贸易壁垒

贸易壁垒贸易壁垒(Barrier to trade) 又称贸易障碍。

主要是指一国对外国商品劳务进口所实行的各种限制措施。

一般分关税壁垒和非关税壁垒两类。

所谓关税壁垒，是指进出口商品经过一国关境时，由政府所设置海关向进出口商征收关税所形成的一种贸易障碍。

按征收关税的目的来划分，关税有两种：一是财政关税，其主要目的是为了增加国家财政收入；二是保护关税，其主要目的是为保护该国经济发展而对外国商品的进口征收高额关税。

保护关税愈高，保护的作用就愈大，甚至实际上等于禁止进口。

非关税壁垒，是指除关税以外的一切限制进口措施所形成的贸易障碍，又可分为直接限制和间接限制两类。

直接限制是指进口国采取某些措施，直接限制进口商品的数量或金额，如进口配额制、进口许可证制、外汇管制、进口最低限价等。

间接限制是通过对进口商品制订严格的条例、法规等间接地限制商品进口，如歧视性的政府采购政策，苛刻的技术标准、卫生安全法规，检查和包装、标签规定以及其他各种强制性的技术法规。

种类划分折叠贸易壁垒的表现形式繁多以贸易壁垒影响的贸易种类为标准，可分为：货物贸易：关税壁垒（tariffbarriers）折叠1．关税减让方面（tariff reduction）比如，WTO成员没有按照该国减让表承诺的减让水平进行减让。

2．关税税则分类方面（tariff classification）比如，海关官员在对进口产品进行税则分类时拥有过多的自由裁量权，使得进口商难以预见未来对同一进口产品适用的关税。

3．关税高峰（tariff peaks）尽管有关税减让表规定的减让水平，仍然在特定产品领域维持高关税。

4．关税配额（tariff quotas）对一定数量（配额量）内的进口产品适用较低的关税税率，对超过该配额量的进口产品适用较高的税率。

实践中，配额量的确定、发放和管理过程中的不适当做法常常成为贸易壁垒。

货物贸易：非关税壁垒（non-tariff barriers）滥用以下措施，往往对货物贸易造成壁垒：进口许可（import licensing）出口许可（export licensing）进口配额（import quotas）进口禁令（import prohibition）技术性贸易壁垒（technical barriers to trade）出口限制（export restrictions）政府采购（government procurement）补贴（subsidies）自愿出口限制（voluntary export restraints）当地含量要求（domestic content regulations）国家专控的进出口贸易（the operations of import State Trading Enterprises）卫生与动植物检疫措施（sanitary and phytosanitary measures）反倾销、反补贴、保障措施等贸易救济措施（anti-dumping,countervailing,safeguards and other trade remedy measures）妨碍与贸易有关的投资的措施折叠1．投资准入范围的限制（access restrictions）2．税收歧视（tax discrimination）3．外国股权的限制（foreign ownership restrictions）妨碍与贸易有关的知识产权的措施：对知识产权保护力度不够等。

根据贸易壁垒的表现形式，可以把贸易壁垒分成以下四种：1．立法（legislation）：以法律、法规、条例的形式规定贸易壁垒；2．行政决定（administrative decisions）：以行政决定、行政命令、指令形式规定贸易壁垒；3．政策以及舆论（policy or consensus）：政府采取或者支持的以政策、舆论宣传来影响该国国民，比如使用国货、歧视进口产品等；4．做法（practices）：比如，短时间内不适当地频繁使用反倾销措施，地方保护主义，贪污，官僚主义等。

最新类型折叠绿色贸易壁垒折叠绿色贸易壁垒，是指环境（非关税）壁垒，是国际社会为保护人类、动植物及生态环境的健康和安全，而采取的直接或间接限制甚至禁止某些商品进出口的法律、法规和政策措施。

其实质是发达国家依赖其科技人员和环保水平，通过立法手段，制定严格的强制性技术标准，从而把来自发展中国家的产品拒之门外。

技术性贸易壁垒折叠技术性贸易壁垒是非关税壁垒的主要表现形式，是指商品进口国制定的技术法规、标准以及合格评定程序对外国进口商品构成了贸易障碍。

即通过颁布法律、法规、技术标准、认证制度、检验制度等方式，在技术指标、卫生检疫、商品包装和标签等方面制定苛刻的规定，最终达到限制进口的目的或效果，这种限制或阻碍进口的技术性措施就是技术性贸易壁垒。

劳工标准壁垒折叠劳工标准壁垒：劳工标准的内容主要有：废除强制劳动；禁止劳改产品出口；严禁使用和剥削童工；非歧视的工资水平、同工同酬；实行最低工资标准，保证劳工的最低工资水平；工人有自由结社和集体议价的权利等。

