用英文字.当两个数字前后并列出现时，若都写成数字或文字，容易产生混乱.three eight-rat groups to: three 8-rats groups3 8-rats groups to: three 8-rats groupstwo 5-day study12 two-engine airplanes5) 小于1 的数字的单位用单数，大于1 的数字的单位复数.0.25 gram0.8 second1.5 grams3.45 seconds但是零后面的单位用复数 .zero meters0 meters单位的缩写单数和复数是一样的.0.1 ml15 ml13、冠词的使用使用冠词是英语的特点，中文没有相应字词. 对定冠词the 和不定冠词 a 、an 的使用往往掌握不好，最常见的是漏掉.There has been increase in loss of agricultural land.宜改为：There has been an increase in the loss of agricultural land.Stresses at various locations in crank are calculated by using sets of unit load cases applied to single throw FE model.宜改为：Stresses at various locations in the crank are calculated by using sets of unit load cases applied to a single throw FE model.再就是定冠词the 用多了.The alcohol is produced by the fermentation of the grains like corn and wheat.宜改为：Alcohol is produced by the fermentation of grains like corn and wheat.Alcohol 和grains 都是泛指, 不需要加定冠词the.除了是第一个字，题目中的冠词不要大写.The Dependence of Crystal Growth on the Solvents.14、同位词的使用写作中有时需要对新引述的事物或概念做简单解释和描述，但单写一个句子又会打断前后的连接. 这时用同位词来解释是一个经常使用的方式.The Hallervorden – Spatz syndrome, a neurological disorder associated with iron accumulation, has been linked to a decline in cysteine dioxygenase activity.同位词应该同修饰的事物等位，说明是什么, 而不能用来解释要修饰的事物的性质. 下面句子中的同位词的使用就不合适.Penicillin, not stable in water , was developed during WWII.15、多余的用词The supernatant was collected and concentrated in vacuum to evaporate the solvent. Concentrate 就是evaporate the solvent ，后面的to evaporate the solvent 是多余的.类似的把一些词的含义再次重复说明是最容易出现的多余用词.类似的8PM in the evening, blue in color, small in size, in vivo animal models, in vitro cell cultures 都有多余用词的情况.The results of activities of tested compounds were listed in Table 1.Results 是多余的.中文中经常写作“ 实验结果”“ 活性检测结果”，但英文中“ 结果”是不需要翻译出来的.宜改为：The activities of tested compounds were listed in Table 1.下面的例句中，their 就是acid B and D ，二者要去掉一个.The chemical mechanisms of their antioxidant activities of acid B and D were not well understood.宜改为：The chemical mechanisms of the antioxidant activities of acid B and D were not well understood.一些词组，如it should be mentioned, it should be pointed out, it was found, it was determined, … 都是冗长和委婉地说法，应该直接说明.字的使用中特别注意事项1. 用字要准确.每个科学术语都有其特定的含义, 使用要准确．比如微生物学中经常使用Medium, Broth 和Culture三个词，但它们之间存在差别. Medium是培养基, 可以是液体也可以是固体；Broth是培养液, 只是液体; 而Culture 是指细菌和培养液的混合物. 如果要从发酵罐中取样, 那取的样应该是Culture, 而不能用Medium或Broth. 化学中的量和浓度有明确定义, Mole和Molar就大不一样．Molar和Normal对有些是一样的, 对另些化合物则是不同的．物理学中的温度、距离、时间等均有自己的严格定义．科研人员对自己专业的词一般都能较好的掌握, 但对一些普通词汇的使用常掌握不准．举几个简单例子:比如, Promote 一般指职位的提升, 不能当Increase来使用.Production was promoted by 16% in the new procedure.宜改为: Production was increased by 16% in the new procedure.再比如, Perform表示一个行动，而不指某个具体事物. 浓度不能Perform, 但测浓度可以用Perform.The zinc concentration was performed.宜改为: The zinc concentration was measured.或Measurement of the zinc concentration was performed.2. 