《英语修辞学》第四章2
英语修辞学forSs Chapter 4 Figures of Speech1
Chapter 4 Figures of SpeechIntroduction•Figures of Speech-- the generic term of any artful deviations from the ordinary mode of speaking or writing•The functions of figures of speech–render our thoughts vividly concrete, and help us to communicate with our audience clearly and effectively; (Logos)–stir emotional responses, carry truth, in Wordsworth's phrase, "alive into the heart by passion"; (Pathos)–elicit admiration for the eloquence of the speaker or writer, exert a powerful ethical appeal. (Ethos)4.1 ClassificationTwo Classification Systems–Corbett and Connors's System of Classification–Walter Nash's Classification System of Figures4.1.1 Corbett and Connors's System of ClassificationTwo main groups: the schemes and the tropes.A scheme (Greek schema, form, shape) involves a deviation from the ordinary pattern or arrangement of words.A trope (Greek tropein, to turn ) involves a deviation from the ordinary and principal signification of a word.The Schemes 布局/形变辞格Schemes of Words1. Adding or subtractingProsthesis (adding a syllable in front of word) e.g. loved -- belovedEpenthesis (adding a syllable in the middle of word) e.g. visiting -- visitatingProparalepsis (adding a syllable at the end of word) e.g. climate -- climatureAphaeresis (subtracting a syllable from the beginning of word) e.g. beneath –…neath, It is - 'tis, advantage - vantageSyncope (subtracting a syllable from the middle of word) e.g. prosperous -- prosprousApocope (subtracting a syllable from the end of word) e.g. evening – even, cinematograph - cinema2. Exchanging soundsmetathesis (transposition of letters in a word) e.g. clasp -- clapsantisthecon (change of sound) e.g. wrong -- wrangSchemes of Construction1. Schemes of BalanceParallelism (similarity of structure in a pair or related words, phrases, or clauses)Antithesis (the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure)2. Schemes of unusual or inverted word order (hyperbaton )Anastrophe (inversion of the natural or usual word order)Parenthesis (insertion of some verbal unit in a position interrupts the normal syntactical flow of thesentence)Apposition (placing side by side two co-ordinate elements, second of which serves as an explanation or modification of the first)3. Schemes of OmissionEllipsis (deliberate omission of a word or of words which are readily implied by the context) Asyndeton (deliberate omission of conjunctions between series of related clauses)4. Schemes of RepetitionAlliteration (repetition of initial consonants in two or more adjacent words)Assonance (repetition of similar vowel sounds, preceded and followed by different consonants, in the stressed syllables of adjacent words)Anaphora (repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginnings of successive clauses) (a...)(a...)Epistrophe (repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses) (...a) (...a)Epanalepsis (repetition at the end of a clause of the word that occurred at the beginning of the clause) (a …a)Anadiplosis (repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause) (…a, a …)Climax (arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance) Antimetabole (repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order)Chiasmus (reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses)Polyptoton (repetition of words derived from the same root)The Tropes 辞格/变异辞格Metaphor(an implied comparison between two things of unlike nature that yet have something in common)Simile(an explicit comparison between two things of unlike nature that yet have something in common)Synecdoche (a figure of speech in which a part stands for the whole)Metonymy (substitution of some attributive or suggestive word for what is actually meant)Puns (generic name for those figures which make a play on words)1. Antanaclasis (repetition of a word in two different senses)2. Paronomasia (use of words alike in sound but different in meaning)3. Syllepsis(use of a word understood differently in relation to two or more other words, which it modifies or governs)Anthimeria (the substitution of one part of speech for another)Periphrasis (substitution of a descriptive word or phrase for a proper name or of a proper name for a quality associated with the name)Personification (Prosopopoeia) (investing abstractions or inanimate objects with human qualities or abilities)Hyperbole (the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect)Litotes (deliberate use of understatement, not to deceive someone but to enhance the impressiveness of what we say)Rhetorical Question (erotema) (asking a question, not for the purpose of eliciting an answer but for the purpose of asserting or denying something obliquely)Onomatopoeia (use of words whose sound echoes the sense)Oxymoron (the yoking of two terms that are ordinarily contradictory)Paradox (an apparently contradictory statement that nevertheless contains a measure of truth)See 李鑫华，pp8- 17 for reference4.1.2 Walter Nash's Classification System of FiguresWalter Nash, British linguist, has adopted a linguistic approach toward the classification of the figures. For Nash, The word figure is the super-ordinate term, applicable to any rhetorical device. Scheme will refer to figures of word-order and syntactic patterning; trope will refer to figures that play on the sense of words.•We shall further distinguish between tropes that confine their play to a single word or phrase, and those that pervade longer stretches of discourse; these last we shall call modes调式. There are thus figures of syntax and figures of semantics, the latter being roughly divisible into word-semantics and discourse semantics. The proposed hierarchy of terms is represented in the following sketch:FIGURESCHEMES TROPE(syntax. (semantic)E.g. climax)(word meaning, (discourse sense,e.g. metaphor) e.g. irony)4.1.3 The classification of The New Encyclopedia Britannica1. figures of resemblance or relationship e.g. metaphor, simile2. figures of emphasis or understatement e.g. hyperbole, litotes3. figures of sound e.g. alliteration4. verbal games and gymnastics e.g. pun, anagram 字谜5. errors e.g. malapropism语词的滑稽误用,飞白, periphrasis 折绕4.1.4 Other classificationsLinguistically–Phonetical–lexical–StructuralSee 李鑫华，p8Aesthetically1. Figures related to sound and color声色美2.Figures related to resemblance and relationship3. Figures related to balance4. Figures related to emphasis5. Figures related to change6. Figures related to vagueness4.2 Syntactic schemes4.2.1 Syntactic Schemes of BalanceGeneral RemarksBalance in sentence construction is based on the principle that ideas of the same importance should be expressed in the same grammatical form to enhance clarity and coherence, by giving them equal weight.E.g.(1) Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them.(Francis Bacon: " Of Studies")(2) Penny wise; pound foolish.•The chief schemes of balance are Parallelism, Antithesis, Chiasmus (交错配列), and its variation Antimetabole (颠倒重复). These are now discussed below, individually.1. ParallelismIn parallel construction it is necessary to balance word for word (noun with noun, verb with verb, adjective with adjective, etc.), phrase with phrase, clause with clause, sentence with sentence.Compare: Are they parallels?a. The child was pretty and had brains.b. The child was pretty and intelligent.c. He sat down and was beginning to work.d. He sat down and began to work.•Parallelism is regularly employed in the listing of facts, ideas, events etc., and the parallel elements may range from a minimum of two to any number required.•To make the parallelism clear, it is essential to repeat, as the case demands, the marker of the parallelism, such as an article, a preposition, the to of an infinitive, or the introductory word of a main or subordinate clause.E.g.(3) She was a good hostessand an accomplished pianist.(4) You can go there on foot,by busor by train.(5) It is important to know how to studyand to learn how to plan one's time.(There are two sets of parallelisms here.)(6) Do you know who will comeand when they will arrive?The careless omission of such markers will lead to awkward, if not unidiomatic sentences.E.g.(7) (×) I will wait until you call or shecomes.(√) I will wait until you call oruntil she comes.(8) (×) She is a swimmer and artist.(√) She is a swimmer and an artist.However, it is permissible to leave out such markers if their omission does not cause ambiguity,awkwardness, or if they do not sound unidiomatic.E.g.(9) She likes to read, swim, and play tennis.(10) We can go there by bus, train or plane.Parallel constructions are also introduced by correlative such as either ... or, neither ... nor, both … and, not only … but also, whether … or，and rathe r … than.E.g.(11) You may either go with them or stay behind.