会计外文翻译
会计内部控制中英文对照外文翻译文献
会计内部控制中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)内部控制系统披露—一种可替代的管理机制根据代理理论，各种治理机制减少了投资者和管理者之间的代理问题（Jensen and Meckling，1976； Gillan，2006）。
传统上，治理机制已经被认定为内部或外部的。
内部机制包括董事会及其作用、结构和组成（Fama，1980；Fama and Jensen，1983），管理股权(Jensen and Meckling，1976)和激励措施，起监督作用的大股东(Demsetz and Lehn，1985)，内部控制系统(Bushman and Smith，2001)，规章制度和章程条款(反收购措施)和使用的债务融资（杰森，1993）。
外部控制是由公司控制权市场(Grossman and Hart,1980)、劳动力管理市场（Fama,1980）和产品市场（哈特,1983）施加的控制。
各种各样的金融丑闻，动摇了世界各地的投资者，公司治理最佳实践方式特别强调了内部控制系统在公司治理中起到的重要作用。
内部控制有助于通过提供保证可靠性的财务报告，和临时议会对可能会损害公司经营目标的事项进行评估和风险管理来保护投资者的利益。
这些功能已被的广泛普及内部控制系统架构设计的广泛认可，并指出了内部控制是用以促进效率，减少资产损失风险，帮助保证财务报告的可靠性和对法律法规的遵从（COSO,1992）。
尽管有其相关性，但投资者不能直接观察，因此也无法得到内部控制系统设计和发挥功能的信息，因为它们都是组织内的内在机制、活动和过程（Deumes and Knechel,2008）。
由于投资者考虑到成本维持监控管理其声称的（Jensen and Meckling，1976）,内部控制系统在管理激励信息沟通上的特性，以告知投资者内部控制系统的有效性,是当其他监控机制（该公司的股权结构和董事会）比较薄弱，从而为其提供便捷的监控（Leftwich et等, 1981）。
会计外文翻译
Master's thesis, University of LondonInformation technology and accounting management with the use is the relevant value of information analysis and use, and various factors of production based on the value creation of corporate accounting and management contributions to the study of accounting will be the main content. No use of information technology, there is any enterprise information and accounting information to promote the implementation of value chain management will lose technical support, there is no theory of innovation value chain management, accounting, and information technology development, there is no power. In this paper, the meaning of information to start, leads to the meaning of accounting information, accounting information describes the development process, the second part of the analysis of the status quo of accounting information, analysis of its use in theproblems, the third part of the proposed accounting information on the implementation of the strategic analysis.Keywords: accounting, information technology strategyI. Introduction(A) BackgroundThe development of accounting information in China has gone through more than 20 years, accounting information theory and practical application of talent, the accounting information system software has gradually matured, and, and theproduction, supply and marketing, human resources management, cost control and other aspects of the formation of an integrated management information system software. But the company found accounting information in the status of the development of enterprises is extremely uneven, a lot of strength and standardized management of large enterprises have been using the integrated accounting information system "ERP" is the management software, and the introduction of new ideas with the value of the supply chain management chain management system, and also the majority of the total business is still in the initial stage of the use of computerized accounting, or even manually. Enterprise management is still in the coexistence of traditional and modern, our corporate accounting information so early, the senior co-existence of the phenomenon will not surprise. Accounting information must be improved to facilitate the management of change. The essence of the value chain to value chain to implement the core business processes node changes, if companies choose the value chain as the core business process change, business management will enable a major step forward, it promotes corporate accounting development of information technology.(B) SignificanceWhile accounting information in China's time is not long, its nature and content to be further studied, but it is undeniable, with the advent of the information society, accounting, information technology will be an irresistible inevitable trend of the accounting information The current accounting both in theory and in practice will have a huge impact.First, to achieve after the accounting information, accounting information system will truly become a business management information system, a subsystem. The business enterprise is able to automatically capture the enterprise's internal and external information related to accounting, and together with the company's internal accounting information system for real-time processing. Accounting from the limitations of traditional accounting afterwards freed, and thus play a greater management control of accounting functions, business and information so that users can readily use the corporate accounting information to the business of the future financial situation to make a reasonable forecast, management and development of enterprises to make the right decisions. Second, the accounting assumptions, in particular, is no longer the traditional accounting entity with real money and plant business, it will include some of the online virtual companies and network companies,which for the common goal, in short time together, when the completion of specificgoals will soon dissolve, and its continuing operations, accounting, staging and monetary measures the basic premise of all will be affected. Implementation of accounting information, the enterprise network and external networks to achieve the Internet, users of accounting information can always obtain the relevant accounting information. Comprehensive application of information technology has greatly improved the timeliness of the information, the predictive value of information and feedback is also greatly enhance the value of information flow is also much faster, can contribute positively to the improvement of economic management. Other accounting information systems through direct access to relevant data and analysis, reducing theman-made fraud, thus greatly improving the reliability of accounting information and the quality of information.Third, today's accounting software processes basically simulate manual accounting processes and design. Implementation of accounting information, the accounting system is no longer isolated, but with a real-time processing, highly automated system, which with other business systems and external connections, you can directly read data from other systems, and a series of processing, processing, storage and transmission. Accounting reports can also be used for real-time electronic means associated newspaper report, the user can always obtain useful accounting information for decision-making, improve efficiency, promote economic development.21st century will be an information-oriented society, today's society is the "knowledge economy" era forward, In today's competitive environment, the accounting officer must not only well versed in the basic principles of accounting, computerized accounting techniques to master , but also learn some sense of organization, behavioral factors, decision-making process and communication technology and other aspects of the basic theory. Accounting information representsnew accounting ideas and concepts, the traditional accounting theory and modern information technology, network technology, a combination of product development is the inevitable trend of modern accounting. It must seize opportunities, meet challenges, and strive to promote the development of China's accounting information.II An overview of the accounting information(A) the meaning of informationBegan in the 1940s wave of information technology, beginning aroused great attention in all aspects, from the 1960s, scholars began to have "information" and "information society" and so on. 1963 Japanese scholars Tidal plum out in its "Information Industry science" for the first time that "information technology" concept. As information technology there is not long, the actual development and very rapid development of information society itself changes, the understanding of information technology are not the same. For example, "information is the communication of modern, computer and rationalize the general term", "information is computerized, modern communication and network technology", "information is e-commerce" and "information is computerized," " information is information technology and information industry in the economic and social development andplay a leading role in increasing the process ", and so on. Information technologyrevolution and the industrial revolution is the result of information from the three aspects, namely, the digitization of information, information networks, information and intelligent. "Digital information is the basis of information, the information network is the basic characteristics of information technology, information, and information technology is the development of intelligent features."(B) The information content of accountingThe concept of accounting information in 2000, the Shenzhen Municipal Finance Bureau and the Shenzhen Kingdee Software Technology Co., Ltd in Shenzhen's "new situation, management accounting software market, Information Theory Symposiumaccounting expert forum" on the make is the accounting computerized product development to a new stage. Theoretical understanding of information technology sector have different views, such as technical concept, the process concept, elements and outlook, and thus the concept of accounting information will have a different set, HU Ran star of accounting information as defined by the use of more the status quo. "Accounting information is based on the system in the enterprise of science, management science, application of modern information technology, integration of enterprise business processes and accounting processes, the establishment of accounting information systems; full development and use of accounting information resources, timely and accurate to the enterprise internal and external users of accounting information to provide useful support to strengthen the role of accounting to reflect and monitor the overall process. "As can be seen from this statement, the accounting information is the process of concept, it conveys such meanings: First, the means of access to information networks, communications and databases; Second, business processes and accounting processes to be re- whole, to better reflect the timeliness of information provided; third-to-business cash flow, physical flow and information flow throughout theimplementation of real-time control; Fourth, the spatial extent of the accounting information to expand information coverage, including information and currency non-monetary information internal information and external information, and so on. Professor Yang Zhou Nan the study of accounting information has its own unique, she will be introduced to the theory of value chain management accounting information in the field, made a "value chain management, accounting, information technology," the new concept, and that the "value chain management accounting information is the value chain to achieve important environmental accounting management and technology base. " And discussed the value chain management accounting information in the target location, technology platform, business process management models, standards, audit system, and in ten areas of change. Expand the meaning of accounting information.(C) The development of accounting information1 era of computerized accountingFunding from the Ministry of Finance in 1978, Chinches First Automobile Works began a pilot computerized accounting, accounting information in China's development has gone through more than 20 years, in its early stage of developmentthat the era of computerized accounting, computer applications accounting in the accounting field to produce a major change, the accounting staff work from reimbursement heavy afterwards freed, so that participants are management accounting staff time, improve the quality of accounting information and timeliness of the initial training of accounting software boom market, develop a group of composite talent, creating a number of accounting software company, to the standardization of computerized accounting, commercial, universal, professional development, and for corporate information and provide a good experience, and promote enterprise management software development. But the rapid development of modern information technology on the traditional computerized accounting system had a tremendousimpact on the theoretical basis of accounting, the timeliness of accounting reports and other challenges. Xiao ravioli the traditional computerized accounting of the main problems are summarized as follows: "First, the traditional manual accounting, computerized accounting simulation only, although the financial accounting software to improve the efficiency and quality of accounting information, but accounting processing procedures and methods are basically just a set of procedures to move the hand up the computer; Second, the traditional accounting information system is the internal information 'islands' in the computerized implementation, financial data and business can not be shared, resulting in confined to the financial sector financial software to use, and internal business units are not well connected. other departments can not directly access to financial data; Third, the traditional accounting information system and outside the enterprise information system isolation and all business transactions or to open by hand, according to the paper documents the first, and then entered into the computer; Fourth, the traditional accounting information system lags behind the development of modern information technology now INTERNET-INTRANET technology has reached the stage that we can not imagine, if we are still deal with isolated cases of the PC, then the business of managementdecision-making, budgeting, investment and production decisions will be errors due to insufficient amount of information; the fifth, only in the most traditional computerized accounting electronic data processing stage. China's implementation of accounting computing of the unit, most just use computerized accounting basic accounting, and a large number of financial management and financial analysis, is still a manual process; the sixth, in place of traditional computerized software development, function is not fully, to use the resulting inconvenient. "(2) Accounting information ageWhen the network technology and the maturity of domestic accounting software, financial, and timely exchange of business data has a technical support, and therefore the accounting information age has arrived. 