推理用语的使用从实验观察和数据到结论的推理过程中，在事实和理论的关系上可能有从“同…一致”,“表示”，“证明”等不同的强弱关系，在选择用词上要合理. 英语中经常使用的词是is compatible with, imply, suggest, indicate, show, prove. 这基本上是一个从弱到强的顺序.is compatible with, is consistent with, in line with 表示是个合理的解释, 不矛盾, 但可能还有其他的解释.imply, suggest 表示支持现在的结论，这个结论比其它的更合理, 但不能证明就是这个结论.ndicate, show, demonstrate 就更确定, 表示几乎就是这个结论了. 其他的可能性不大, 但还不是百分之百的证明.prove 表示完全肯定，没有任何其他可能性了. 科研中很少有这种情况. 用prove 要特别注意.3. 用词要保持一致论文从头到尾用字要保持一致.比如时间单位的分钟即可以全拼成minutes,也可以简写成min,二者都可以，但只能用一种写法.Figure或Fig只用一种写法.数字的写法上，如果一个写成fifteen,另一个写成12也是不一致.修改论文稿件时应特别注意用词的一致性.4. 尽量少用简写作者自己熟悉的简写，读者不一定知道，所以应尽量少用简写. 必需时, 宜于第一次出现全名时在其后用括号标出简写．比如Heat Shock Protein (HSP)、Multi Body Dynamics （MBD）. 至于广泛使用的简写, 如ml, AIDS 等可不用写出全名.5. 不要用缩约语正式地写作中, 不要使用如didn't, don't, can't, haven't….缩约语. 应该写完整形式, did not, do not, cannot (一个字), hav e not …. .6. 避免使用俚语虽然非英语国家的作者不是很好区分什么是俚语，但还是要注意不要使用像 a lot, sort of, pretty good…的口头用语.7. 经常使用，但容易出现问题的字Above经常用来指前面提到过的，表示“ 如前所述, as discussed above” “ 前面的方法, the above method” 等. 但above 不确定，用起来容易，读起来不易明白, 容易造成表达不清. 这时应把所指的事情明确地写出来 . 类似不明确的字还有former, latter. 应避免使用Adapt, adept, adopt Adapt 是动词，适应. Adept 是形容词，熟练的. Adopt 是动词，采用.Affect, Effect, ImpactAffect 是动词，影响(influence) 的意思. 如“ 温度对细胞生长的影响, “Temperature affected the growth of cells”.Effect 是名词，是结果(result), 影响的意思. 有时也可以作动词, 招致(bring about) 的意思. 科技论文中很少使用effect 的动词形式.Impact 当冲击，碰撞讲. 如“ Western popular culture has a huge impact on Asian society ”. 自然科学不同参数的相互影响一般不用impact 来描写, 用affect 或influence 更合适. Agree to, agree withAgree to 是同意, giving con sent. “I agree to a biopsy test”. Agree with 是一致, in accord. “The results agree with our previous observation”.Alternate, AlternativeAlternate 是交替的，轮流的. Alternative 是另外的，选择的.AndAnd 是一个非常有用的字. 它是一个最被经常用到的连接词, 可以连接类似的词, 词组或句子. 用and 连接的词, 词组或句子是相关联但又各自独立的. 当排列三个以上的词时，最后的一个词之前加and . 其它的词后都加逗号.Pollution in the river affected the population of different animals, such as fishes, birds, and turtles. And 之前也可以不加逗号.Pollution in the river affected the population of different animals, such as fishes, birds and turtles. 一般认为and 之前加逗号是美国写法，不加逗号是英国写法.用and 连接句子时，若两个句子都很简单，中间可以不加逗号.One liter of water was added and the solution was left at 4 o C overnight.但中间加个逗号也正确.One liter of water was added, and the solution was left at 4 o C overnight.两个比较复杂的句子中间一定要加逗号，以便于阅读和理解.The assay was carried out by heating the sample in boiling water for two hours, and the volume of the assay solution was kept constant by adding water.用and 来开始一个句子也是可以的. and 起到对一些相关和并列的描述来连接的作用. AIDS drugs are effective to control the replication of HIV, but they cannot cure AIDS. And a vaccine for AIDS is still elusive. Therefore, education and prevention are the most effective weapons against AIDS for now.用and 连接两个独立的句子时, 可以在and 之前加逗号，也可以不加逗号. 但连接一个不完整的句子时, 不能用逗号分开.The sample was added to the testing solution, and allowed to react in a water bath at 37 ℃for 10 min.