(12) She was both their friend and teacher.(13) I would rather go shopping than visit the parks.•From the above examples, we can see that parallelism involves balancing the structural elements of a sentence. Very often, however, repetition is used with parallelism to emphasize the equal importance and weight of the parallel parts. E.g.(14) We live in deeds, not years;in thoughts, not breaths;in feelings, not in figures on a dial.(P. J. Bailey: Festus, v)(15) ... and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth.(Abraham Lincoln: "Gettysburg Address")(16) Is not a Patron, my Lord, one who looks with unconcern on a man struggling for life in the water, and, when he has reached ground, encumbers him with help?为……所累The notice which you have been pleased to take of my labours, had it been early, had been kind, but it has been delayed till I am indifferent, and cannot enjoy it; till I am solitary and cannot impart it; till I am known, and do not want it.(Samuel Johnson: "Letter to Lord Chesterfield")•In conclusion, we will say parallelism is one of the most frequently used of all English rhetorical devices, and anyone who has learnt to use it with ease in all its variety will find it an invaluable aid in making his/her writing clear and effective.2. AntithesisAntithesis is the deliberate arrange-ment of contrasting words or ideas in balanced structural forms to achieve force and emphasis.Speech is silver; silence is golden.Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.-- Shakespeare: Julius CaesarIt takes a great deal of history to produce a little literature. -- Henry JamesI had walked into that reading room a happy healthy man. I crawled out a decrepit wreck.-- Jerome K. Jerome: Three Men in a Boat•Sometimes a whole passage can be made up of contrasts, and this extract from Ecclesiastes is a well-known example, which emphasizes a point of view, an idea:There is a time for everything, and a season for every activity under heaven: (Ecclesiastes)a time to be born and a time to die,a time to plant and a time to uproot,a time to kill and a time to heal,a time to tear down and a time to build,a time to weep and a time to laugh,a time to mourn and a time to dance,…a time to be silent and a time to speak,a time to love and a time to hate,a time for war and a time for peace.It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the era of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of Hope, it was the winter of Despair, we had everything before us.3. Chiasmus and Antimetabole(交错配列,颠倒重复).Chiasmus is a device that consists of two balanced statements, the second of which reverses the order of the words in the first, with or without a repetition of words.(1) We live to eat, not eat to live.(Here the key words in the first statement are repeated, and reversed in order in the second. This is called antimetabole.)(2) He was an angel on the surface, but a t heart a knave.(Here there is no repetition of words; but the positions of the nouns and adverbials are reversed. This is called chiasmus.)(3) Let us never negotiate out of fear, but let us never fear to negotiate. (chiasmus)-- J.F. Kennedy(4) And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. (antimetabole)-- J.F. KennedySimilar Chinese device is called “回环”, for example:（1）啊呀啊呀，真实愈有钱，便愈是一毫不肯放松，愈是一毫不肯放松，便愈有钱……（鲁迅《故乡》）（2）“人家说了再做，我是做了再说。
英语修辞学课件
w w w w w w w w w w w w w
As firm as a rock As mute as a fish As strong as a horse As brave as a lion As obstinate as a cow As white as snow As black as ink / pitch As changeable as the weather As wet as a drowned rat As blind as a bat As fat as a pig As proud as a peacock As fresh as a rose
Type One: like
w Living without an aim is like sailing without a compass. w Marriage is like a beleaguered fortress: those who are without want to get in, and those within want to get out.
Metaphor
A figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another. (Webster‘s New World Dictionary)
All the world‘s a stage, And all men and women merely players; They have their exits and entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages… (Shakespeare, As you Like it ) The first clause sets up the basic comparison. The tenor and vehicle invoked by the first line are elaborated in the lines that follow. The metaphor makes possible for the literary writer to explain things vividly in great detail.