2000, accounting information theorists first proposed the term is, and has been widely recognized. This reference is to the service management functions of accounting on the present and future information environment into account, is changing attitudes, is to seek greater development. Accounting information on the target even pay attention to accounting in business management on the central role; more dependent on the technology of modern network technology; focus on the functional areas of management accountinginformation and decision analysis; status in the system as a management systemintegral part; in the information transmission on the basis of authorization to acquire or output the information in the internal and external systems.Time accounting information more open and diversity. Openness is the high degree of sharing of accounting information resources, large amounts of data information between the departments within the enterprise, between enterprises within the group and between groups and external corporate unlimited or limited authorization of information exchange. Diversity performance of accounting information is no longer a single financial account table data, but also a lot of non-monetary forms of information; is no longer the only direct data or after a simplesummary of the data, but also includes many qualitative and quantitative analysis after can respond to different information needs of those recycling information; not only by Rose-year tradition of staging statistics accounting information, more of a point in time information, that is its real-time.Third, the use of accounting information Analysis(A) the status of the use of accounting informationImplementation of information technology in business process, the software provider to the enterprise managers have always praised their own software in the technical structure and how the information model is refined, is how the demand for enterprise management, and that enterprises should make what change in order to play the software management functions. But it did, most did not use information technology for the enterprise software providers to create the initial promised value. Even companies and managers think that the use of information systems management in the past rigid, not as labor management more convenient and flexible. This information management system is a failure of management systems; it is only concerned about the use of technology, while ignoring the way people access to information and requirements. U.S. information technology specialist Thomas. H •Davenport claims, in order to change the unsatisfactory status of information technology, must be people-oriented principle. Effective information management must first focus on how people think about the application of information, rather than how to use the machine. In people-oriented information management strategy, the reality of diversity to be concerned about the information; to emphasize the effective use of information and wide sharing; to make information technology solutions to solve current practical problems; to allow for different interpretations of the same message; to that enterprises to obtain the desired effect is considered the ultimate success; to specific problems to establish the appropriate structure; to promote and strengthen the method by adjusting the behavior of members of the organization; to the user's need to design their own applications. Body belongs to large enterprises, has been large-scale enterprise management, and financial strength. Before the introduction of the enterprise, there are three companies will have to implement ERP management system, and is part of the implementation of these enterprises are large-scale department stores and supermarket chains. Both with 16 companies have at least one financial software business management software companies, one of the six companies of the business management software such as inventory managementsoftware and financial software to achieve the integration, these companies are outside the supermarket. Local department stores and supermarket chains do little to achieve integration.Large supermarket chains in spite of the ERP management system, but and foreign retail giants such as Wal-Mart, Carrefour, B & Q, in comparison, China's domestic retail business of information technology still in its infancy. For example, Wal-Mart is the first use of computers to track inventory in retail enterprises (1969), is the earliest use of bar code (1980), the use of EDI with suppliers for better coordination (1985), launch its own communication satellite (1986) and use the wireless scanning guns (late 1980s) of retail companies. Now, Wal-Mart is the world'smost spare no effort to implement RFID Technology Company. Our domestic retail enterprises and applications providers are basically in a bystander.(B) The use of accounting information the problems1 lack of capital investmentAccording to the survey, not the type of business is accounting information in capital investment are also significant differences, in general, in terms of information technology also significantly less capital investment. Some small retail businesses, especially those franchise retail stores, its turnover of 100 million or less, the profit of 10 million or less. These companies invest in information technology capital is almost zero. For example, there is a franchise of computer accessories supplies store, operated by no less than one thousand kinds of varieties of goods, commodities Invoicing also only manual bookkeeping, the occurrence of errors is often a matter, but in a short time do not want to invest in this area. Manager believes that the purchase of small Invoicing software is several thousand to more than a million, do not necessarily apply to buy back their own and do not find someone to develop such talent. This situation represents the general attitude of some small businesses. Some of the economic benefits of better information technology in the retail business is also aserious shortage of capital investment. Local department store is a large-scale, high-profile retailer, sales of 4 billion last year, more than 300 million annual profit. This year is expected to increase by 1 million sales. So far the company has a network version of the UF of a financial accounting software and a software company developing your inventory management software, for a total capital of less than 30 million, if $ 1 million plus investment in hardware terms, the company's information construction accounts for the year total investment capital ratio of .325% of sales. According to statistics, the total number of enterprises in China accounted for 99.6% of the 40 million SMEs, of which 74% of enterprise information into sales revenue accounted for less than 1%, usually abroad, 2% -3%. Defined in accordance with the latest standards for SMEs to divide, retail enterprises with annual sales of more than 150 million people or more than 500 the number of workers should belong to large-scale retail enterprises. In other words, the department stores are large retail companies, invested in information technology should be more than 1% of the funds, but the fact is much lower than the ratio. From the survey found the same with the size of the retail mall business investment in information technology is basically the same proportion.(2) For their own interests and resist cooperation with upstream and downstreambusinessesSome retailers believe that if the composition of upstream and downstream enterprises and their value chain, then this value chain to increase the total value is given, other means to make their own alliance to get more companies will get less. Therefore, the value chain between the various value chains Alliance is a competitive relationship. In such a concept under the guidance of the retail business is often not the whole value chain from the perspective of value-added, but rather in order to pursue their own interests at the expense of maximizing the interests of the entire value chain. Therefore, in the retail business and corporate transactions in theupstream, suppliers repeatedly lower prices, even the ones who enjoy the suppliers as their main source of profit; the supplier is to conceal their true costs, even as the retail price increases in disguise counterattack. The two sides are not creating value chain from the overall effectiveness of view, but to build their own profit loss in the value chain based on the Alliance. This is clearly not the goal of value chain management. Retailers should change their ideas, we must seek to maximize their own interests into the overall interests of the pursuit of maximizing the value chain, and clear corporate profits should manage to get through the value chain, value chain, rather than from the body to acquire Alliance.Other retailers do not want their business data, or other important sales information and customer information available to the supplier, even if the enterprise also needs to control access rights, let alone to disclose outside the enterprise. This deep-rooted tradition of understanding between suppliers and retailers so that the lack of a good spirit of cooperation. The basic goal of value chain management is the management process by improving the transparency of the entire value chain to improve the efficiency of resource allocation and profit levels, sharing of information resources. This will not only make the core of the value chain within the enterpriseand value chain alliances between enterprises can receive timely, flexible and actionable information resources to enable them to fully grasp the value chain cooperation between the Alliance information, market information, other business decision-making information, but also enables the company starting from the global value chain to arrange production and services.Management rather than the promoterLearned in the survey had had some local retailers, accounting information for what is not understood, was 67.19% in visitors who do not know what is accounting information, never heard of value chain management, the company has implemented a complete information technology solutions tend to say, very often referred to our information management staff to answer. Managers of these companies as the information because of competitive pressures is a helpless and passive choice, their knowledge of information technology know much, but not condescending and general staff to receive formal training, and such of the lack of knowledge of information technology initiative to accept the manager's attitude will inevitably lead to the loss of authority in this regard, they naturally will not be a promoter of information technology, and will be the task entrusted to the information management staff.Regardless of the information management company executives in the company'sposition that tall, and its authority is inferior to general manager, when stakeholders hinder the process of information, the information management staff had no ability to advance the information technology revolution. In addition, information management staffs are often professional and technical personnel, their lack of business knowledge and management capabilities, enterprise information process will be based more on business instead of computer hardware and software technical problems. In this case, information management will become powerless. If you rely on information technology to promote information management, failure becomes inevitable.Positioned correctly in the accounting functions of informationOne view is that the accounting functions will be limited to record a variety of business information behind them, while in charge of foreign tax returns and financial statements submitted to the traditional. Hold this view tend to be small retail business managers. They see the accounting for tax accounting and treasury accounting, they need to get that information from the accounting major is the number of day and monthly cash flow to pay the tax number. For the case of commodity stocks more business managers to ask, but regardless of the amount of inventory accounting and inventory carrying costs. This is because much small retail business to avoid taxes from the perspective of the book to create a false inventory, accounting, accounts payable data is the tax department. Based on this purpose, the managers of these enterprises will not consider business management systems and financial accounting system for data sharing. Learned from the survey 62.5% of the enterprises is not the business management software and financial accounting software and docking. Managers first consider the purchase of inventory management system is more than the amount due to the types of products, often caused by hand-billing and out of the workload and error rate increased only alternative. In the early stages of business development, accounting information for managers attitude and understanding of theaccounting function to reduce the tax burden may have a role, but this effect is not really benefit from the long-term stable development of enterprises to consider, once the risk of tax laws increased, the negative effect caused by low-would offset the tax benefits.Accounting, information technology implementation strategy analysis(A) Strategic and tactical implementation services for enterpriseFirm's strategic goal is to guide the development of accounting information based strategy; it must be its direction. In the absence of this direction, it will not clear the company's future direction, it is impossible to the accounting information to provide a clear strategic goal orientation, so the implementation of accounting information in the development of strategy must first clear the overall development strategy. Such enterprises to implement low-cost competitive strategy in the case of the accounting information of the implementation strategy will have a significant impact. The purpose of this strategy is to provide quality low cost products, and use price advantage over competitors. The accounting information in order to meet the strategic needs to be broken down by value chain analysis of cost control point, the development of procurement, production process, the operational procedures,marketing and other aspects of cost control standards, the design of cost control pointof cost information collection, transmission, aggregation, evaluation methods, to establish the accounting staff in the cost assessment in the central position, the establishment of cost control, reward and punishment system, and so on.