宜改为：The sample was added to the testing solution and allowed to react in a water bath at 37 ℃for 10 min.But 的用法同and 很类似，只是它连接的句子是对照和相反的.Apparently (apparent)有“ 明显的，obvious , clear ” 和“ 貌似的，seeming ” 两种用法. 具体是哪种讲法, 句子的前后内容可能会有提示. 在不能确定的情况下, 应避免使用, 选用obvious 或seeming 更好.Apparently 也是一样，选用obviously 或seeemingly .AppearAppear 有” 出现, to come into view ”和” 好象, seem” 两种讲法, 一般在科技论文中, 当“ 好象, seem” 的讲法用的要多些.After cooling down to room temperature, yellowish crystals appeared .It appears that deformation of frogs in the Hui River is caused by pesticides.AsAs 有很多不同的讲法，它有表示因果关系的用途，类似because 和since . 但as 表示的因果关系最弱，since 在中间，because 的因果关系最明确. 所以不要用as 来表示因果关系. 用because 或since .As 用来表示“ 同样地”, “ 像… 一样”.The genetically engineered apple tastes as good as the natural one.As soon as the body temperature reached 39 o C, the child has to be sent to the emergency room. 也当“ 在… 的时候，when ” 讲.As the snow started to melt, the team went back into the forest to collect samples.Average, mean, medianAverage 和mean 都是平均的意思, mean 是个数学用语. Median 是一个系列中的中间的那个值.2, 4, 8, 16, 32 average 和mean 是12.4, median 是8.Because, because of用because 来表示因果关系是最明确的. Because 后面写句子，Because of 后面用名词. The tiger population deceased dramatically because their habitat was destroyed.The tiger population decreased dramatically because of loss of habitat.For 和since 表示的因果关系要弱些, 用since 时往往强调的是当时的情况，时间，地点等. 有中文的“ 既然” 的意思. As 表示的因果关系最弱.Since the weather is hot and humid, we decided to take a break.Below同above 一样，所指含糊，应避免使用.Beside, besidesBeside 是“ 在… 旁边” ，besides 是“ 除了… ”.Between, amongBetween 是两个人或事之间, among 是两个以上人或事之间.But同and 一样, but 是一个被经常使用的连接词. 它连接的句子有对照和相反的意思.在连接比较简单的两个句子，并不影响句子的流畅的时候，but 之前可以不加逗号.He felt better but did not fully recover after taking the medicine.连接两个比较长的句子时候，but 前应加逗号，把两个句子分开.Scientists spent months to figure out why the satellite did not reach its orbit, but they never find the truth.But 也可以放在句子的开头.For a long time people realize there has to be a natural ligand for the cannabinoid receptor. But its identity was only elucidated recently.用逗号把but 隔开是不对的.But , its identity was only elucidated recently.CannotCannot 是一个字，can not 应写成cannot.CaseCase 只是起到填充空间( filler) 的作用，没有实质意义. 应避免使用类似“ in the case of ” 的词组.Compare with, compare toCompare with 是比较的意思，而compare to 是比作的意思.It is often to compare the human brain with a computer.The human brain is often compared to a black box.Compose, consist , compriseCompose 当“ 组成，构成” 讲，是及物动词. 一般用“xxx is composed of xxx” 的形式. 如: An atom is composed of a nucleus and a defined number of electrons.Consist 当” 有… 组成” 讲，是不及物动词. 一般用“xxx consists of xxx” 的形式 . 如: An atom consists of a nucleus and a defined number of electrons.Comprise 当” 包括” 讲，也有“ 有… 组成” 的意思. 到底是什么用法，很容易弄不明白，所以干脆不要用这个字.Continual, continuousContinual 是经常发生的，continuous 是连续和不间断的.Correlated with, correlated toCorrelate with 是正确用法，correlate to 是不对的 . Related to 是正确.Different from, different than事物之间不同用different from ，人物之间不同用different than. Different from 不能写成different than.Due toDue to 是” 应归于…” 或” 有… 引起” 的意思(caused by) . 