大学思辨英语教程精读1Unit 3教师用书(20150809)

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《大学思辨英语教程写作1》练习答案-unit 3 growth and maturity (2)

大学思辨英语教程写作1练习答案 - Unit 3 Growth and Maturity一、词汇学习1. Command - Verb: to give an authoritative order. - Noun: an authoritative order.2. Accumulate - Verb: to gather or collect.3. Inevitable - Adjective: certain to happen; unavoidable.4. Rites - Noun: a religious or other solemn ceremony or act;a way of behaving or doing something that is customary.5. Entail - Verb: involve (something) as a necessary or inevitable part or consequence.二、短文改写原文： Growth and maturity entail several stages and experiences that shape who we become. It is inevitable that we encounter challenges and difficulties along the way. However, it is through overcoming these obstacles that we gain maturity and wisdom.改写： Becoming mature and growing up involve a series of stages and experiences that influence our personal development. It is unavoidable that we face various challengesand hardships throughout this process. Nevertheless, it is by successfully conquering these obstacles that we acquire wisdom and maturity.三、完形填空原文： Ad vertisements in today’s society often try to 1 the idea that people can purchase happiness. They try to 2 us that buying certain products will make us happier and more fulfilled. While it is true that having some material possessions can bring us temporary joy, true happiness and fulfillment come from 3 sources.Money is a 4 tool that can be used for good or for evil. It can provide us with security and opportunities, but it can also make us 5 and lead to dissatisfaction if we become too focused on accumulating wealth. We must remember that there are certain things that money cannot 6. It cannot buy love, friendship, or personal growth, which are all essential for true happiness.In order to truly be happy and fulfilled, we must 7 on developing meaningful relationships, pursuing our passions, and 8 to become the best version of ourselves. This requires self-reflection and self-improvement. 9 happiness comes from within and is not dependent on external factors such as possessions or wealth. It comes from living a life aligned with our values and finding fulfillment in the things that truly matter to us.It is 10 to sometimes be tempted by the notion that possessions can bring us happiness. However, it is important toremember that true happiness is not something that can be bought; it is something that comes from within.完形填空： 1. A. persuade 2. B. convince 3. D. inner 4. C. neutral 5. A. greedy 6. D. acquire 7. B. focus 8. A. striving 9. C. True 10. B. natural四、阅读理解1.原文： A 2016 study found that the average person spends nearly six hours a day on their phone. For many of us, our phone has become an extension of ourselves and a constant source of entertainment and distraction. However, what are the effects of this constant screen time on our mental health?One study conducted by researchers from the University of Pittsburgh found a correlation between increased social media use and feelings of depression and loneliness. The study followed over 1,700 adults and found that those who spent more time on social media platforms were more likely to report feelings of isolation and dissatisfaction with their lives.Another study published in the journal Computers in Human Behavior found that excessive smartphone use can lead to symptoms of addiction. Researchers surveyed over 300 college students and found that those who reported higher levels of dependence on their smartphones were more likely to experience symptoms of anxiety, depression, and loneliness.While smartphones and social media can provide us with a sense of connection and entertainment, it is important to bemindful of our usage. Excessive screen time can have negative effects on our mental health and well-being. It is essential to find a balance and engage in activities that promote our mental and emotional well-being.改写： According to a study conducted in 2016, the average person spends nearly six hours a day on their mobile phones. For many individuals, their phone has become an integral part of their lives, providing constant entertainment and distraction. However, what impact does this excessive screen time have on our mental health?Researchers from the University of Pittsburgh conducted a study that found a correlation between increased use of social media and feelings of loneliness and depression. The study, which involved over 1,700 adults, discovered that those who spent more time on social media platforms were more likely to feel isolated and dissatisfied with their lives.Another study published in the journal Computers in Human Behavior revealed that excessive use of smartphones can lead to symptoms of addiction. The study surveyed more than 300 college students and found that those who reported higher levels of smartphone dependency were more likely to experience symptoms of anxiety, depression, and loneliness.While smartphones and social media can offer a sense of connectivity and entertainment, it is crucial to be mindful of our usage. Spending excessive time on screens can have adverse effects on our mental health and overall well-being. Striking a balance and engaging in activities that promote our mental and emotional well-being is essential.2.