有些发达国家试图把劳工问题同贸易捆在一起解决，以期削减发展中国家的劳动成本优势。

（产生原因折叠贸易壁垒的出现并不断强化并非偶然，它是国际经济、社会、科技不断发展的产物。

分析新贸易壁垒产生的原因最主要的在于以下几点。

1．社会进步及人民生活水平日益提高，随着环保意识的提高，可持续发展理念深入人心，人们越来越关心赖以生存的地球和社会的可持续发展，因而要求国际贸易中的产品本身及其生产加工过程都不要以破坏环境或牺牲环境为代价；同时要求生产这些产品时也不要以牺牲劳动者的健康为代价。

于是，绿色壁垒和社会壁垒等新贸易壁垒将在国际贸易中不断出现。

2．新贸易壁垒的日益增多与传统贸易壁垒受到约束关系很大。

传统贸易壁垒如关税、许可证和配额等的使用不仅会受到国际公约制约和国际舆论的谴责，而且也易遭到对等报复。

因此，这些传统贸易壁垒措施将来的发展空间不是很大，这就为绿色壁垒等新贸易壁垒的发展提供了巨大发展空间。

3科学技术日新月异为新贸易壁垒的发展提供了条件和手段。

技术密集型产品在国际贸易中的比重不断提高，特别是信息技术产品，涉及的技术问题较为复杂，容易形成新贸易壁垒。

同时高灵敏和高技术检测仪器的发展使检测精度大大提高，给一些国家设置新贸易壁垒提供了技术和物质条件。

4．主要发达国家因经济增长乏力，贸易保护主义有重新抬头之势，随着传统贸易壁垒作用的弱化纷纷寻求新贸易壁垒，以保护其国内产业。

中国目前的主要特点国际贸易壁垒分为关税壁垒和非关税壁垒，其设置的目的是各国政府为保护该国的经济不受外来产品的侵犯。

然而，过度的贸易保护并不利于一国经济的发展。

而WTO，即世界贸易组织，正是以倡导自由贸易为宗旨。

加入WTO后，中国对外出口的遇到的情况是，关税壁垒逐步弱化，纺织品配额也逐步取消。

与此同时，所遇到的其他贸易壁垒却比以前严重，这表现在以下几方面：1．国外针对中国产品的反倾销力度加大。

对中国实施反倾销的国家，不仅有欧美、澳大利亚、加拿大、日本等发达国家，也有像土耳其、埃及、印度、韩国这样一些发展中国家；所涉及的产品既有日用品行业，也有机电行业，既有制造品，也有矿产和养殖品；有资料显示，20世纪90年代以来，中国反倾销案件占世界总量的1/7-1/6，而加入WTO后，这一比例大大增加，中国已经成为外国反倾销的主要目标国家。

2．技术性壁垒已经成为中国产品出口的主要障碍。

广义的技术性贸易壁垒包括技术法规、技术标准与合格评定程序，产品检疫、检验制度与措施，包装和标签规定，信息技术壁垒以及绿色壁垒五个方面。

中国出口产品所面临的技术贸易壁垒主要来自美国、欧盟和日本；所涉及的行业主要有农业、纺织服装业、轻工、机电、五矿化工和医疗保健业。

有资料显示，中国有70%的出口企业和40%的出口产品遭遇技术性贸易壁垒的限制。

3．中国出口产品还受到诸如以美国“337”条款为代表的知识产权保护的限制，以及来自欧美等国的对华特别产品过渡性保障机制立法的限制。

如何对待立足自身，先搞好企业内质量信誉建设；熟悉国际贸易有关法律，就是熟悉游戏规则，做到知已知彼，百战不殆！遭遇壁垒时及时调整自身产业结构，以更好地适应游戏规则更好地玩；受到惩处时要据理力争，维护自身合法利益。

BarriersBarriers (Barrier to trade), also known as trade barriers. Mainly refers to a variety of restrictions on foreign goods and services and imports of the country imposed. Tariff and non-tariff barriers is generally divided into two categories.The tariff barriers, refers to the import of goods through the customs territory of a State , by the government of a customs tariff trade barriers to the import and export trader set a formed.there are two ways by purpose to divide the tariffs:所谓关税壁垒，是指进出口商品经过一国关境时，由政府所设置海关向进出口商征收关税所形成的一种贸易障碍。