后面要跟名词，同because of 不同. 但due to 表达的也有因果关系的意思. 如果你不是很确定, 应避免使用due to ，用because of 或caused by .Equipment单数和复数都是equipment ，没有equipments 的写法.Few, a fewFew 是很少, 强调没有多少, 有否定的意思. A few 也是很少, 但强调有一些, 虽然不多，有肯定的意思. Few 形容可数名词，little 形容不可数名词. Little , a little 的用法同few, a few 类似.Flammable, inflammable, nonflammableFlammable, inflammable 都是易燃的意思. nonflammable 才是他们的反义词.FollowingFollowing 是形容词，表示“ 接着的，下述的”.。
英文科研论文写作技巧
英文科研论文写作简介1. 引言英文论文写作的前提是有创新研究成果，创新研究成果的关键是选题。
“An acceptable primary scientific publication” must be “the first disclosure”.科研论文写作常出现的一个误区是：以为好论文是“写”出来的，只要会写，论文总能被接受发表。
其实，论文被发表只是结果，这个结果是和一系列科研环节密切相关的，论文写作只是其最后一个环节。
在选择科研课题和工作切入点时，就需特别注意，一定要有创新内容，科学研究的灵魂是创新，重复别人的工作，从科研的角度来说，是没有意义的。
值得注意的是，阅读有关英文科技论文，不仅可以了解研究进展和动态，而且，可以学会科技英文表达。
同样，选题很好，研究工作做得不够细致、深入，也难有说服力，难以成为有价值的研究工作。
由于本书只介绍英文科研论文的写作，不讲如何做研究，因此只介绍有了好的研究成果后如何写成合格的科研文章。
The goal of scientific research is publication. Scientists, starting as graduate students, are measured primarily not by their dexterity in laboratory manipulations, not by their innate knowledge of either broad or narrow scientific subjects, and certainly not by their wit or charm; they are measured, and become known (or remain unknown) by their publications.A scientific experiment, no matter how spectacular the results, is not completed until the results are published.Thus, the scientists must not only “do” the science but must “write” science. Bad writing can and often does prevent or delay the publication of good science.2.科研论文的一般格式。
学术研究中的英语写作技巧推荐
学术研究中的英语写作技巧推荐在学术研究中，英语写作是一项至关重要的技能。
无论是撰写论文、发表研究成果还是与国际同行交流，良好的英语写作能力都是必不可少的。
本文将介绍一些学术研究中的英语写作技巧，帮助读者提升自己的写作水平。
一、选择合适的词汇和句型在学术写作中，使用准确、恰当的词汇和句型是非常重要的。
首先，要避免使用口语化的词汇和俚语，而应该选择正式、专业的术语。
其次，要注意使用准确的动词和形容词，避免使用过于笼统或模糊的词汇。
此外，可以尝试使用一些学术写作常用的句型，如“It is widely acknowledged that…”、“There is growing evidence to suggest that…”等，以提升文章的表达力和严谨性。
二、合理组织文章结构良好的文章结构对于传达思想和观点非常重要。
在学术写作中，常用的结构包括引言、正文和结论。
引言部分应该简要介绍研究背景和目的，并概括前人研究成果。
正文部分应该合理组织，清晰地呈现研究方法、实验结果和分析讨论。
结论部分应该总结研究成果，并提出未来的研究方向。
此外，还可以使用一些连接词和过渡句，如“however”、“on the other hand”、“in contrast”等，使文章结构更加连贯。
三、注意文章的逻辑性和连贯性在学术写作中，逻辑性和连贯性是非常重要的。
文章中的每个段落都应该有明确的主题句，并围绕主题句展开论述。
同时，要注意段落之间的过渡，以确保文章的连贯性。
此外，还可以使用一些逻辑连接词，如“therefore”、“thus”、“consequently”等，来表达因果关系和逻辑推理，使文章更具说服力。
四、避免冗长和啰嗦的表达学术写作应该力求简洁、明了，避免冗长和啰嗦的表达。
可以通过删除冗余的词汇和句子，简化句子结构，以及使用简洁的动词和形容词来实现。
此外，还可以使用一些缩写词和缩略语，如“e.g.”、“i.e.”、“etc.”等，来简化表达。
英语专业论文写作的一些技巧
英语专业论文写作的一些技巧
1.研究题目：选择适合的研究题目非常重要。
确保您选择的题目是有
足够的资源和资料可供研究。
此外，题目也应该具有一定的学术或实际意义。
2.阅读与研究：寻找相关的文献资料，深入了解您的主题。
阅读大量
的专业书籍、学术文章和研究报告，以了解领域内目前的研究趋势和所关
注的问题。
3.时间规划：制定一个合理的时间表，确保您有足够的时间来完成论
文的各个阶段，包括研究、撰写提纲、初稿、修改和最终定稿。
4.提纲：在开始撰写之前，制定一个清晰的提纲。
提纲应包含引言、
主体段落和结论等部分。
这将帮助您组织好论文结构，并确保逻辑的连贯性。
5.引言部分：在引言中，您需要明确论文的目的、研究问题和研究方法。
同时，引言还应该包括一些背景信息，以便读者了解您所研究的主题。
6.主体段落：主体段落应阐述您的论点、观点和研究结果。
每个段落
应以一个主题句开头，并通过提供充分的论据和例证来支持您的观点。
此外，确保段落之间的过渡流畅，以避免论文的断裂感。