英语修辞学1-4Ex答案gg
《英语修辞学》第一章----第四章练习答案Tell what figures of speech each sentence contains.1. You might as well expect a leopard to change its spots as expect him to give up smoking.(simile)2. I stayed on Hong Kong island and found myself in a different world, where surprising quiet and the green smell of lush foliage is just steps away from the business district.(Jane Wooldridge: Hong Kong) (synaesthesia)3. The delicious breath of rain was in the air. (kate Chopin: The Dream of an Hour) (synaesthesia)4. How all my own territory would be altered, as if a landslide had gone through it and skimmed off all meaning except loss of Mike. (simile)(I had never realized until Mike’s leaving) How much my own life would be affected, as if it had been destroyed by a landslide, which took away everything I used to enjoy, leaving behind only the pain from missing Mike.我的世界里，就像发生了天崩地裂，除了迈克的离去，其余所有的记忆都被冲走了。
《英语修辞学》第二章
to the entire cream
Personality and anthropology
要点一
Personalization
Personalization is a rhetorical device where abstract ideas or inanimate objects are given human qualities or attributes For example, "the waves dance in the moonlight" personalizes the waves by giving them the ability to dance
Importance
Rhetoric plays a critical role in communication, allowing individuals to express their ideas clearly and persistently It is essential in various fields such as politics, law, education, and business, where the ability to influence and supervise others is key to success
英语修辞学
《英语修辞学》教学大纲修订单位: 韩山师范学院外语系执笔人: 张若兰一. 课程基本信息1. 课程中文名称：英语修辞学2. 课程英文名称：English Rhetoric3. 课程类别：任选4. 适应专业：英语（师范类）本科5. 总学时：366. 总学分：2二．本课程在教学计划中的地位、作用和任务《英语修辞学》是为英语专业高年级学生开设的一门专业任意选修课。
该课程通过系统的讲授，使学生掌握英语修辞的基本原理及其应用，从而达到写作时语言更加贴切，意义更加清晰，表达更加生动；阅读时更加准确地理解作者的写作意图、文体风格和写作技巧，从本质上了解英语，掌握英语，提高阅读能力、写作能力和文学欣赏水平和语言修养。
三．教学内容与教学基本要求教学内容:Chapter One：Syntactic Devices (句法辞格) (6课时)本章内容包括：1．长句和短句(Long and short sentences)；2．简单句(The simple sentence)；3．复合句(The compound sentence)；4．分枝句(Branching sentences)；5．主动和被动句(The active and the passive voiced sentences)；6．平衡句(Syntactic schemes of balance)----排比句(parallelism)；对偶句(antithesis)；逆转反复句(chiasmus)；7．倒装句(Syntactic scheme of inversion)----省略句(ellipsis)；局部省略句(fragmentary elliptical sentence)；连词省略/散珠(asyndeton)；跳脱(aposiopesis)；8．添加句（Syntactic scheme of addition or insertion）----连词叠用(polysyndeton)；修正法/换语(epanorthosis)；注释法(exegesis)；扩充法(exergasia) ；并列法(apposition) ；插入法(parenthesis)；9．反复句(Syntactic scheme of repetition)---二项式(binomials)；三项式(trinomials)；多项式(catalogues)；首语重复(syntactic anaphora)；尾语重复(syntactic epiphorea)；首尾语重复(syntactic framing)；10．层进与突降(Syntactic scheme of climax and anticlimax)----(climax)；(anticlimax or bathos)11．修辞问句(Rhetoric question)；12．顿呼(Apostrophe)。
英语修辞学Lecture 4
4. 以人体器官代替其功能 The practiced ear can recognize a classic flavour.
She has the eye for the fair and the beautiful.
I have an opinion of you, sir, to which it is not easy to give the mouth.
9. 以抽象事物代替具体事物 In the present instance, it was sickness and poverty together that she came to visit. She is an ageing opera singer who has retired from the stage to teach.
3. 以容器代替其中内容。 Whenever my husband has a bad day at the office, he hits the bottle.
The kettle boils. （kettle substitutes for the water in it) My pocket can’t afford such a pair of shoes. You can get a good cup at Susan’s café. Sheradon is a hotel noted for its good table. The room sat silent.