(B) The implementation of management concepts update strategyManagers and internal employees know a lot of information technology is superficial, is generally believed that is a documentation of business processes and translate into something the computer can use to help companies accelerate the transmission of information; solutions manual has been the basis of the business can not solve management problems, but did not think for management improvement.Managers tend to think only of the benefits of information into management, but has not been established to promote information technology and management thinking in need of change, not concerned about the information technology business processes are likely to face adjustment and the adjustment of rules. Managers must also recognize that while changes in the general population and also including employees, their thoughts must also go to follow the changes in business, change from passive acceptance to active acceptance. Thus thinking of updating educational enterprise information has become an indispensable step in the process. Haier's Zhang proposed a "re-process reengineering first person who first recycling recycling concept." In order to promote the implementation of information technology in the process change, reversing the employees, especially the concept of corporate management, Zhang himself as a teacher, teaching stage process reengineering to promote the guiding ideology, and the formation of discussion of the program to verify in practice. Total number of trained close to 20,000.Some people think that advanced management information system implies a system of advanced management concepts, this argument has some truth, but the use of advanced information systems and management concepts to improve the。
公司各个部门英文翻译
市场营销部: SALES&MARKETING DEPARTMENT计财部:ACCOUNTING DEPARTMENT人力资源部: HUMAN RESOURCE DEPARTMENT工程部: ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT保安部: SECURITY DEPARTMENT行政部: EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT前厅部: FRONT OFFICE客房部: HOUSEKEEPING DEPARTMENT餐饮部: FOOD&BEVERAGE DEPARTMENT外销部： EXPORT DEPARTMENT财务科： FINANCIAL DEPARTMENT党支部： BRANCH OF THE PARTY会议室： MEETING ROOM会客室： RECEPTION ROOM质检科： QUALITY TESTING DEPARTMENT内销部： DOMESTIC SALES DEPARTMENT厂长室： FACTORY DIRECTOR'S ROOM行政科： ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT技术部： TECHNOLOGY SECTION档案室： MUNIMENT ROOM生产科： MANUFACTURE SECTION总公司: Head Office分公司: Branch Office营业部: Business Office人事部: Personnel Department总务部: General Affairs Department财务部: General Accounting Department销售部: Sales Department促销部: Sales Promotion Department国际部: International Department出口部: Export Department进口部: Import Department公共关系: Public Relations Department广告部: Advertising Department企划部: Planning Department产品开发部: Product Development Department研发部: Research and Development Department (R&D) 秘书室: Secretarial Poo市场部Marketing Department技术服务部 Technical service Department人事部 Personnel Department(人力资源部)Human Resources DepartmentAccounting Assistant 会计助理Accounting Clerk 记帐员Accounting Manager 会计部经理Accounting Stall 会计部职员Accounting Supervisor 会计主管Administration Manager 行政经理Administration Staff 行政人员Administrative Assistant 行政助理Administrative Clerk 行政办事员Advertising Staff 广告工作人员Airlines Sales Representative 航空公司定座员Airlines Staff 航空公司职员Application Engineer 应用工程师Assistant Manager 副经理Bond Analyst 证券分析员Bond Trader 证券交易员Business Controller 业务主任Business Manager 业务经理Buyer 采购员Cashier 出纳员Chemical Engineer 化学工程师Civil Engineer 土木工程师Clerk/Receptionist 职员／接待员Clerk Typist & Secretary 文书打字兼秘书Computer Data Input Operator 计算机资料输入员Computer Engineer 计算机工程师Computer Processing Operator 计算机处理操作员Computer System Manager 计算机系统部经理Copywriter 广告文字撰稿人Deputy General Manager 副总经理Economic Research Assistant 经济研究助理Electrical Engineer 电气工程师Engineering Technician 工程技术员English Instructor/Teacher 英语教师Export Sales Manager 外销部经理Export Sales Staff 外销部职员Financial Controller 财务主任Financial Reporter 财务报告人F.X. (Foreign Exchange) Clerk 外汇部职员F.X. Settlement Clerk 外汇部核算员Fund Manager 财务经理General Auditor 审计长General Manager/President 总经理General Manager Assistant 总经理助理General Manager‘s Secretary 总经理秘书Hardware Engineer （计算机）硬件工程师Import Liaison Staff 进口联络员Import Manager 进口部经理Insurance Actuary 保险公司理赔员International Sales Staff 国际销售员Interpreter 口语翻译Legal Adviser 法律顾问Line Supervisor 生产线主管Maintenance Engineer 维修工程师Management Consultant 管理顾问Manager 经理Manager for Public Relations 公关部经理Manufacturing Engineer 制造工程师Manufacturing Worker 生产员工Market Analyst 市场分析员Market Development Manager 市场开发部经理Marketing Manager 市场销售部经理Marketing Staff 市场销售员Marketing Assistant 销售助理Marketing Executive 销售主管Marketing Representative 销售代表Marketing Representative Manager 市场调研部经理Mechanical Engineer 机械工程师Mining Engineer 采矿工程师Music Teacher 音乐教师Naval Architect 造船工程师Office Assistant 办公室助理Office Clerk 职员Operational Manager 业务经理Package Designer 包装设计师Passenger Reservation Staff 乘客票位预订员Personnel Clerk 人事部职员Personnel Manager 人事部经理Plant/Factory Manager 厂长Postal Clerk 邮政人员Private Secretary 私人秘书Product Manager 生产部经理Production Engineer 产品工程师Professional Staff 专业人员Programmer 电脑程序设计师Project Staff （项目）策划人员Promotional Manager 推销部经理Proof-reader 校对员Purchasing Agent 采购（进货）员Quality Control Engineer 质量管理工程师Real Estate Staff 房地产职员Recruitment Coordinator 招聘协调人Regional Manger 地区经理Research & Development Engineer 研究开发工程师Restaurant Manager 饭店经理Office Assistant 办公室助理Office Clerk 职员Operational Manager 业务经理Package Designer 包装设计师Passenger Reservation Staff 乘客票位预订员Personnel Clerk 人事部职员Personnel Manager 人事部经理Plant/Factory Manager 厂长Postal Clerk 邮政人员Private Secretary 私人秘书Product Manager 生产部经理Production Engineer 产品工程师Professional Staff 专业人员Programmer 电脑程序设计师Project Staff （项目）策划人员Promotional Manager 推销部经理Proof-reader 校对员Purchasing Agent 采购（进货）员Quality Control Engineer 质量管理工程师Real Estate Staff 房地产职员Recruitment Coordinator 招聘协调人Regional Manger 地区经理Research & Development Engineer 研究开发工程师Restaurant Manager 饭店经理Sales and Planning Staff 销售计划员Sales Assistant 销售助理Sales Clerk 店员、售货员Sales Coordinator 销售协调人Sales Engineer 销售工程师Sales Executive 销售主管Sales Manager 销售部经理Salesperson 销售员Seller Representative 销售代表Sales Supervisor 销售监管School Registrar 学校注册主任Secretarial Assistant 秘书助理Secretary 秘书Securities Custody Clerk 保安人员Security Officer 安全人员Senior Accountant 高级会计Senior Consultant/Adviser 高级顾问Senior Employee 高级雇员Senior Secretary 高级秘书Service Manager 服务部经理Simultaneous Interpreter 同声传译员Software Engineer （计算机）软件工程师Supervisor 监管员Systems Adviser 系统顾问Systems Engineer 系统工程师Systems Operator 系统操作员Technical Editor 技术编辑Technical Translator 技术翻译Technical Worker 技术工人Telecommunication Executive 电讯（电信）员Telephonist/Operator 电话接线员、话务员Tourist Guide 导游Trade Finance Executive 贸易财务主管Trainee Manager 培训部经理Translation Checker 翻译核对员Translator 翻译员Trust Banking Executive 银行高级职员Typist 打字员Word Processing Operator 文字处理操作员文案编辑词条B 添加义项?文案，原指放书的桌子，后来指在桌子上写字的人。
会计准则的共同框架【外文翻译】
外文翻译原文：A Common Framework for Accounting StandardsIn September 2010,the U.S.Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) and the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) completed the first phase of a project that will influence global standards setting for many years to come.Specifically,the Boards converged key portions of their conceptual frameworks.This month’s column will explain what the Boards have done and the significance of their accomplishment.What’s a Conceptual Framework?A conceptu al framework for a set of accounting standards is an explicit declaration of the fundamental concepts on which the set of standards is based.The concepts addressed by conceptual frameworks tend to be general in nature,broad in scope,and stable over time.For example,a conceptual framework typically will identify the kinds of financial statements that reporting entities should prepare (balance sheet,income statement,etc.) and define the basic elements of those financial statements (assets,liabilities,income, expenses,etc.). Having a conceptual framework eliminates the need for a standards setter,such as the FASB or the IASB,to reestablish core concepts each time it develops or updates a standard.Additionally,by consistently referring to a stable conceptual framework,a standards setter is more likely to promulgate standards that are consistent with each other as well as with significant assumptions and constraints. The conceptual framework of U.S.Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) is documented in a series of Statements of Financial Accounting Concepts (SFACs) issued by the FASB.The IASB has documented the conceptual framework of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) in its Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements.Though similar in some respects,the two frameworks have always been separate and distinct from each other—until recently.As part of theirefforts to converge the specific standards that comprise U.S.GAAP and IFRS,the Boards have begun to converge their conceptual frameworks as well.The FASB-IASB Conceptual Framework ProjectIn October 2004,the FASB and the IASB added a joint conceptual framework project to their agendas.The objective of the project is “to develop an improved common conceptual framework that provides a sound accounting standards.”In other words,the Boards have been working together to replace their separate frameworks with a single framework on which both future U.S.GAAP and future IFRS will be based.Each Board is committed to making the single framework better than either one’s existing framework. The joint conceptual framework project consists of eight phases,designated “A”through “H”:A. Objective and qualitative characteristicsB. Elements and recognitionC. MeasurementD. Reporting entityE. Presentation and disclosure, including financial reporting boundariesF. Framework purpose and status in GAAP hierarchyG. Applicability to the not-for-profit sectorH. Remaining issuesIn July 2006,the FASB and the IASB issued a Preliminary Views (PV) document for Phase A that described the Boards’tentative thoughts on the overall objective of financial reporting and on the necessary and desirable qualitative characteristics of reported financial information.After further deliberations,the Boards issued an Exposure Draft (ED) for Phase A in May 2008 that proposed the first two chapters of a common conceptual framework.Final versions of those two chapters were subsequently issued by the Boards on September 28,2010.The FASB issued the two chapte rs together as SFAC No.8,“Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting—Chapter 1,The Objective of General Purpose Financial Reporting,and Chapter 3,Qualitative Characteristics of Useful Financial Information(a replacement of FASB Concepts Statements No.1 a nd No.2).”(SFACNo.1 was “Objectives of Financial Reporting by Business Enterprises,”and SFAC No.2 was “Qualitative Characteristics of Accounting Information.”)The Board had previously issued only seven SFACs in its 37-year history—none of them in the past 10 years.The infrequency of SFAC issuance reflects the high degree of stability in the FASB’s conceptual framework over time.But change happens,and the less frequently it happens,the more significant it is when it does happen.For its part,the IASB incorporated the two chapters into a revised version of its framework that it published as The Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting 2010.Previously,the IASB hadn’t made a substantive revision to its framework since 2001. Again,that fact that conceptual frameworks don’t change frequently makes the recent changes by the FASB and the IASB all the more notable.The Objective of General Purpose Financial ReportingChapter 1 of the Boards’common conceptual framework focuses on the overall objective of financial reporting.As stated in SFAC No.8,“The objective of general purpose financial reporting is to provide financial information about the reporting entity that is useful to existing and potential investors, lenders,and other creditors in making decisions about providing resources to the entity.”This is broadly consistent with the FASB’s prior objective as stated in SFAC No.1:“Financial reporting should provide information that is useful to present and potential investors and creditors and other users in making rational investment,credit,and similar decisions.”The newly defined objective is also similar to the IASB’s prior objective of“provid[ing] information about the financial position,performance,and changes in financial position of an entity that is useful to a wide range of users in making economic decisions.”The aspect of the new converged objective that differs most from each Board’s previous objective is the emphasis on “general purpose”financial reporting.Both Boards currently view their standards-setting efforts as directed at the needs of financial-statement users who aren’t in a position to obtain specific information tailored to each user’s individual needs.Qualitative Characteristics of Useful Financial InformationThe FASB and the IASB decided that the second chapter they issued recently willactually be Chapter 3 of their common conceptual framework.The Boards have reserved Chapter 2 for the output of Phase D (the reporting entity phase) of the conceptual framework project.Most of us think of the information in financial statements as being primarily quantitative in nature.But the FASB and the IASB have long recognized that there are certain qualitative characteristics of financial information that affect its usefulness—specifically,how useful it is for making the kinds of economic decisions that users of financial statements make.Accordingly,the Boards have identified such qualitative characteristics in Chapter 3.As outlined above, there are in principle two distinct