7.结论：在结论部分，总结您的研究结果，并回答您的研究问题。
同时，您还可以提出一些进一步的研究建议或对未来工作的展望。
9.语言表达：确保您的写作流畅、准确、简明。
使用清晰的句子结构、恰当的词汇和正确的语法来表达您的观点。
同时，尽量避免使用口语化和
俚语表达。
10.互相修改和润色：在您完成初稿后，让他人帮您进行修改和润色。
他们可以提供有关逻辑、语法、拼写和标点等方面的反馈意见，帮助您改
善您的论文。
研究生英语写作注意事项
研究生英语写作注意事项作为研究生，英语写作是学术研究和交流中不可或缺的一部分。
要想写出优秀的英语文章，不仅需要扎实的语言基础，还需要注意许多细节和要点。
以下是一些在研究生英语写作中需要特别关注的事项。
一、明确写作目的和受众在开始写作之前，一定要明确自己的写作目的是什么，是为了阐述研究成果、论证观点，还是为了提交作业、发表论文？同时，要考虑文章的受众是谁，是专业领域的学者、同行，还是一般读者？明确这两点将有助于确定文章的内容、语言风格和结构。
如果是写给专业学者看的，那么语言可以相对专业和严谨，使用较多的专业术语和复杂的句子结构。
但如果是面向一般读者，就需要用更通俗易懂的语言来解释专业概念，避免使用过于晦涩的词汇和句子。
二、做好充分的准备工作1、收集资料在动笔之前，要广泛收集与写作主题相关的资料，包括书籍、期刊论文、研究报告等。
通过阅读这些资料，可以了解前人在该领域的研究成果，为自己的写作提供参考和启发。
2、拟定提纲三、注意语言的准确性1、词汇选择要使用准确、恰当的词汇来表达自己的意思。
避免使用模棱两可或含义不清的词汇，尽量选择具体、明确的词语。
同时，要注意词汇的搭配和用法，避免出现中式英语的错误。
2、语法正确语法错误会严重影响文章的质量和可读性。
要注意句子的主谓一致、时态、语态、词性等方面的问题。
可以通过多读多写来提高对语法的敏感度，也可以借助语法书籍和工具进行检查和纠正。
四、保证逻辑的清晰性1、段落结构每个段落都应该有一个明确的主题，并且围绕这个主题展开论述。
段落的开头通常是主题句，概括该段落的主要内容，随后的句子则是对主题句的支持和解释。
段落之间的过渡要自然流畅，使文章整体逻辑连贯。
2、论证方法在论证观点时，要使用合理的论证方法，如举例、对比、因果分析等。
论据要充分、可靠，能够有力地支持论点。
同时，要避免逻辑漏洞和自相矛盾的情况。
五、遵循学术规范1、引用和参考文献如果在文章中引用了他人的观点、数据或研究成果，一定要按照学术规范进行引用，并在参考文献中列出。
英语议论文写作要点
一、英语议论文写作要点议论文通过议论或说理来表达作者见解和主.作者对*一问题持有一种看法,为了使读者同意自己的看法,提出假设干理由,企图说服他人.高中英语议论文的写作要注意以下要点: 1. 论点要鲜明、确切．一篇议论文只能有一个中心论点．论点一般在开头提出，然后加以论证．2. 论据要充分、可靠．一般是以事实为论据，也可以利用成语，格言，名人名言作为论据．3. 论证要严密、得法．归纳法〔induction〕和演绎法〔deduction〕是议论文常用的论证方法．归纳法的例子为根底，从几个例子和现象中，归纳出*种道理和看法．例如：报纸是一种媒体〔medium 〕，人们可以从中得到现代信息；电视是一种媒体，人们也可以从中获得信息；播送也是媒体，人们同样可以从中获得现代信息．因此我们可以得出结论，其他媒体，如网络等，一定会给人们信息．演绎法以一个或多个看法为根底，从一般论断，演绎到不同事例，再加以论述，最后再回到一般论断上来．例如：所有的媒体都可以给人们提供信息，网络是媒体，因此人们可以从网络中获得信息．在归纳中要注意使用的例子要充分，不能以点概面．二、议论文的写作步骤:1. 引言(introduction)．由于英语作文受时间，字数的限制．因此，在引言段中作者就必须简单解释要讨论的问题，并明白地亮出自己的观点，如提倡什么，支援什么，反对什么．2. 主体段〔main body〕．主体段是议论的过程，作者必须有足够的证据．〔adequate proofs〕来论证自己的观点．一般可提出一个或两个proofs, 并对此用一两句话分别进展阐述．3. 结论〔conclusion〕．结论段可以用一两句话来完毕文章．同时要注意与引言段照应，但不能照搬前面的原话．例：课本高二上P78 第一封信Tutorial center is helpful.I have studied at a tutorial center for two years. My mand of English has improved considerably since I started this course.At my center, the fees are reasonable. My tutors are qualified teachers. I have been helped a lot by them. They are sincere and kind.One of my teachers was British. At first, I could not say anything to her. But later I learned how to municate in English with a westerner.I think that the tutorial center has given me a lot of confidence in using English.评注: 第一段提出论点, 表达家教中心是helpful(段划线局部) ,主体段分别从几个方面(划线局部)来阐述家教中心确实有帮助,结论段重申家教中心的作用(划线局部),且语句表达与第一段中的不重复.三、议论文的写作模式1. 议论文的类型英语议论文根据命题特点，从形式上来看可分为如下类型: ①“一分为二〞的观点．如“轿车大量进入家庭后，对家庭、环境、经济可能产生的影响〞②“两者选一〞的观点．如，期中考试作文题，“乘火车还是乘飞机〞③“我认为……〞型．如“你对课外阅读的看法〞④“怎样……〔how to〕〞型．如“怎样克制学习中碰到的困难〞．⑤图表作文．通过阅读图表中的数字与工程得出一个结论或形成一种看法．按照高二上学期的写作要求，学生主要应掌握①②两种类型的议论文的写作．在第①种类型中命题涉及*一事物或现象的正反两个方面：通过正反两个方面的比照，得出结论是利大于弊，还是弊大于利．论证要围绕所要得出的结论来展开，假设利大于弊，则有利的一面要多阐述一点．反之亦然．在第②种类型中，命题要求在A或B两者之间作一比拟或选择，两个对象往往各有优势，所以结论局部有两种情况：a. 要么支持A，要么支持B;b. A、B优势均难的割舍，只好依情况而定在结论局部说清楚在什么条件选A, 在什么条件选B．