E.g. What is learned in the cradle is carried to the grave. 幼小所学，终生不忘 Several years later, word came that Napoleonyh himself was coming to inspect them... 几年以后，他们听说拿破仑要亲自来视察他们。
现代英语修辞学
普通高等教育“十五”国家级规划教材现代英语修辞学Moder n English Rhetor ic胡曙中编著上海外语教育出版社图书在版编目(CIP)数据现代英语修辞学/胡曙中编著.—上海:上海外语教育出版社,2004ISBN7-81095-185-8Ⅰ.现…Ⅱ.胡…Ⅲ.英语修辞教材Ⅳ.H315中国版本图书馆CIP数据核字(2004)第014498号早在1982年,我的导师杨小石先生有意要编一本适合我国英语专业使用的英语修辞学教材,为此,他邀请了包括我在内的三位教师一起参加编写,我们商定了编写大纲,也作了具体的分工。
我当时只有35岁,对编写这么一本教材的困难程度并不清楚,但却凭着一股劲,居然勉强地完成了自己那一部分,但是由于他们未能完成自己的部分,我的那一部分最后也就不了了之了。
从那时到现在,时间过去了20多年。
在这20多年中,我读了一些书,作了一些研究,从《英汉修辞比较研究》、《美国新修辞学》到《英语修辞学》,我走了过来。
坦诚地说,前面走过的路不都是一步一个脚印的,但就在这步履艰难的过程中,我逐渐知道了什么是英语修辞,知道了如何来阐释和应用英语修辞。
现在奉献给大家的这本《现代英语修辞学》,承蒙教育部和有关专家的厚爱,被确定为普通高等教育“十五”国家级规划教材。
我把这本书写成一本英语修辞学的入门书,是想回答许多学生提出的问题:“什么是英语修辞学?”“英语修辞学是不是就是研究英语写作?”“英语修辞学是英语专业的课程,还是语言学的课程?”我希望我的这本书能较为满意地回答这些问题。
在这儿,我想概括一下本书的各章内容和目的:第0章导论解释英语修辞的种种意义,并说明本书的目的———对英语修辞现象的描述、应用和阐释第1章影响修辞活动的要素论述信息、使用场合、受话者之间的关系,说明语气如何反映其间的关系第2章词汇的修辞描述英语选字遣词的修辞规律及其应用第3章句子的修辞描述英语连词组句的修辞规律及其应用第4章 段落的修辞 描述英语段落构成的修辞规律及其应用第5章 语篇的修辞 描述英语语篇构成的修辞规律及其应用第6章 语篇的种类 描述语篇的种类及其特点第7章 语体 描述作为修辞活动综合体的语体特征第8章 修辞手段 描述修辞布局和辞格的规律第9章 理论阐释 简述主要的英语修辞理论第10章 传统与发展 回顾英语修辞学的传统,预测其发展本书主要适合英语专业高年级学生和研究生使用。
英语修辞学forSs Chapter 4 Figures of Speech2
4.3 The Tropes / Figures of Speech4.3.1 IntroductionBy figures of speech we refer here to those rhetorical devices termed tropes in classical rhetoric. Tropes have to do with the way words are made to mean other than what they would normally imply, and therefore involve deviation from the ordinary and literal meaning of words. They are ways of making our language figurative.•We are said to be speaking or writing figuratively when we use words in non-literal senses to lend force to an idea, to heighten effect, or to create atmosphere. For example, it is more vivid and colorful to say that stars "twinkle like diamonds" in the sky, than to say simply that they "shine brightly" in the sky. Similarly, "Imperialism is a paper tiger" is an expression more suggestive of outward ferocity and inner weakness than the literal statement "Imperialism appears to be strong but inwardly it is weak."•Like a diamond is a simile, and paper tiger is a metaphor, and with metonymy, hyperbole, personification, paradox they make up a score or more of figures of speech most commonly used today. Each figure has its own form and characteristics, and its own way of achieving effect. Sometimes two or more figures can be used together for greater impact.A knowledge of these figures, and of how they are best used will, therefore, be of help to us not only in deepening our understanding of what we read, but also in appreciating more fully the finer points of a writer's style. In the process, we might even learn to write better ourselves.It is difficult to be precise about how many figures existed in classical times. The numbers range from 65 to 200 or more. Many of these figures, however, were over-subtle distinctions of one type or another , and such hair-splitting refinement is not essential in our age of fast high-tech communication. In this chapter only those that are of most universal appeal, and of the greatest practical value have been chosen for discussion.4.3.2 Common Tropes / Figures of Speech1. SimileA simile makes a comparison, but is different from an ordinary, literal comparison. When we say "Jim looks like his brother Billy", we are making an ordinary literal comparison, fora) we are comparing two like elements -- Jim and Billy are both human beings; andb) we mean Jim is literally like his brother in appearance.But when we say ―Jim and Billy are as like as two peas’’ we are using a simile, fora) We are comparing two unlike elements -- human beings and peas; andb) we don't mean Jim and Billy are literally like peas, but only that they have one thing in common with peas: great similarity in appearance.• A simile, then, is a figure of speech, which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic in common.The comparison is purely imaginative, that is, the resemblance between the two unlike things in that one particular aspect exists only in our minds, in our "inward eye" and not in the nature of the things themselves. To make the comparison, words like as,as … so, and like are used to transfer the quality we associate with one to the other.•Sometimes the association is between unfamiliar and familiar things, or between abstract and concrete images. The stronger the association that is felt, the greater the force of the comparison, the stronger the power of suggestion and the sharper the image produced.simile (明喻) 用like等喻词联结两类不同的事物(主体和喻体)，以表明相似关系的比喻.主体和喻体: See 李鑫华，pp8-9。
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• 7. The police noticed some discrepancies in his description of the crime and did not believe him. • 8. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake was a catastrophe that destroyed most of the city. • 9. Deep in her book, Nancy was oblivious to the noisy squabbles of her brother and his friends. • 10. Times of economic hardship inevitably encourage the proliferation of countless get-rich-quick schemes. • 11. Freddy was so overwhelmed by the profusion of choices on the menu that he knocked over his wine glass and soaked his host. • 12. For many years an unheralded research, Barbara McClintock gained international renown when she won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. • 13. Because we were running out of time, the lecturer had to abbreviate her speech. • 14. On the castle battlements, an apparition materialized and spoke to Hamlet, warning him of his uncle’s treachery. • 15. Mark refused to concede that she was right.