components to these payments, which are the transaction value at the point of purchase (which is the cost of the resource consumed) and the difference between this value and the actual settlement amount (which is a cost of finance). Yet, in practice, this distinction is rarely made, and the supplier's credit terms are typically rolled up into a single amount. While it would be possible for accounting standards to require the separate calculation of all financing expenses, the current absence of such a requirement means that an entity's operating profit includes suppliers' retum on finance. For the sake of consistency between the income statement and the balance sheet, accounts payable should therefore also be classified as operating. If they were not, measures of retum on capital employed would be artificially low. Conceptually, if financing activity is defined by nature, classifying accounts payable as operating would be the wrong answer, but practically it would at least be intemally consistent.It would not be the wrong answer, however, according to a fianctional perspective on financing activity. Indeed, the absence of a separately reported financing expense can be viewed as evidence that the underlying fiinction is not financing. The case for the functional perspective is stronger still if standard-setters also seek to achieve consistency with the cash flow statement. Consider, for example, an asset retirement obligation. The liability is by nature a source of finance, which results fi-om an operating expense and which increases as financing expenses (interest costs) are incurred. The cash settlement of the liability does not distinguish, however, between the operating andfinancing components of the liability: there is not an operating cash flow separate fi-om a financing cash flow.These concems over measurement reliability might suggest that the gain or loss from revised cash flow estimates should be reported as operating, yet the same would not be tme for a gain or loss from revisions to expected discount rates, which are the capitalised counterpart of the current period's interest costs and so are not candidates for inclusion in operating profit.The Boards have deemed relevance and faithful representation to be the fundamental qualitative characteristics of useful financial information.This reflects the Boards’belief that financial information must exhibit those characteristics in order to be useful for making decisions.Additionally,the Boards have identified comparability,verifiability,timeliness,and understandability as qualitative characteristics that enhance the usefulness of financial information.Such characteristics complement the fundamental characteristics and enhance decision-usefulness when they are present.In short,they are “nice to have”characteristics rather than “must have”ones.(As a matter of personal opinion,I find it somewhat disturbing that the Boards don’t consider understandability to be “fundamental.”)In addition to fundamental and enhancing qualitative characteristics,the Boards have also identified a pervasive constraint:cost. They clearly recognize that if the costs of applying a particular accounting standard would exceed the benefits of doing so,then it makes no sense to impose such a standard on reporting entities.The fundamental characteristics, enhancing characteristics,and pervasive constraint that the Boards have mutually identified represent a blending of concepts that were, for the most part,already present in their prior conceptual frameworks.The earlier frameworks of U.S.GAAP and IFRS,however,differed from each other with regard to relative priorities among the characteristics and the wording used to describe them.A less straightforward case arises if there is a loan of resource but the counterparty is not a bank or other financial institution. Would this change the initial observation regarding the nature of financing activity? A case that can be applied here is a pension obligation, for which the counterparty is employees rather than a bank. Adefined benefit pension plan involves the entity deferring settlement of an amount equal to the service cost, incurring interest costs thereon and then repaying the amount owed in the form of a pension. In principle, employees could accept immediate settlement of services rendered instead of entering a pension agreement, and an entity could achieve this immediate settlement by borrowing, with the net effect that the entity substitutes a bank loan for a pension obligation. Either way, the existence of the liability is associated with fiiture interest costs and repayment of capital, and there is a clear distinction between the expenses relating to operating activity (i.e. the service cost that gives rise to the liability) and the method by which these expenses are financed (either by employees or by the bank). A similar argument can also be made for cases other than pension obligations, such as provisions for deferred tax, where the counterparty providing finance (i.e. accepting deferred settlement) is the govemment. For some other provisions, such as those for asset retirement obligations, a clearly identifiable counterparty might be absent: an entity's current operating activity gives rise to a current obligation to incur future cash outflows, but payment will eventually be made to an entity that is not yet known. The absence of a current counterparty does not, however, change the conclusion that the entity's operating activity is being financed by means of deferred settlement. Interest costs are recognised purely as a consequence of this deferral, and not as a consequence of further operating activity, and the situation is no different in substance from a bank loan: the carrying amount of the provision equals the amount that the entity would need to borrow in order to settle its obligation, and the unwinding of the discount rate is equal to the interest costs that would be incurred on the amount borrowed.What Now?Because the conceptual framework of U.S.GAAP isn’t itself authoritative,the recent revisions to it don’t change authoritative U.S.GAAP as documented in the FASB Accounting Standards Codification(TM).The revisions do change authoritative IFRS,however,because the conceptual framework of IFRS is considered authoritative. Chapter 2 of the common conceptual framework is due to be released by the end of 2010.As noted previously,it will address the concept of the reporting entity (PhaseD).The Boards are also currently working on Phases B (Elements and Recognition) and C (Measurement).Although the conceptual framework project is currently being conducted in parallel with numerous standard-level projects,its successful completion will be essential to the ultimate success of all of the Boards’convergence efforts.As I say in the Convergence Guidebook for Corporate Financial Reporting (Wiley),“If different standard setters disagree on the basic concepts of financial reporting,then it is unlikely that those standard setters will ever agree on specific standards.”Now that the FASB and the IASB have agreed on some portions of a common conceptual framework,we see that the Boards are indeed capable of converging their standards at the conceptual level and are intent on achieving even more conceptual convergence in the years ahead.Source: Pounder, Bruce. A Common Framework for Accounting Standards [J]. Strategic Finance,2010,(11) : 61-64.译文：会计准则的共同框架2010年9月，美国财务会计准则委员会(FASB)和国际会计准则委员会（IASB）完成了一个项目的第一阶段，这个项目将在以后的多年里影响全球标准的制定。
环境会计【外文翻译】
外文出处Business & Economic Review,2006（4）:21-27外文作者布莱恩.斯坦科，艾琳.布罗根,艾琳,亚历山大,约瑟芬.蔡.梅齐原文：Environmental AccountingHere's why projected cleanup costs from hazardous waste sites will be findingtheir way onto the balance sheets of Corporate America.Monitoring the production and disposal of hazardous waste has been a top priority of the United States government and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) since the mid-1970s, largely as a result of the Love Canal environmental disaster. Unfortunately, the remediation of hazardous waste sites is not finished, and cleanup cost estimates range anywhere between $500 billion and $1 trillion. American corporations will ultimately be held accountable for these costs. What remains to be seen, however, is exactly who, when, and how much.In terms of corporate responsibilities, this article discusses requirements regarding the financial reporting of environmental liabilities and current initiativesthat should improve the measurement and disclosure of these liabilities. Investors and business professionals alike must understand the significance of these obligations asthey relate to current and future corporate financial statements.Financial ReportingFinancial reporting requirements have evolved over time under several governing bodies. The Securities Act of 1934 created the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and gave it the authority to administer federal securities laws and prescribe accounting principles and reporting practices. Companies that are considered under the jurisdiction of the SEC include any company whose stock is publicly traded. As a result, these companies are required to follow SEC disclosure requirements in their filings.The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) is responsible for establishing the current standards of financial accounting and reporting. The standardsor pronouncements that the FASB issues, "Statements of Financial Accounting Standards" (SFASs), are officially recognized as authoritative by the Securities and Exchange Commission and the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), the national professional organization of CPAs.Until recently, the AICPA played a prominent role in the accounting and reporting environment. But as a result of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, the AlCPA's Auditing Standards Board (ASB) was limited in its role of establishing Generally Accepted Auditing Standards. Auditing and related professional practice standards as they pertain to public companies are now established by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB), a private-sector, nonprofit corporation created to oversee the auditors of public companies in order to protect the interests of investors and further the public interest in the preparation of informative, fair, and independent audit reports.Evolution of Environmental Accounting StandardsThe common definition of "environmental accounting" is "the identification, measurement, and allocation of environmental costs, the integration of these environmental costs into business decisions, and the subsequent communication of the information to a company's stakeholders" (AICPA).Typical environmental costs include off-site waste disposal costs, cleanup costs, litigation costs, and other related costs.The first accounting standards or interpretation of standards that could be applied to environmental liabilities were enacted by the FASB in 1975 and 1976. These rules covered a generic grouping of contingent liabilities (including environmental liabilities). Initially the FASB stated that contingent liabilities arising from environmental cleanup costs should be accounted for and disclosed according to Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS) No. 5, "Accounting for Contingencies" (FASB 1975). One year later, the FASB issued Interpretation (FIN) No. 14, "Reasonable Estimation of the Amount of a Loss" (FASB 1976), offering additional guidance regarding loss contingencies. Essentially, the standard required losses to be accrued for when they became "probable and reasonably estimable."SFAS No. 5 is still followed today by accountants who are considering the measurement and disclosure of environmental liabilities.SuperfundPrior to Congress passing legislation granting the EPA authority to identify and sanction Potentially Responsible Parties (PRPs), most reported environmental liabilities were minimal. That changed in 1980 when Congress passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), commonly known as the Superfund Act. CERCLA established strict regulatory requirements regarding the release of hazardous substances from existing or future waste sites.Six years later, Congress amended CERCLA with the Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act (SARA).This strengthened the EPA’s authority and increased the agency’s fund balance. Under the new Superfund Act, the EPA became responsible for identifying and listing those locations throughout the United States where hazardous substances or waste either have caused or may cause damage to the environment. The EPA, through administrative or legal action, seeks to require PRPs to accept responsibility for the remediation of contaminated sites.Under CERCLA, a PRP is defined as any individual or company that is potentially responsible for, or contributed to, the contamination problems at a Superfund site. According to Paul D. Hutchinson, this can include:• Current owners or operators of facilities where hazardous substances have been deposited• Owners or operators of facilities at the time hazardous substances were deposited• Generators of hazardous substances deposited at facilities• Transporters of hazardous substances to facilities• Per sons who arranged for disposal or treatment of hazardous substances at facilitiesOnce the EPA identifies a PRP, a liability-based program is used to address the cleanup of the site. Under the liability-based program, a potentially responsible partyis classified into one of three categories:• Strict Liability - the PRP is liable for cleanup costs even when there was no negligence• Joint and Several Liability – any one party can be forced to bear the full cost of the remedy, even if several parties contributed to the waste at a site• Retroactive Liability - the provisions apply to actions that took place before CERCLA was passedAfter the EPA identifies the PRPs and their respective liability, it sends notification to the SEC and the respective companies or individuals.Regulation S-K and FRR 36With the increased environmental regulation, the accounting regulatory bodies began to issue standards regarding the reporting and disclosure of environmental