原文： Growth and maturity involve taking responsibility for our actions and choices. As we grow older, we gain the autonomy to make decisions that shape our lives. This freedom comes with the need to take ownership of our actions and accept the consequences that result from them.Taking responsibility requires recognizing our role in the outcomes of our choices. It means acknowledging that the decisions we make have an impact on ourselves and those around us. By taking responsibility, we demonstrate our maturity and willingness to learn from our mistakes and grow as individuals.However, taking responsibility does not mean that we are entirely to blame for every negative outcome. It means understanding that we have the power to control how we respond to situations and make choices that align with our values and goals. It also means acknowledging that we have the ability to change and improve ourselves, even in challenging circumstances.Taking responsibility is a sign of personal growth and maturity. It allows us to demonstrate integrity, accountability, and resilience. By embracing responsibility, we develop a sense of ownership over our lives and take an active role in shaping our future.改写： Developing and maturing involves assuming responsibility for our actions and decisions. As we age, we obtain the independence to make choices that impact our lives. With this freedom comes the necessity to acknowledge the consequences that arise from our actions and accept them.Assuming responsibility entails understanding our involvement in the outcomes resulting from our decisions. It means recognizing that the choices we make have an influence on ourselves and those around us. By shouldering responsibility, we exhibit our maturity and willingness to learn from our errors and evolve as individuals.However, accepting responsibility does not imply that we bear full blame for every negative consequence. It means comprehending that we possess the power to control our responses to situations and make choices that are in line with our values and aspirations. It also means acknowledging our ability to adapt and better ourselves, even in the face of challenging circumstances.Taking responsibility signifies personal growth and maturity. It enables us to demonstrate integrity, accountability, and resilience. By embracing responsibility, we foster a sense of ownership over our lives and actively shape our own future.五、写作题目： Write an essay discussing the importance of personal growth and maturity in academic and professional settings.写作： In both academic and professional settings, personal growth and maturity play an indispensable role in our success and development. They not only shape our character but also determine our ability to handle challenges and make wise decisions.First and foremost, personal growth and maturity are fundamental for academic excellence. As students, we are constantly faced with the need to acquire new knowledge and skills. It is through personal growth that we can develop a thirst for learning, curiosity, and an open mind. By cultivating these qualities, we become more receptive to new ideas and perspectives, enhancing our ability to grasp complex concepts and apply them in academic endeavors.Furthermore, personal growth and maturity enable us to take responsibility for our academic progress. They teach us to prioritize our commitments, manage our time effectively, and persevere through obstacles. As we grow and mature, we recognize that success is not solely determined by intelligence but also by discipline and hard work. This self-discipline and work ethic become the driving forces behind our academic achievements.In addition to academic pursuits, personal growth and maturity are equally critical in professional settings. As professionals, we must navigate complex work environments, collaborate with diverse individuals, and handle challenging situations. Personal growth equips us with the necessary emotional intelligence and interpersonal skills to thrive in such environments.Moreover, personal growth encourages us to strive for continuous improvement in our professional lives. By being self-aware and open to feedback, we can identify areas for growth and actively seek opportunities for development. This may involve attending workshops, exploring new roles or responsibilities, or seeking guidance from mentors. Ultimately, personal growth and maturity enable us to adapt to evolving job demands and contribute meaningfully to our organizations.In conclusion, personal growth and maturity are essential components of success in academic and professional settings. They not only enhance our ability to acquire knowledge and overcome challenges, but also equip us with the skills necessary to excel in our chosen fields. By investing in our personal growth and embracing maturity, we position ourselves for an enriching and fulfilling academic and professional journey.。