下面重点介绍第①、②种类型议论文的写作模式.2. “一分为二〞观点的议论文模式Introduction第1段:Nowadays more and more people．．．/．．．plays an important part in．．．. like everythingelse, ．．．has/have both favorable and unfavorable aspects/both advantages and disadvantages. Generally, the favorable aspects/advantages can be listed as follows.Main body第2段：Firstly,.. Secondly,…In addition/What’s more…第3段: Every coin has two sides. The negative aspects/disadvantages are also apparent/obvious. To begin with…; To make matters worse…; Worse of all…Conclusion第4段: Through above analysis/All things considered, we can see that the positive aspects/advantages outweigh the negative ones/disadvantages. Therefore…例文1. 看电视的利与弊 Advantages and disadvantages of watching TVNowadays more and more people like to watch TV. So TV plays a very important part in our life. But watching TV has both advantages and disadvantages. Generally, the advantages can be listed as follows.Firstly, you can e*pand your knowledge by watching TV. As we all know, learning things by TV is much faster than by listening to the radio or just by reading books. Forit has colorful pictures as well as wonderful music. Secondly, you may know anybody you want to know such as famous singers, super stars, scientists and so on. What’s more, you can go everywhere by traveling programs. Let’s suppose, if you like traveling very much, but you have to work on weekends or holidays, you must be very sad. And now open your TV and it’ll take you to anywhere. Every coin has two sides. The disadvantages are also obvious. For e*ample, watching too much TV can easily bee short-sighted, especially for children and students. To make matters worse, some young students are keen on watching TV so that they give up their studies gradually. Through above analysis, I think watching TV is a way of studying, it is good for us to watch TV. But when we watchTV, we should make a plan otherwise watching TV will destroy our life.例文2. 谈谈出国留学的利与弊 Where to attend a collegeNowadays more and more young people are going to study abroad. Like everything else, studying abroad has both favorable and unfavorable aspects. Generally, the favorable aspects can be listed as follows.Firstly, they think by attending a college in a foreign country they can learn not only useful knowledge, but also the culture and customs of other nations. Secondly, they can take advantage of this opportunity to gain a good mand of the foreign language they are learning very quickly. Moreover, they can meet different people and e*perience different cultures, which may help to broaden their views.Every coin has two sides. The negative aspects are also apparent. The costs are much higher than those in their native country. Most overseas students have to work for a living, which can’t allow them to pay all their attention to study. What’s more, they may feel very lonely.Through above analysis, we can see that the positiveaspects outweigh the negative ones. Therefore, I am in favor of going abroad to study.