liabilities. In 1982, the SEC integrated all of its environmental disclosure requirements into Regulation S-K, requiring disclosure if pollution expenditures had a material effect on the company's earnings. Regulation S-K Item 101, known as the Description of Business, requires registrants to disclose, among other things, the material effects of complying or failing to comply with environmental requirements on the capital expenditures, earnings, and competitive position of the registrant and its subsidiaries. S-K Item 103 requires registrants to describe any material concerning pending legal proceedings unless the legal proceedings involve ordinary routine litigation incidental to the business. S-K Item 303, often referred to as Management Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations, requires the disclosure of environmental contingencies that may reasonably have a material impact on net sales, revenue, or income from continuing operations.In 1989, the SEC provided further guidance by issuing Financial Reporting Release (FRR) 36. FRR 36 discusses and illustrates various disclosure requirements for the Management's Discussion and Analysis (MD&A) component of the SEC annual report 10-K filing and the shareholder annual report.Staff Accounting Bulletin (SAB) 92Even with this increase in regulation, companies were still finding it difficult toestimate liabilities that needed to be disclosed. In response, the SEC issued Staff Accounting Bulletin No.92 (SAB 92) to further clarify its disclosure requirements. SAB 92 specifically discussed the disclosure of environmental liabilities in the balance sheet. The SEC's position on the disclosure of environmental liabilities was strengthened through an agreement with the EPA in 1990. Essentially, the EPA would provide the SEC with certain quarterly information, including names of PRPs, a list of all cases filed under CERCLA, and a list of civil and criminal cases under federal environmental laws. In exchange for this information, the SEC agreed to target the enforcement of environmental disclosures.AICPA Statement of Position 96-1By 1996, the EPA had identified more than 36,000 hazardous waste sites in the United States. The EPA then took what they considered to be the most severe of the contaminated sites and developed the National Priorities List (NPL). This list contained 1,405 sites, each referred to as a Superfund site. From these Superfund sites alone, the EPA proceeded to identify 15,000 PRPs connected to these sites. These PRPs would eventually be responsible for cleanup costs that would range from $35 million to $1 billion per site. The release of this information revealed to the accounting profession that the remedial liabilities of the PRPs were significant and, therefore, required better accounting and disclosure. As a result, the AICPA issued Statement of Position (SOP) 96-1, "Environmental Remediation Liabilities," which provided specific guidance on estimation and the financial reporting of environmental accruals and contingencies.Analysis of the Standards (Past and Present)(A) Recognition of Environmental LiabilitiesRecognition pertains to when a liability should be reported in the financial statements. Contingent liabilities are obligations that are dependent upon the occurrence or nonoccurrence of one or more future events to confirm the amount payable, the payee, the date payable or its existence. The most significant liability that a firm faces in relation to environmental accounting comprises the remediation costs. Remediation costs typically include cleanup costs, litigation costs, and other costsassociated with legal compliance.FAS No. 5，mentioned earlier，requires that a provision for a loss contingency be recorded and a liability recognized in financial statements when both of the following conditions are met:• It is probable that an asset has been impaired or a liability has been incurred at the date of the financial statements• The amount of the loss can be reasonably estimatedFASB Interpretation (FIN) No. 14 provides additional guidance on how to recognize a loss contingency when the estimated loss is within a specified range. It recommends that the minimum amount of the range be accrued, unless some amount within the range appears at the time to be a better estimate than any other amount within the range.The AICPA SOP 96-1 expands the types of costs that may be appropriately accrued and the ability to consider technologies under development in order to help assess the ultimate cost of remediation efforts more accurately. PRPs must now use a more conservative approach (increase the probability of loss recognition) than under the prior provisions of SFAS No. 5 to ascertain if they should accrue such liabilities. According to the SOP 96-1, the probability criterion of SFAS No. 5 is met if the EPA has decided (or probably will) that the company must participate in remediation. Liabilities must now be recognized when litigation has commenced or an assertion of a claim is probable whenever the PRP is associated with that site. In addition, PRPs must now accrue potential environmental remediation liabilities "up front," all at once, rather than recognize the expenses when they are actually paid.(B) Accounting for Recognized Environmental LiabilitiesWhen a company has determined that an environmental obligation exists, it must be measured and accounted for based on available information. Key accounting issues related to the recognition of environmental liabilities are highlighted below: Estimates of the Environmental LiabilityAccording to AlCPA's SOP 96-1, once a liability is determined, its magnitude must be estimated. In developing the estimates, according to Kathleen BlackburnHethcox, Richard Riley, and Jan R. Williams writing in National Public Accountant, the factors below should be considered:• The extent and type of haz ardous substances at the site, and the costs to be included in the estimate• The effect of expected future events or developments• The range of technologies that can be used in remediation• The number and financial condition of other PRPs• The effect o f potential recoveriesEarly estimates of loss can be revised later if new information gives cause for a change. The revisions should be accounted for as a change in accounting estimate, thereby only affecting current and future financial reporting. No retroactive restatement of prior year financial statements is allowed under SOP 96-1. The SOP 96-1 also recommends that for various stages of remediation, benchmarks be used to evaluate the extent of the amount that can be estimated. At a minimum, the estimate should be evaluated as each benchmark occurs; which includes identification of the company as a PRP, receipt of a unilateral administrative order requiring a removal action, participation in a remedial investigation (Rl) or feasibility study (FS) as a PRP, completion of a feasibility study, and issuance of a record of decision.Source: Brian B Stanko, Erin Brogan, Erin Alexander, and Josephine Choy-Mee Chay.Environmental Accounting[J]. Buinese & Economic Review, 2006,(4):21-27.。
会计专业外文资料及翻译
外文资料Why credit risk occur? And how to deal with it? Adverse selection in loan markets occurs because bad credit risks(those most likely to default on their loans) are the ones who usually line up for loans ; in other words, those who are most likely to produce an adverse outcome are the most likely to be selected. Borrowers with very risky investment projects have much to gain if their projects are successful; and so they are the most eager to obtain loans. Clearly ，however, they are the least desirable borrowers because of the greater possibility that they will be unable to pay back their loans.Moral hazard exists in loan markers because borrowers may have incentives to engage in activities that are undesirable from the lender’s point of view. In suc h situations, it is more likely that the lender will be subjected to the hazard of default. Once borrowers have obtained a loan, they are more likely to invest in high-risk investment projects-projects that pay high returns to the borrowers if successful. The high risk, however, makes it less likely that they will be able to pay the loan back.To be profitable, financial institutions must overcome the adverse selection and moral hazard problems that make loan defaults more likely. The attempts of financial institutions to solve these problems help explain a number of principles for managing credit risk: screening and monitoring, establishment of long-term customer relationships, loan commitments, collateral, compensating balance requirement, and credit rationing.Screening and monitoringAsymmetric information is present in loan markets because lenders have less information about the investment opportunities and activities of borrowers than borrowers do. This situation leads to two information-producing activities by banks and other financial institutions, screening and monitoring. Indeed , Walter Wriston, a former head of Citicorp, the largest bank corporation in the United States, was often quoted as stating that the business of banking is the production of information.Screening . Adverse selection in loan markets requires that lenders screen out the bad credit risks from the good ones so that loans are profitable to them. To accomplish effective screening, lenders must collect reliable information from prospective borrowers. Effective screening and information collection together form an important principle of credit risk management.Specialization in lending. One puzzling feature of bank lending is that a bank often specializes in lending to local firms or to firms in particular industries, such as energy. In one sense, this behavior seems surprising because it means that the bank is not diversifying its portfolio of loans and thus is exposing itself to more risk. But from another perspective such specialization makes perfect sense. The adverse selection problem requires that the bank screen out bad credit risks. It is easier for the bank to collect information about local firms and determine their creditworthiness than to collect comparable information on firms that re far away. Similarly, by concentrating its lending on firms in specific industries, the bank becomes more knowledgeable about these industries and is therefore better able to predict which firms will be able to make timely payments on their debt.Monitoring and Enforcement of Restrictive Covenants. Once a loan has been made, the borrower has an incentive to engage in risky activities that make it less likely that the loan will be paid off. To reduce this moral hazard, financial institutions must adhere to the principle for managing credit risk that a lender should write provisions (restrictive covenants) into loan contracts that restrict borrowers from engaging in risky activities. By monitoring borrowers’ activities to see whether they are complying with the restrictive covenants and by enforcing the covenants if they are not, lenders can make sure that borrowers are not taking risks at their expense. The need for banks and other financial institutions to engage in screening and monitoring explains why they spend so much money on auditing and information-collecting activities.Long-term customer relationshipsAn additional way for banks and other financial institutions to obtain information about their borrowers is through long-term customer relationships, another important principle of credit risk management.If a prospective borrower has had a checking or savings account or other loans with a band over a long period of time, a loan officer can look at past activity on the accounts and learn quite a bit about the borrower. The balances in the checking and savings accounts tell the banker how liquid the potential borrower is and at what time of year the borrower has a strong need for cash. A review of the checks the borrower has written reveals the borrower’s suppliers. If the borrower has borrowed previously from the bank, the bank has record of the loan payments. Thus long-term customer relationships reduce the costs of information collection and make it easier to screen out bad credit risks.The need for monitoring by lenders adds to the importance of long-term customer relationships. If the borrower has borrowed from the bank before, the bank has already established procedures for monitoring that customer. Therefore, the costs of monitoring long-term customers are lower than those for new customers.Long-term relationships benefit the customers as well as the bank. A firm with a previous relationship will find it easier to obtain a loan at a low interest rte because the bank has an easier time determining if the prospective borrower is good credit risk and incurs fewer costs in monitoring the borrower.A long-term customer relationship has another advantage for the bank. No bank can think of every contingency when it writes a restrictive covenant into a loan contract; there will always be risky borrower activities that are not ruled out. However, what if a borrower wants to preserve a ling-term relationship with a bank because it will be easier to get future loans at low interest rates? The borrower then has the incentive to avoid risky activities that would upset the bank, even if restrictions on these risky activities are not specified in the loan contract. Indeed, if a bank doesn’t violating any restrictive covenants, it has some power to discourage the borrower from such activity: the bank can threaten not to let the borrower have new loans in the future. Long-term customer relationships therefore enable banks to deal with even unanticipated moral hazard contingencies.The advantages of establishing long-term customer relationships suggest that closer ties between corporations and banks might be beneficial to both. One way to create these ties is for banks to hold equity stakes in companies they lend to and for banks to have embers on the boards of directors of these companies.Loan commitmentsBanks also create long-term relationships and gather information by issuing loan commitment to commercial customers. A loan commitments a bank’s commitment (for a specified future period of time) to provide a firm with loans up to a given a mount at an interest rate that is tied to some market interest rate. The majority of commercial and industrial loans are made under the loan commitment arrangement. The advantage for the firm is that it has a source of credit when it needs it. The advantage for the bank is that the loan commitment promotes a long-term relationship, which in turn facilitates information collection. In addition, provisions in the loan commitment agreement require that the firm continually supply the bank with information about the firm’s income, asset and liability position, business activities,and so on. A loan commitment arrangement is a powerful method for reducing the bank’s costs for screening and information collection.