按征收关税的目的来划分，关税有两种：First Financial tariffs, its main purpose is to increase state revenue;Second, protective tariffs, its main purpose is to protect the country's economic development and for imports of high tariffs onforeign goods. The higher tariff protection, the greater the role of protection, or even effectively banning imports.Non-tariff barriers, import restrictions all means other than tariff trade barriers being formed, can be divided into direct and indirect restrictions limit categories.Direct limit is the importing country to take certain measures to limit the number or amount of direct imports, such as import quotas, import licensing system, foreign exchange controls, import minimum price and so on.Indirect restrictions indirectly restrict imports through the development of stricter regulations, rules and other commodity imports, such as discriminatory government procurement policies, demanding technical standards, health and safety regulations, inspection and packaging, labeling and various other mandatory provisionsKind of divisionTrade in goods: tariff barriers (tariffbarriers)1. tariff concessions (tariff reduction) for example, WTO members are not in accordance with the level of the country's Schedule of concessions were promised concessions.2. Tariff classification (tariff classification),for example, customs officers have too much discretion in the tariff classification of imported products, the importer so difficult to foresee the same tariff applied to imports in the future. 3. Tariff peaks (tariff peaks) Notwithstanding the provisions of Schedule concessional tariff level and still maintain high tariffs in certain product areas. 4. Tariff quotas (tariff quotas) for a certain number (quota) applicable to imports within the lower tariff rates, higher tax rates in excess of the quota applicable to imports. In practice, the quota to determine the amount, distribution and management of inappropriate practices often become barriers to trade. Trade in goods: NTBs (non-tariff barriers) abuse following measures, often resulting in barriers to trade in goods: import license (import licensing) export licenses (export licensing) import quotas (import quotas) import ban (import prohibition) Technical Barriers to Trade (technical barriers to trade) export restrictions (export restrictions) Government Procurement (government procurement) subsidies (subsidies) VERs (voluntary export restraints) local content requirements (domestic content regulations) of the state-controlled import and export trade (the operations of import State Trading Enterprises) Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (sanitary and phytosanitary measures) anti-dumping, countervailing and safeguard measures and other trade remedies (anti-dumping, countervailing, safeguards and other trade remedy measures)Hinder trade-related investment measures of1. Access to a range of investment restrictions (access restrictions)2. Tax discrimination (tax discrimination)3. Restrictions on foreign ownership of (foreign ownership restrictions) Hinder trade-related intellectual property measures: inadequate protection of IPR and the like. According to manifestations of trade barriers, trade barriers can be divided into the following four categories: 1. Legislation (legislation): in the form of laws, regulations, Regulations barriers to trade; 2. Administrative decisions (administrative decisions): administrative decisions, executive orders, directives prescribed form barriers to trade; 3. Policy and public opinion (policy or consensus): Government to take or support to policy, public opinion and propaganda to influence the country's nationals, such as the use of domestic products, discrimination against imported products;4. Practices (practices): for example, frequent short inappropriate use of anti-dumping measures, local protectionism, corruption, bureaucracy.New TypeGreen Trade BarrierGreen trade barriers, means that the environmental (non-tariff) barriers, the international community to protect human, animal and plant health and safety and ecological environment, andDirect or indirect restrictions adopted by certain laws, regulations,policies and measures and even ban the import and export of goods. The essence of the developed countries rely on its scientific and technological personnel and environmental standards, by means of legislation, strict mandatory technical standards to the products from the developing countries turned away.TBTTBT is the main form of non-tariff barriers, refers to technical regulations, standards and conformity assessment procedures established by the State of imports of goods to foreign imports constitute a trade barrier. That way through the enactment of laws, regulations, technical standards, certification schemes and other inspection system, to develop stringent provisions in technical indicators, health quarantine, packaging and labeling, etc., and ultimately achieve the purpose or effect of import restrictions, which limit or impede technical measures that TBT imports. Barriers to labor standardsLabor standards barrier: the contents of labor standards are: the abolition of forced labor; ban exports of Corrections; prohibited the use and exploitation of child labor; and non-discriminatory wages, equal pay; the implementation of the minimum wage, guaranteed minimum wage workers; workers have freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining and the like. Some countries try to labor issues with trade tied together to solve in order to reduce labor cost advantage of developingcountries.CausesThe emergence of trade barriers and continue to strengthen not accidental, it is the product of international economic, social, technological evolving. Analyze the reasons for the new generation of the most important barriers to trade in the following points.1. Social progress and people's living standards are improving, with the improvement of environmental awareness and sustainable development concept deeply rooted, there is growing concern for the survival of the sustainable development of the Earth and society, thus requiring international trade in the product itself and its the production process are not to damage the environment or expense of the environment; the same requirements and do not produce these products at the expense of workers' health costs. Thus, new barriers to trade green barriers and social barriers will continue to appear in international trade.2. The increasing number of new barriers to trade and traditional trade barriers under great constraints. Traditional trade barriers such as tariffs, quotas and other licenses and use of not only constrained by international conventions and international condemnation, but also vulnerable to peer retaliation. Therefore, these traditional trade barriers in the future development of space is not large, which provides a huge developmentspace for the development of green barriers and other new trade barriers.3 science technology advances to provide the conditions and means for the development of new trade barriers. The proportion of technology-intensive products in international trade continues to improve, especially in information technology products, technical issues involved are more complex, easier to form a new trade barriers. While the development of highly sensitive and high-tech detection equipment so that the detection accuracy is improved greatly, to set up new trade barriers in some countries to provide technical and material conditions. 4.Due to weak economic growth in major developed countries, trade protectionism has gained momentum again, with the weakening of the role of the traditional trade barriers are seeking new trade barriers to protect their domestic industries.How to treatBased on its own, improve enterprise quality credit first building; familiar with international trade law, is familiar with the rules of the game, Know the enemy and know yourself, and you can fight a hundred battles with no danger of defeat! Encounter barriers to timely adjust its industrial structure, in order to better adapt to the rules of the game better play; when punished to argue, to safeguard their legitimate interests.。