写作练习：①谈谈校服〔school uniforms〕.提示：近年来，越来越多的中小学要求穿校服．对此引发了学生中由对这个问题的讨论，请写一片英语短文阐述你的观点．Reference: some of the main arguments for and against school uniforms.FOR1.Students look neat and tidy.2.The public knows which school you are from.3.Parents all pay the same money.4.Students don’t worry about fashions.5.Teachers can identify students on school trips.AGAINST1.Uniforms are e*pensive.2.Children grow fast, need new uniforms.3.Some uniforms are very unfortable.4.Students all look the same, can’t be individuals.5.Get bored with same clothes every day.②说广告〔about advertisement〕.提示：有人说广告在现代社会是很重要，有人认为广告的促销成分太多，你认为……3.“两者选一〞观点的议论文模式模式⑴:A、B两者优劣势分析,要么选A,要么选B. Introduction第1段:Some people hold the opinion that (A) is superior to (B) in many ways. Others, however, argue that (B) is much better. Personally, I would prefer (A) because I think (A) has more advantages.Main body第2段：There are many reasons why I prefer (A). The main reason is that … Another reason is that…(赞同A的原因)第3段: Of course, choosing (B) also has advantages to some e*tent, (列出1~2个B的优势)Conclusion第4段: But if all these factors are considered, (A) iswe may finally draw the conclusion that …(总结观点)例文: Which is better“ Cars or bikes“Some people hold the opinion that private cars are superior to bicycles in many ways. Others, however, argue that the bicycle is much better. Personally, I would prefer the use of cars because I think cars have more advantages.There are many reasons why I prefer cars. The main reason is that cars bring convenience and mobility to the owners. What’s more, a car is far more fortable to travel in, especially in the changeable weather. Another reason is that, when more people buy cars, the automobile industry will develop more quickly. The growth of the automobile industry can motivate the rise of other related industries such as iron and steel production.Of course, bicycles can take you to anywhere you like in town and does not need a large parking place. Besides, it is not as e*pensive as a car and therefore every family can afford to buy.But if all these factors are considered, cars are muchwe may finally draw the conclusion that people can live better with the use of cars.模式⑵: A、B优势相当,依情况而定,有条件地选择A或B. Introduction第1段:Which would you prefer if you are faced with the choice between (A) and (B)“ Before you make the decision, you had better make a close parison.Main body第2段：It is true that(选择A的优势之一). It is also true that(选择A的优势之二). But (选择A的劣势).第3段: Though.