<<China City Commercial Bank Report,2008>>tells us: China’s city commercial banks, as the last institutions emerging in China’s commercial banking system, were founded in 1995 through shareholding reform of the former urban credit cooperatives. They are regarded as “the third echelon” in China’s banking system.In 2007, China accelerated the pace of initial public offerings of its city commercial banks. On July 19th 2007, Bank of Nanjing went public in Shanghai Stock Exchange, becoming the first urban commercial bank stock in Shanghai Stock Exchange. Bank of Nanjing with a registered capital of CNY1.207 billion is the third urban commercial bank that has set up branches in other cities, after the Bank of Beijing and Bank of Shanghai. Besides Bank of Nanjing, Bank of Ningbo also had its IPO on the same day in the Shenzhen Stock Exchange.Bank of Beijing (601169) had its IPO in the Shanghai Stock Exchange on Sep. 19th 2007. The Bank of Beijing opened at 23 yuan per share in its market debut, up 84% from its IPO prices of 12.5 yuan. The bank issued 1.2 billion A shares in all, among which, 900 million shares were issued on-line. The bank’s shares were chased by the market and a total of CNY1.9 trillion was frozen for subscription.Furthermore, Bank of Hangzhou, Bank of Chongqing, and Bank of Tianjin have all expressed their intention to go public clearly. It is inevitable that more China’s urban commercial banks will be listed on the stock market in 2008.China Banking Regulatory Commission requires that domestic city commercial banks should be of a basic rudiment of a modern financial company in 2008. The basic rudiment should cover the following seven aspects: firstly, non-performing loan should remain at about 5%; secondly, capital adequacy ratio should be above 8%; thirdly, NPL provision coverage rate should reach 100%; fourthly, profit shouldcontinue to grow; fifthly, all information should be fully disclosed; sixthly, the ability to prevent market risk and operational risk should be further enhanced; seventhly, operation features, operation mechanism, corporate management, corporate culture and quality of employees should also be further improved. All city commercial banks have made great efforts to meet the above requirements and their efforts are finally paid off, according to our in-depth analysis in this report on operation conditions and performance of 75 city commercial banks in China.中文译文信用风险的成因及该如何应对？在信贷市场上所以发生逆向选择问题，是因为高信贷风险者（那些最有可能在贷款上违约的人们）常常就是那些排着队申请贷款的人。
外文翻译---人力资源会计体系
附录Human resource accounting systemAbstractFrom the century early 1970s beginning, along with the progress of the society and the high technology unceasing development and application, and quickly into productivity, and human intelligence resources as a production factor are more and more concerned. Connected with this the accounting of a new discipline branch - human resource accounting is also more and more get of accounting experts and scholars' attention and research. Human resource accounting major is research organization of human resource cost and value of measurement and reporting problems, including cost accounting of human resources and value accounting of human resources two basic content. Consinder the human resources into accounting system, construction with Chinese characteristics in human resource accounting system, to our country in the next century world foothold, which has the extremely vital significance.1.Construction of human resource accounting system is the objective economic condition change the inevitable requirementTraditional accounting mode, enterprise doesn't need in accounting systems and separately in the financial statements reflect human resource cost and value, even for the human resources investment also do not need capitalization, but directly as period cost processing. But accounting decision from objective economic conditions change must serve the particular social environment, as high-tech developments and desire of knowledge economy, also for accounting field brings new topic. Among them the human resource accounting issues is one of the core subject.In the era of knowledge economy to intelligence demands than any other economic times taller, it can say with intelligence based on intelligent economy is an important feature of knowledge economy. High-tech achievements of a large number of coming out, patent invention of surge, computer software the continuousdevelopment and renewal and consulting services in the ascendant, education and economic development of the decisive role are intelligent economy important embodiment.Intelligenteconomicdemanded theintelligence asabasic economic factors, the intelligence as capital idea thorough popular feeling. Intelligence development and utilization of the contribution to economic growth is more and more big. In intelligent economy society, knowledge become identity is indicative, by the higher level of education, knowledge the more abundant, the stronger the innovation ability of the person by the social respect and welcome. Future world competition will be taking economic basis, the competition from natural resources to the talent intelligence resources competition, formed taking high-new technology as the leading knowledge amount and technological strength of competition. In knowledge based, with intelligence for resource economy society, talent intelligence resources to become the first resource, the first capital and the first wealth. As in the capitalism early entry bookkeeping is same, appear construction of human resource accounting system is adapted to the objective economic condition change, to meet the challenge of knowledge economy request inevitably.2.Construction of human resource accounting special theoretical prerequisiteHuman resource accounting as a branch of accounting, specifically belongs to thecategory of financial accounting. So it must have enterprise accounting standards stipulated set up financial and accounting must the premise that the general theory of financial accounting four basic assumption: main body of accounting, sustained operation, accounting periodicity and monetary unit. But as a with monetary form reflect and control economic organization of human resources management activities of cost and value, it still has some special theoretical prerequisite, or establish human resource accounting system is still a bosh.The first, update assets concept, the human resources into assets category, according to accounting, the definition of the asset is enterprise owned or controlled measurable by money value, economic resources, including all property, the creditor's rights and other rights. Even before the human resource accounting proposed, there are many scholars think that human resources is of great uncertainty, and people's value is changed lossy human dignity, actually, it is necessary to clarify the valuationof human resources and not unto men, but to the plain code marks a price of labor ability and the ability to create value measurement. Human resources are owned or controlled by an enterprise may wish to future economic benefits to the enterprise inflows of human resources, it contains directly or indirectly increase enterprises cash or other economic interests of potential. Therefore human resources fully conforms to the definition of assets. In the knowledge economy form under the, in the microeconomic units earnings and decisive role in the formation of human capital, in accountant operation system characteristics should be confirmed, its capital words to enable it to fully reflect microeconomic units human resource value, also can make the human capital to maintain and increase its value.The second, HRA should not be used to the creditor's rights, and the economic subject should be as owner's equity. The current system of accounting gave no Labour property into proper management scope, nor of human resources and labor rights under the corresponding reflection, resulting in the accounting contents imperfection that caused the people to recognize the concept of dislocation, think wage income distribution, in accounting is profitable in liabilities account "deal with salary" etc to reflect. This deprives belongs to the laborer that part of a natural rights, covering up surplus value the unfair distribution of the facts. Human resource memory in the concrete a laborer body, this person nature of its ownership, when human resources to become the most important asset, and also the human resources as liabilities and treat its rejection in owners' equity, this to mobilize beyond words of labourers enthusiasm and creativity and promote the progress of the society, will cause massive negative effects. And because the economic subject does not stress distribution of surplus labor rights and interests of the share, also don't reflected the original visage, leading to put the cart before the horse mistake.3.Construction of human resource accounting system in practice, completes the basic workHuman resource accounting system construction although situation is compelled, but never overnight. In addition to solve human resources as the management accounting content, even regard it as a financial accounting external reports of important constituent, because both for managers, partner, or for the creditor, shareholders for, enterprise human resources information, which is undoubtedly the most important and the most relevant information. Human resource accounting system construction although situation is compelled, but never overnight. In addition to solve human resource accounting theoretical questions outside, we alsoin practice do the following several aspects of the basic, only such, construction of human resource accounting system can follow.The first,with the legislation form determined human resource accounting authority. Regarding the enterprise have human assets with laws and regulations to confirm human assets, at the same time for the movement and trade, countries should publish corresponding laws and regulations to give the support and norms. In addition, the state to change some corresponding laws and regulations, such as regulation must put human resource information faithfully in foreign financial statements disclosure. Especially in law clear, human resources owned by itself, but in the employment period, human resource allocation to obey enterprise management needs, enterprises of its own use.The second,cultivating high-quality accounting personnel and strengthening human resources management accounting. Human resource accounting management not only with the human resources of enterprises, and need of high-quality accounting personnel to operate.Because although human resource accounting is acknowledged as the financial accounting branch, but with the traditional financial accounting than its measurement and calculation method is more complex, technical stronger. Especially in non-monetary measurement, it want to make the result more approaching to science, which requires the accounting personnel should not only have rich experience and profound theoretical basis, but also master accounting probability and mathematical model and computer simulationanalysis on related knowledge. This needs cultivating high-quality accounting personnel, they not only have to obtain knowledge learning skills, but will make them with transform knowledge innovation skill, and application practice, thus completes the human resources management accounting work.principle of combining western related theory and practice. For example in our accountant forum puts forward "rights and interests of every worker accounting" is the western human resource accounting theory after the introduction, absorption of innovation.Through the pilot work of deepens, human resource cost the recognition and measurement of the program, to get the application, becoming increasingly prevalent in human resources of amortization cost may enter the enterprise production cost, and its composition of proportion will gradually improve. In the pilot regions and the industry, microeconomic units in accounting report will formally entered enterprise financial management system. In summary, the step-by-step pilot job, and can timelysolve the pilot encountered some special problems, it is certain to find suitable for the with Chinese characteristics in human resource accounting system, the construction way for the 21st century, human resource accounting in China comprehensively launches ready.人力资源会计体系摘要从本世纪70年代初开始，随着社会的进步及高新技术的不断发展和应用，并迅速转化为生产力，人力智力资源作为生产要素越来越受到人们的关注。
通货膨胀会计外文资料翻译 (2)