Page 3
Pick out the more impressive one and give your reasons. • • • • • • • • • 1. a. The child was happy. b. The child giggled as the mother shook her toy monkey. 2. a. He stumbled along with his friend supporting him. b. He seemed to have difficulty in walking along. 3. a. One tottering windmill broke the flat horizon. b. A feeling of loneliness and vastness pervaded the scene. 4. a. I found that flies were practically wiped out in China. b. During my two-week travel in China, I only saw two flies. 5. a. The wolf paced back and forth, sniffing the ground; he raised his head and howled sharply twice, then paced and sniffed again. • b. The animal gave a sign of restlessness.
English Rhetoric
Chapter Four The Three Levels of Rhetorical Operations: Choice of Sentences
• Replace the italicized words with simple, everyday words or expressions: • 1. The pungent odour of sulfuretted hydrogen resembles that of rotten eggs. • 2. As you approach it, a tinkling and banging and clashing begins to impinge on your ear. • 3.I cannot recall when I have had such a sumptuous Thanksgiving feast. • 4. The cactus has adapted to survive in an arid environment. • 5. When Edward VII abdicated the British throne to marry the woman he loved, he surprised the entire world. • 6. Although we were encompassed by enemy forces, we were cheerful for we were well stocked and could withstand a siege until our allies joined us.
(2) Functional classification groups sentences according to whether they make a statement, ask a question, issue a command, or express an exclamation. (3) Rhetorical classification groups sentences according to where the main idea is located in the sentence. (4) According to the number of words in a sentence, sentences can be grouped into short and long sentence.
complex sentence: contains one main clause and at least one dependent clause, with a connective word denoting the relation between them.
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2 Types of sentences
2.1 Grammatical classification: Simple sentence : consists of only one clause. The subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound. E.g. The trailer is surrounded by a wooden deck.
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• 9. a. The unavailability of imported foods was simply beyond their expectations. • b. They never thought that they were unable to get imported foods. 10. a. A great many of the students in the class lack the ability of being able to speak fluently. • b . Many students in the class lack the ability of speaking fluently. • 11.a. There are sixteen boys attending the crash course. • b. Sixteen boys attend the crash course.
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1. Classification of sentences
1.1 Seeking sentence variety
(1) What does sentence variety deal with? Different sentence patterns Varied sentence lengths (2) What does sentence variety aim at? Avoid monotony in one’s speech or writing
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• 1. Classification of sentences • 2. Types of Sentences
2. 1 Simple, compound, complex, compound-complex 2. 2 Declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory 2. 3 Loose, periodic, balanced sentences 2. 4 Long and short sentences
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பைடு நூலகம்
• 6.a. Our target must be a concrete ceiling. • b. Let’s aim high but realistically. • 7. a. There has been persistent instability in numbers of staff. • b. The staff has continually varied in number. • 8. a. There exists a considerable lack of knowledge of the competition mechanism in the socialist marketing system. • b. We do not know much about the competition mechanisms in the socialist marketing system.