(选择B的劣势), (选择B的优势之一). Furthermore, (选择B的优势之二).Conclusion第4段: Therefore, if you…, you should choose (A), but if you…, you should choose (B). (总结观点,提出建议)例文: Listening to the radio or reading the newspapers “Which would you prefer if you are faced with the choice between listening to the radio and reading the newspapers“ Before you make the decision, you hadbetter make a close parison.It is true that listening to the radio is quick and convenient. It is also true that we can listen to the radio while are doing something else. So we can save a lot of time. But radio programs have their own time schedule. You cannot get the information you need every time you turn on your radio.Though newspapers are not as quick as radio, reading from the newspaper can certainly bring us news more clearly and more e*actly. Furthermore, while reading, we have time to think about what we are reading, to judge it, to analyze it, and then we will be more aware of its cause and effect.We are living in an information age. We have to make full use of the information we can get if we are to achieve our goals.Therefore, if we want to get the latest news, we can listen to the radio, but if we want to get the e*act words, we’d better read the newspaper.写作练习:①安康与财富(Health and Wealth)提示: 安康与财富哪个更重要一直是一个热门话题(hottopic),请简述你的观点.②哪里住更好(Where to live“)提示: 有的人喜欢往城里挤,有的人喜欢往乡下搬. 各有所好,孰是孰非,你以为如何“参考文献:。
高质量英文学术论文的要素和写作注意事项
高质量英文学术论文的要素和写作注意事项十大要素：（1）原创性（2）创新性（3）题目合适（4）好的摘要（5）论文组织论证严密（逻辑性强）（6）图表清晰可靠（7）英语表达好，语法拼写等错误少（8）精选参考文献（9）LETTER 要求投的文章要适合该期刊（10）可读性，好的文章通俗易懂，有影响力现在来谈谈英文文章的写作和注意事项：（1）题目：概括性强、体现创新性、精炼题目写作注意事项：英文题目以短语为主要形式，尤以名词短语最常见，即题目基本上由一个或几个名词加上其前置和(或)后置定语构成。
例如：The fabrication of …。
短语型题目要确定好中心词，再进行前后修饰。
各个词的顺序很重要，词序不当，会导致表达不准。
题目一般不应是陈述句，因为题目主要起标示作用，而陈述句容易使题目具有判断式的语义；况且陈述句不够精练和醒目，重点也不易突出。
少数情况(评述性、综述性和驳斥性)下可以用疑问句做题目，因为疑问句可有探讨性语气，易引起读者兴趣。
题目中的缩略词语：已得到整个科技界或本行业科技人员公认的缩略词语，才可用于题目中，否则不要轻易使用。
另外，还要注意题目字数的限制，国外科技期刊一般对题目字数有所限制，这些规定可供我们参考。
总的原则是，题目应确切、简练、醒目，在能准确反映论文特定内容的前提下，题目词数越少越好。
（2）摘要：与结论不重复，体现整个文章的结论和思想，包括研究工作的目的、方法、结果和应用等。
摘要写作注意事项：摘要是以提供文献内容梗概为目的，不加评论和补充解释，简明、确切地记述文献重要内容的短文。
其基本要素包括研究目的、方法、结果和结论。
具体地讲，就是研究工作的主要对象和范围，采用的手段和方法，得出的结果和重要的结论，有时也包括具有情报价值的其它重要的信息。
摘要应具有独立性和自明性，并且拥有与文献同等量的主要信息，即不阅读全文，就能获得必要的信息。
A．英文摘要的时态：时态运用也以简练为佳，常用一般现在时、一般过去时，少用现在完成时、过去完成时，进行时态和其他复合时态基本不用。
英语学术写作：规范与技巧
英语学术写作：规范与技巧在当今全球化的学术环境中，英语学术写作的重要性日益凸显。
无论是撰写学术论文、研究报告，还是参与国际学术交流，具备良好的英语学术写作能力都是至关重要的。
它不仅是展示研究成果的重要手段，也是与国际学术界进行有效沟通的桥梁。
然而，对于许多学习者来说，英语学术写作并非易事，它需要遵循一系列的规范，并掌握一定的技巧。
一、规范（一）语法和拼写语法和拼写的正确性是英语学术写作的基础。
在写作过程中，要注意动词时态、名词单复数、形容词和副词的使用等。
避免常见的语法错误，如主谓不一致、句子成分残缺等。
同时，要认真检查拼写，确保单词的准确性。
（二）标点符号正确使用标点符号能够使句子的意思更加清晰。
例如，逗号用于分隔句子中的不同成分，句号用于结束一个完整的句子，分号用于连接两个相关但又独立的句子。
（三）引用和参考文献在学术写作中，引用他人的研究成果是常见的。
引用时需要遵循特定的格式，如 APA、MLA 等。
同时，要在文章末尾列出详细的参考文献，以表明所引用资料的来源。
（四）格式不同的学术领域和学术期刊可能对文章的格式有特定的要求。
一般来说，包括字体、字号、行距、页边距等方面的规定。
在写作之前，要了解并遵循相应的格式要求。
二、技巧（一）清晰的逻辑结构文章应该有一个清晰的开头、中间和结尾。
开头部分要引出主题，中间部分要详细阐述观点和论据，结尾部分要总结主要观点并得出结论。
段落之间要有过渡句，使文章的逻辑连贯。
（二）准确的语言表达避免使用模糊、含混的词汇，尽量使用具体、准确的词语来表达自己的观点。
同时，要注意词汇的搭配和语境，确保语言表达自然流畅。
（三）多样化的句型不要总是使用简单句，要适当运用复合句、复杂句来丰富句子结构，增强文章的表现力。
但也要注意不要过度使用，以免使句子变得过于复杂，难以理解。
（四）批判性思维在写作过程中，要对自己的观点进行批判性思考，分析其合理性和局限性。
同时，也要对他人的观点进行客观评价，并提出自己的见解。