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译题目:Inflation Accounting附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文通货膨胀会计自从我们开始认识我们周遭的事物, 我们常常从我们的祖父母那里听到关于他们那个时代的东西,尤其是黄金和酥油是非常便宜的.那时我们常常想为什么他们的那个时代的东西非常便宜,而我们的这个时代的东西开始变得昂贵. 因此, 这个问题使我们感到困惑.但是现在, 随着我们的知识的增加和认识, 我们已经知道了通货膨胀这中现象, 用一种外行的理解是国家定价的增长或货币的贬值是已知背后的最大的原因.现在出现的问题究竟是不是通货膨胀?在当今世界, 通货膨胀是一个全球性的现象. 在资本主义世界的今天,几乎没有任何国家不受通货膨胀幽灵般的困扰.不同的经济学家用不同的词语定义通货膨胀, Prof.Crowther 定义的通货膨胀是“随着国家币值的下降, 或者是价格的上涨.” Prof.Paul Einzig 说“通货膨胀是一个不平衡的状态,总体表现是购买力扩张的原因或者是价格水平增长的影响.”两个定义都强调了物价上涨.通货膨胀的最基本的因素不是需求的增加就是供应的减少.通货膨胀对企业的影响通货膨胀对企业的影响可以分为两部分理解1.影响成本和收益2.影响资产和负债至于通货膨胀对成本和收益的影响是忧虑的, 肯定的, 两者都将上升. 但是他们的结果是否表现出超常的利润是被公司旧的价格的可用的期初存货的多少和被公司受理的工资的需求的多少决定的.在货币资产和负债中, 一个公司将失去被债权人和取得在真实项目中的被债务人.如果我们说其他的资产如建筑物, 土地和其他证券, 则公司将在货币方面有持有收益,但是在实质情况中还是有一定的影响, 因此,在价格方面的增长是一方面, 货币币值的下降是另一方面.通货膨胀会计及其意义通货膨胀影响产出和资产价格上涨的形式. 因为财务会计通常是以历史成本为记帐原则, 因此他们不考虑资产和产出价格上涨的影响. 这样的结果很可能会导致利润上的虚增, 资产价格的低估以及误导企业的决策.因此, 在以历史成本为记帐原则编制的财务报表通常被证明是历史事实的一种陈述, 并不能反映企业当前的商业价值. 这就剥夺了如管理者, 股东以及债权人等的报表使用者去获取正确的财务信息从而做出正确的经营决策的权力.因此,这就导致了对通货膨胀会计的需要. 通货膨胀会计是一个会计制度范围的术语描述, 设计并去纠正当通货膨胀存在时历史成本会计产生的上升的问题.通货膨胀会计的意义是从固有的历史成本会计制度的限制中产生的.以下是历史成本会计的局限性:1.历史成本会计不考虑, 因受通货膨胀影响, 从资产的货币价值上升产生的未实现的持有性收益.2.折旧费用的目标是在资产的使用寿命期间摊销其成本, 并在将来为其更换储备. 但是, 他并没有考虑到受通货膨胀影响的结果可能导致折旧费用不足的替换成本.3.根据历史成本会计, 以旧的价格获得的存货实现的收益是按当年的价格计算的. 在通货膨胀期间, 由于持有收益和经营收益的最大化, 可能导致利润上的虚增.4.从历史收益上,不容易去预测未来盈利.通货膨胀会计的历史在过去的几年中, 通货膨胀会计已经被作为一种补充运用在英国和美国的财务报表中, 关于在通货膨胀期间调整财务账目的方法已经争论了50多年的时间.早在1900年代初, 美国和英国的会计师就以经讨论过通货膨胀对财务报表的影响, 开始于指标的数据理论和购买力. Irving Fisher 在1911年出版的书《The Purchasing Power of Money》被Henry W.Sweeney 在1936年出版的关于恒定购买力会计的书中《Stabilized Accounting》作为起源. Sweeney的这一模型通过美国注册会计师协会为他们的研究性学习(ARS6)报告《the Financial Effects of Price-Level Changes》所应用, 后来又被应用到会计准则委员会(美国), 金融标准委员会(美国),会计标准指导委员会(英国). Sweeney主张用涵盖在国民生产总值之上的价格指标.在1979年3月,美国财务会计准则委员会(FASB)写了恒定美元会计, 当中主张使用消费价格指数为所有的城市消费者(CPI-U)去调整帐目, 因为其可在每月计算一次.在大萧条期间, 一些公司重述他们的财务报表, 以反映通货膨胀. 在过去50年的时间里, 标准制定组织应经鼓励企业用价格水平调整的方法去补充以成本为基础的财务报表. 在20世纪70年代的高通货膨胀时期, 当美国证券交易委员会(SEC)发行ASR190时, 财务会计准则委员会(FASB)正在审查关于价格水平调整报表的草案, 这需要美国大约1000家最大的公司提供基于替换成本的补充信息. 财务会计准则委员会撤回了草案.然而为了迎合通货膨胀会计的需要, 国际会计准则委员会(IASB)推出了世界闻名的会计准则IAS29.通货膨胀会计的方法为了衡量通货膨胀对财务报表的影响,使用的技术如下:当前购买力法(CPP)根据这一价格变动调整帐目的方法, 在财务报表中所有的项目都被重述在一个固定的货币单位的项目里, 也即一般购买力.为了衡量价格水平的变化, 并用一般物价指数把这一变化纳入到财务报表当中去, 这就意味着我们的目标很可能是一个晴雨表. 该指数被用于转换在资产负债表和利润表中各个项目的价值. 这个方法考虑了账户一般货币购买力的变化以及忽略了给定项目价格的实际上升或下降. 在当前的购买力下, 购买力法(CPP)涉及了历史数据的翻新.为了这一目标, 在这一时期的最后时刻, 历史数据被转换成了购买力的价格. 被要求的两个指标数据: 一个显示在期末的一般价格水平上, 另一个反映相同的数据在交易日.这种方法下的利润一段时间内在净资产价值方面上是增长的, 在当前购买力的项目中所有的价格是被估计出来的.现行成本会计(CCA)的方法现行成本会计是对当前购买力法的替代方法. 现行成本会计方法相当于在盈利中现行的收益与被消耗资源的现行成本.一般物价水平的变动通过指标数据去衡量. 具体价格发生变化, 如没有任何价格变动的特定资产的价格发生变化. 可以根据这一方法去解决, 资产按照当前的成本估价, 即资产被替换时的成本.通货膨胀会计的局限性虽然通货膨胀会计是一种更实际的做法,并能反映公司真实地财务情况, 但是有些限制不允许它成为一个普及的会计系统. 以下是他的限制:1.价格水平的变化是一个持续的过程.2.这个系统使计算变得乏味, 因为有太多的转换和计算.3.该系统没有被税务机关给予优惠.结论:在地球上的每一个人都受到通货膨胀的影响, 一些人表现出积极,但是大部分人表现的消极, 因为通货膨胀导致了一般购买力的侵蚀.历史成本会计没有考虑帐户中资产价值的变化, 由于通货膨胀影响的资产负债表和利润表, 不能真实的反映企业的价值及所需要的有效的决策信息.通货膨胀会计已经剔除了这个缺陷, 通过根据一般或具体价格水平的方法去调整数据.尽管对财务报表提出了正确的方法, 但是通货膨胀会计由于某些限制仍然没有得到广泛的普及. 但是随着在这一领域更多的研究和会计软件的开发, 毫无疑问, 调整后的通货膨胀会计就是财务会计的未来.附件2：外文原文Inflation Accounting/Faculty_Column/FC1103/fc1103.htmlSince we started understanding things around us, we all used to listen from our Grandparents about the things and articles especially Gold & Ghee being cheaper in their times.That time we used to think that why the things were cheaper in our Grandparent’ time and why had they started becoming costlier. So this question would keep us puzzled.But now as we have grown in our knowledge and understanding, we have come to know about the phenomenon of Inflation which in layman’s language is known as the state of rising pricing or the falling value of maney was the greatest reason behind this.Now emerges the question that what exactly is the Inflation?Inflation is a global phenomenon in present day times. There is hardly any country in the capitalist world today which is not afficted by spectre of inflation.Different economists have defined inflation in different words like Prof.Crowther has defined inflation “as a state in which the value of money is falling, ie, prices are tising.” In the words of Prof.Paul Einzig, “Inflation is that state of disequilibrium in which an expansion of purchasing power tend s to cause or is the effect of an increase of price level.” Both the definition have emphasized on the rising prices of the goods.The basic factors behind the inflation are either the rising demand or the shortening of supply due to any reason.Effect of Inflation on BusinessThe impact of inflation on business can be bifurcated into two parts like1.Impact on costs and revenue2.Impact on assets and liabilitiesAs far as impact of inflation on costs and revenues is concerned, definitely both will rise but whether they result into extraordinary profits will be determined by that how much opening stock was available at old prices with the company and how much later the demand for increasing wages is entertained by the company.In case of monetary assets and liabilities, accompany will lose of being creditor and gain in case of being debtor in real terms.If we talk about other assets like building, land and other securities, the company will be having holding gains in monetary terms but may have neutral impact in real terms due to the rise in prices on the one hand but fall in value of money on the other.Inflation Accounting and its significanceThe impact of inflation comes in the form of rising prices of output and assets. As the financial accounts are kept on Historical cost basis, so they don’t take into consideration the impact of rise in the prices of assets and output. This may sometimes result into the overstated profits, under priced assets and misleading picture of Business etc.So, the financial statements prepared under historical accounting are generally proved to be statements of historical facts and do not reflect the current worth of business. This deprives the users of accounts like management, shareholders, and creditors etc. to have a right picture of business to make appropriate decisions.Hence, this leads towards the need for Inflation Accounting. Inflation accounting is a term describing a range of accounting systems designed to correct problems arising from historical cost accounting in the presence of inflation.The significance of inflation accounting emerges from the inherent limitations of the historical cost accounting system.Following are the limitations of historical accounting:1.Historical accounts do not consider the unrealized holding gains arising from the rise in themonetary value of the assets due to inflation.2.The objective of charging depreciation is to spread the cost of the asset over its useful life andmake reserve for its replacement in the future. But it does not take into account the impact of inflation over the replacement cost which may result into the inadequate charge of depreciation.3.Under historical accounting, inventories acquired at old prices are marched against revenuesexpressed at current prices. In the period of inflation, this may lead to the overstatement of profits due mixing up of holding gains and operating gains.4.Future earnings are not easily projected from historical earnings.History of Inflation AccountingIn the last few years, inflation accounting has been adopted as a supplementary financial statement in the United States and the United Kingdom. This comes after more than 50 years of debate about methods of adjusting financial accounts for inflation.Accountants in the United Kingdom and the United States have discussed the effect of inflation on financial statements since the early 1900s, beginning with index number theory and purchasing power. Irving Fisher’s 1911 book the Purchasing Power Accounting. This model by Sweeney was used by The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants for their 1936 research study(ARS6) Reporting the Financial Effects of Price-Level Changes, and later used by the Accounting Principles Board (USA), The Financial Standards Board (USA), and the Accounting Standards Steering Committee (UK). Sweeney advocated using a price index that covers everything in the gross national product. In March 1979, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) wrote Constant Dollar Accounting, which advocated using the Consumer Price Index for Al Urban Consumers (CPI-U) to adjust accounts because it is calculate every month.During the Great Depression, some corporations restated their financial statements to reflect inflation. At times during the past 50 years standard-setting organizations have encouraged companies to supplement cost-based financial statements with price-level adjusted statements. During a period of high inflation in the 1970s, the FASB was reviewing a draft proposal for price-level adjusted statements when the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued ASR 190, which required approximately 1,000 of the largest US corporations to provide supplemental information based on replacement cost. The FASB withdrew the draft proposal.Still to cater to the needs of an Inflation Accounting, the IASB came out with Accounting Standard known as IAS29.Techniques of Inflation AccountingTo measure the impact of inflation on financial statements, following are the techniques used: Current Purchasing Power (CPP) MethodUnder this method of adjusting accounts to price changes, all items in the financial statements are restated in terms of a constant unit of money ie in terms of general purchasing power. For measuring changes in the price level and incorporating the changes in the financial statements we use General Price Index, which may be considered to be a barometer meant for the purpose. The index is used to convert the values of various items in the Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Account. This method takes into account the changes in the general purchasing power of money and ignores the actual rise or fall in the price of the given item. CPP method involves the refurnishing of historical figures at current purchasing power. For this purpose, historical figures are converted into value of purchasing power at the end of the period. Two index numbers are required: one showing the general price level at the end of the period and the other reflecting the same at the date of the transaction.Profit under this method is an increase in the value of the net asset over a period, all valuations being made in terms of current purchasing power.Current Cost Accounting (CCA) MethodThe Current Cost Accounting is an alternative to the Current Purchasing Power Method. The CCA method matches current revenues with the current cost of the resources which are consumed in earning them.Changes in the general price level are measured by Index Numbers. Specific price change occurs if price of a particular asset change without any general price change. Under this method, asset are valued at current cost which is the cost at which asset can be replaced as on a date.While the Current Purchasing Power (CPP) method is known as the General Price Level approach, the Current Cost Accounting (CCA) method is known as Specific Price Level approach or Replacement Cost Accounting.Limitations of Inflation AccountingThough Inflation Accounting is more practical approach for the true reflection of financial status of the company, there are certain limitations which are not allowing this to be a popular system of accounting. Following are the limitations:1.Change in the price level is a continuous process.2.This system makes the calculations a tedious task because of too many conversions andcalculations.3.This system has not been given preference by tax authorities.ConclusionEvery person on this earth has been affected by Inflation, some positively but most of the people negatively because the Inflation leads to the erosion of general purchasing power. The Inflation spares none and it equally influences the Businesses like the people.Historical cost accounting does not take into account the change in the rise in the value of assets and its impact on Balance Sheet and P&L Account due to inflation and does not reflect the real worth of the business which is very required for effective decision making.Inflation Accounting has removed this drawback by providing methods for adjusting the figure accounting to General or Specific Price levels.Despite a right method of presenting financial statements, Inflation Accounting is still not widely prevalent due to certain limitations. But with more research and development of accounting software in this field, there is no doubt that Inflation adjusted accounting is the future of Financial Accounting.。
韩德睿-会计102-外文翻译
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系：经济系专业：会计学姓名：韩德睿学号： 1005180222 外文出处：SME and Entrepreneurship Financing: The Roleof Credit Guarantee Schemes and Mutual Guarantee Societies in supporting finance for small and medium-sized enterprises附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文中小企业与创业融资：信用担保计划及互助担保社团在给予小型和中小型企业金融支持中的作用最终报告内容提要1.在许多国家，信用担保计划（CGSs）代表了一个解决中小企业融资缺口的重要政策工具，同时也缓解了公共财政的负担。
因为没有足够的担保抵押能力，有限或者空的信用记录，以及经常缺乏必要的专业知识去编制精细复杂的财务报表，中小企业和创业企业通常被限制获得信贷。
公司与潜在放贷人之间存在的信息不对称，意味着后者对借款者来说具有默认情况下的高风险属性，而且，在没有足够的抵押品的情况下，最终导致一个对信贷需求部分或否定的反应。
信用担保机制是一种常用的针对这种市场失灵情况的办法。
通过给予一部分所要求的贷款担保保护，CGS可以降低贷款人的风险，并且有利于向那些有信用约束的企业提供融资。
2.在一些经合组织国家，信用担保计划已经成为决策者在近来的金融危机中改善中小企业和企业家融资渠道的工具。
在一些非经合组织国家，信用担保制度也成为拓展信贷市场，改善金融包容性的机制，并迅速的发展起来。
公共担保工具的扩展，以及对私人担保计划的扶持，通过提供资金或共同担保，引发了对对监测和评估的更大需求。
同时，也有必要去区分从广泛使用的信用担保产生并成为他们的日常运作的反周期工具，进而成为金融体系的结构要素所带来的特定挑战。
3.目前的研究目的是通过几个方面的调查如所有制结构和资金，法律和监管框架，以及包括服务类型，资格标准，担保分配处理和信贷风险管理在内的计划的运作特点，来提高对信用担保的作用，影响和可持续性的认识。
外文翻译--财务会计概念的声明会计信息质量特征
外文翻译--财务会计概念的声明会计信息质量特征本科毕业论文（设计）外文翻译外文出处Journal of Accountancy;Aug80, Vol.150 Issue 2,P105-120,16p外文作者 Miller, Paul B. W.原文：Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No.2―QualitativeCharacteristics of Accounting InformationPrimary Decision-Specific QualitiesRelevance and reliability are the two primary qualities that makeaccounting information useful for decision making. Subject to constraintsimposed by cost and materiality, increased relevance and increasedreliability are the characteristics that make information a moredesirable commodity-that is, one useful in making decisions. If eitherof those qualities is completely missing, the information will not beuseful. Though, ideally, the choice of an accounting alternative shouldproduce information that is both more reliable and more relevant it maybe necessary to sacrifice some of one quality for a gain in another.To be relevant, information must be timely and it must have predictivevalue or feedback value or both. To be reliable, information must have representational faithfulness and it must be verifiable and neutral. Comparability, which includes consistency, is a secondary quality that interacts with relevance and reliability to contribute to the usefulness of information. Two constraints are include in the hierarchy, both primarily quantitative in character. Information can be useful and yet be too costly to justify providing it. To be useful and worth providing, the benefits of information should exceed its cost. All of the qualities of information shown are subject to a materiality threshold, and that is also shown as a constraint.RelevanceRelevant accounting information is capable of making a difference in a decision by helping users to form predictions about the outcomes of past, present and future events or to confirm or correct prior expectations. Information can make a difference to decisions by improving decision makers’ capacities to predict or by providing feedback on earlier expectations. Usually, information does both at once, because knowledge about the outcomes of actions already taken will generally improve decision makers’ abilities to predict the results of similar future actions. Without a knowledge of the past, the basis for a prediction will usually be lacking. Without an interest in the future, knowledge of the past is sterile.Timeliness, that is, having information available to decision makers before it loses its capacity to influence decisions, is an ancillary aspect of relevance. If information is not available when it is needed or becomes available so long after the reported events that it has no value for future action, it lacks relevance and is of little or no use. Timeliness alone cannot make information relevant, but a lack of timeliness can rob information of relevance it might otherwise have had.ReliabilityThe reliability of a measure rests on the faithfulness with which it represents what it purports to represent, coupled with an assurance for the user that it has that representational quality. To be useful, information must be reliable as well as relevant. Degrees of reliability must be recognized. It is hardly ever a question of black or white, but rather of more reliability or less. Reliability rests upon the extent to which the accounting description or measurement is verifiable and representational faithful. Neutrality of information also interacts with those two components of reliability to affect the usefulness of the information.Verifiability is a quality that may be demonstrated by securing a high degree of consensus among independent measures using the same measurement methods. Representational faithfulness, on the other hand, refers to the correspondence or events those numbers purport to represent. A high degreeof correspondence, however, does not guarantee that an accounting measurement will be relevant to the user’s needs if the resources or events represented by the measurement are inappropriate to the purpose at hand.Neutrality means that, in formulating or implementing standards, the primary concern should be the relevance and reliability of the information that results, not the effect that the new rule may have on a particular interest. A neutral choice between accounting alternatives is free from bias towards a predetermined result. The objectives of financial reporting serve many different information users who have diverse interests, and no one predetermined result is likely to suit all interests.Comparability and ConsistencyInformation about a particular enterprise gains greatly in usefulness, if it can be com pared with similar information about other enterprises and with similar information about the same enterprise for some other period or some other point in time. Comparability between enterprises and consistency in the application of methods over time increases the informational value of comparisons of relative economic opportunities or performance. The significance of information, especially quantitative information, depends to a great extent on the user’s ability to relate it to some benchmark.MaterialityMateriality is a pervasive concept that relates to the qualitative characteristics, especially relevance and reliability. Materiality and relevance are both defined in terms of what influences or makes a difference to a decision maker, but the two terms can be distinguished.A decision not to disclose certain information may be made, say, because investors have no need for that kind of information it is nit relevant or because the amounts involved are too small to make a difference they are not material . Magnitude by itself, without regard to the nature of the item and the circumstances in which the judgment has to be made, will not generally be a sufficient basis for a materiality judgment. The Board’s present position is that no general standards of materiality ban be formulated to take into account all the considerations that enter into an experienced human judgment. Quantitative materiality criteria may be given by the Board in specific standards in the future, as in the past, as appropriate.Source: Journal of Accountancy;Aug80, Vol.150 Issue 2, P105-120,16p 译文：财务会计概念的声明――会计信息质量特征制定具体决策的主要特征相关性和可靠性是使会计信息对于制定决策有用的最主要的两个特征。
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会计外文翻译Master's thesis, University of LondonInformation technology and accounting management withthe use is the relevant value of information analysis and use, and various factors of production based on the value creation of corporate accounting and management contributions to the study of accounting will be the main content. No use of information technology, there is any enterprise information and accounting information to promote the implementation of value chain management will lose technical support, there is no theory of innovation value chain management, accounting, and information technology development, there is no power. In this paper, the meaning of information to start, leads to the meaning of accounting information, accounting information describes the development process, the second part of the analysis of the status quo of accounting information, analysis of its use in the problems, the third part of the proposed accounting information on the implementation of the strategic analysis.Keywords: accounting, information technology strategyI. Introduction(A) BackgroundThe development of accounting information in China has gone through more than 20 years, accounting information theory and practical application of talent, the accounting information system software has gradually matured, and, and the production, supply and marketing, human resources management, cost control and other aspects of the formation of an integrated management information system software. But the company found accounting information in the status of the development of enterprises is extremely uneven, a lot of strength and standardized management of large enterprises have been using the integrated accounting information system "ERP" is the management software, and the introduction of new ideas with the value of the supply chain management chain management system, and also the majority of the total business is still in the initial stage of the use of computerized accounting, or even manually. Enterprise management is still in the coexistence of traditional and modern, our corporate accounting information so early, the senior co-existence of the phenomenon will not surprise. Accounting information must be improved to facilitate the management of change. The essence of the value chain to value chain to implement the core business processes node changes, if companies choose the value chain as the corebusiness process change, business management will enable a major step forward, it promotes corporate accounting development of information technology.(B) SignificanceMaster's thesis, University of LondonWhile accounting information in China's time is not long, its nature and content to be further studied, but it is undeniable, with the advent of the information society, accounting, information technology will be an irresistible inevitable trend of the accounting information The current accounting both in theory and in practice will have a huge impact.First, to achieve after the accounting information, accounting information system will truly become a business management information system, a subsystem. The business enterprise is able to automatically capture the enterprise's internal and external information related to accounting, and together with the company's internal accounting information system for real-time processing. Accounting from the limitations of traditional accounting afterwards freed, and thus play a greater management control of accounting functions, business and information so that users can readily use the corporate accounting information to the business of the future financial situation to make a reasonable forecast, management and development of enterprises to make the right decisions. Second, the accounting assumptions, in particular,is no longer the traditional accounting entity with real money and plant business, it will include some of the online virtual companies and network companies, which for the common goal, in short time together, when the completion of specific goals will soon dissolve, and its continuing operations, accounting, staging and monetary measures the basic premise of all will be affected. Implementation of accounting information, the enterprise network and external networks to achieve the Internet, users of accounting information can always obtain the relevant accounting information. Comprehensive application of information technology has greatly improved the timeliness of the information, the predictive value of information and feedback is also greatly enhance the value of information flow is also much faster, can contribute positively to the improvement of economic management. Other accounting information systems through direct access to relevant data and analysis, reducing the man-made fraud, thus greatly improving the reliability of accounting information and the quality of information.Third, today's accounting software processes basically simulate manual accounting processes and design. Implementation of accounting information, the accounting system is no longer isolated, but with areal-time processing, highly automated system, which with other business systems and external connections, you can directly read data from other systems, and a series of processing, processing, storage andtransmission. Accounting reports can also be used for real-time electronic means associated newspaper report, the user can always obtain useful accounting information for decision-making, improve efficiency, promote economic development.21st century will be an information-oriented society, today'ssociety is the "knowledge economy" era forward, In today's competitive environment, the accounting officer must not only well versed in the basic principles of accounting, computerized accounting techniques to master , but also learn some sense of organization, behavioral factors, decision-making process and communication technology and other aspects of the basic theory. Accounting information representsMaster's thesis, University of Londonnew accounting ideas and concepts, the traditional accounting theory and modern information technology, network technology, a combination of product development is the inevitable trend of modern accounting. It must seize opportunities, meet challenges, and strive to promote the development of China's accounting information.II An overview of the accounting information(A) the meaning of informationBegan in the 1940s wave of information technology, beginning aroused great attention in all aspects, from the 1960s, scholars began to have "information" and "information society" and so on. 1963 Japanese scholars Tidal plum out in its "Information Industry science" for the first time that "information technology" concept. As informationtechnology there is not long, the actual development and very rapid development of information society itself changes, the understanding of information technology are not the same. For example, "information is the communication of modern, computer and rationalize the general term", "information is computerized, modern communication and network technology", "information is e-commerce" and "information is computerized," " information is information technology and information industry in the economic and social development and play a leading role in increasing the process ", and so on. Information technologyrevolution and the industrial revolution is the result of information from the three aspects, namely, the digitization of information, information networks, information and intelligent. "Digital information is the basis of information, the information network is the basic characteristics of information technology, information, and information technology is the development of intelligent features."(B) The information content of accountingThe concept of accounting information in 2000, the ShenzhenMunicipal Finance Bureau and the Shenzhen Kingdee Software Technology Co., Ltd in Shenzhen's "new situation, management accounting software market, Information Theory Symposium accounting expert forum" on the make is the accounting computerized product development to a new stage. Theoretical understanding of information technology sector havedifferent views, such as technical concept, the process concept, elements and outlook, and thus the concept of accounting information will have a different set, HU Ran star of accounting information as defined by the use of more the status quo. "Accounting information is based on the system in the enterprise of science, management science, application of modern information technology, integration of enterprise business processes and accounting processes, the establishment of accounting information systems; full development and use of accounting information resources, timely and accurate to the enterprise internal and external users of accounting information to provide useful support to strengthen the role of accounting to reflect and monitor the overall process. "As can be seen from this statement, the accounting information is the process of concept, it conveys such meanings: First, the means of access to information networks, communications and databases; Second, business processes and accounting processes to be re- whole, to better reflect the timeliness of information provided; third-to-business cash flow, physical flow and information flow throughout the。