大学思辨英语教程精读1unit3

Unit 3Preparatory work1. Deborah Tannen is University Professor and Professor of Linguistics at Georgetown University and author of many books and articles about how the language of everyday conversation affects relationships. She is best known as the author of You Just Don ‘t Un derstand: Women and Men in Conversation, which was on the New York Times best seller list for nearly four years, including eight months as No. 1, and has been translated into 31 languages. This is the book that brought gender differences in communication style to the forefront of public awareness. Her most recent book, You Were Always Mom’s Favorite! Sisters in Conversation Throughout Their Lives, also a New York Times best seller, received a Books for a Better Life Award and was featured on 20/20(美国电视节目）and NPR(National Public Radio)'s Morning Edition.Among her other books, You're Wearing THAT?: Understanding Mothers and Daughters in Conversation spent ten weeks on the New York Timesbest seller list; Talking from 9 to 5: Women and Men at Work was a New York Times Business best seller; The Argument Culture: Stopping America's War of Words received the Common Ground Book Award; and I Only Say This Because I Love You: Talking to Your Parents, Partner, Sibs, and Kids When You're All Adults received a Books for a Better Life Award.In addition to her seven books for general audiences, Tannen is author or editor of sixteen books and over one hundred articles for scholarly audiences. She has also published poems, short stories, plays and personal essays.Academic interests: gender and language, interactional sociolinguistics, conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow,1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.2）Edward SapirEdward Sapir (/səˈpɪər/; 1884–1939) was an American anthropologist-linguist, who is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the early development of the discipline of linguistics. Sapir studied the ways in which language and culture influence each other, and he was interested in the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. This part of his thinking was developed by his student Benjamin Lee Whorf into the principle of linguistic relativity or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.2) John Joseph GumperzJohn Joseph Gumperz (January 9, 1922 –March 29, 2013) was an American linguist and academic. Gumperz was, for most of his career, a professor at the University of California in Berkeley. His research on the languages of India, on code-switching in Norway, and on conversational interaction, has benefitted the studyof sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, linguistic anthropology, and urban anthropology.2) E. M. ForsterE.M. Forster, in full Edward Morgan Forster (born January 1, 1879, London, England—died June 7, 1970, Coventry, Warwickshire), British novelist, essayist, and social and literary critic. His fame rests largely on his novels Howards End （霍华德庄园）(1910) and A Passage to India （印度之旅）(1924) and on a large body of criticism. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.2) Robert KaplanAmerican applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric（对比修辞）, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and morethan 85 book reviews and other ephemeral（short-lived) pieces in various newsletters(时事通讯）, as well as 9 special reports to the U.S. government and to governments elsewhere.3) pragmaticsPragmatics is a systematic way of explaining language use in context. It seeks to explain aspects of meaning which cannot be found in the plain sense of words or structures, as explained by semantics. As a field of language study, pragmatics is fairly new. Its origins lie in philosophy of language and the American philosophical school of pragmatism. As a discipline within language science, its roots lie in the work of (Herbert) Paul Grice on conversational implicature（会话含义）and the cooperative principle（合作原则）, J. L. Austin and John Searle on speech act（言语行为）, and on the work of Stephen Levinson, Penelope Brown and Geoff Leech on politeness.4) Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words,cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm.5) Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause（有声停顿）and unfilled or silent pause（无声停顿）. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er, and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization（发声）.Critical readingI. Comprehension CheckI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication.(2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication.(3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausingand in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision. Section 2.1 starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) research findings and examples.In section 2.2 the author raises a number of questions (in paras 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience.Section 2.3 is also organized in the order of “question-answer”.Section 2.4 illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24).Section 2.5: example-discussion.Section 2.6: personal experience and a very brief interpretation.Section 2.7: the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese).Section 2.8: definition and illustration.(5) The experience in a dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in which compliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplify the cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, i.e., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6) Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the order of importance, from the core of verbal communication to more peripheral (secondary) factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7) As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communication involves many hidden rules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions. In this sense all communication is cross-cultural.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate （阐明）abstract and difficult terms and add to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2). Falter: to become weaker and unable to continue in an effective way (Longman)（3）Which levels of communication difference are labeled automatic processing in the text? Why? Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when totalk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning（section 2.1&2.2）, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision(para. 20).Why pacing and pausing is automatic because we have got accustomed to it in our daily life and made it a truism or formula after practicing it again and again in our daily communication. We have remembered the subtle change of pacing and pausing（para 19）(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academic researches (e.g. in para 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-cultural communication can vary at many other levels, e.g., proxemics(人际距离学/亲近学) and turn-taking（话语轮次）in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the text in part two and they are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Now how many milliseconds shall I wait?”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topic of this section, what to say. It is a transition from section 2.1 to section 2.2.c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It is asked simply to reinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of making indirect requests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability(Can you pass me the salt?).3) For example, introvert（内向的）people may be more tolerant of silence in face-to-face verbal interaction while extroverts（外向的）usually find silence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy people more likely to diverge in eye contact.Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off (2) out (3) across (4) away (5) up (6) between, for (7) after (8) out of, into (9) off (10) up (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpretII. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk to people they do not know. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances. (2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked to achieve indirect functions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communication people should be direct and say no more or less than needed, and that what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true inbusiness and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore, all communication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, e.g. obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。

大学思辨英语教程精读教师用书

大学思辨英语教程精读教师用书集团档案编码：[YTTR-YTPT28-YTNTL98-UYTYNN08]U n i t3V e r b a l a n d N o n-v e r b a l C o m m u n i c a t i o nUnit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in Text B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of human language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units.Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are (e.g., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a different background, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communication while Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesboth differences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writingIntercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectivesTeaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the two texts by quoting anecdotes or relating to students’own experiences (question 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic (i.e., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can be divided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), theteacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to: Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of Manners.Scientific American,192: 85-89.Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals: Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy ofOriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published by AkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactionalsociolinguistics, conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of?a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she?is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an?American?anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of?linguistic relativity?or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis. John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. His research interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication",Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American?applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the U.S. government and to governments elsewhere.(3)Pragmatics is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of pragmatics include a speaker’s communicative intentions, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012) Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a piece of spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012) Formly?incohesive?discourse?may?be?coherent?through?common?sense,?cultural?background,?contextual?information,?imagination,?logical?assump tion,?etc.?Husband:?That’s?the?telephone.?Wife:?I’m?in?the?bath.?Husband:?OK.?(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er,and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization.Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication. (2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication. (3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision. (4) Section 2.1 starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) research findings and examples.In section 2.2 the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section 2.3 is also organized in the order of “question-answer”. Section 2.4 illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section 2.5: example-discussion. Section 2.6: personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section 2.7: the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese). Section 2.8: definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in whichcompliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplify the cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, i.e., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the orderof importance, from the core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communicationinvolves many hidden rules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions. In this sense all communication is cross-cultural. Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemed appropriate in another culture.What to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies from culture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talks”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation of intonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing, their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherence and cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract anddifficult terms and add to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academicresearches (e.g. in para 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-culturalcommunication can vary at many other levels, e.g., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the textin part two and they are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Now how many milliseconds shall I wait?”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topic of this section, what to say. It is a transition from section 2.1 to section 2.2.c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It is asked simply to reinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of makingindirect requests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt?).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silencein face-to-face verbal interaction while extroverts usually findsilence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eye contact. Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for; (7) after; (8) out of, into; (9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context. II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk topeople they do not know. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances. (2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked toachieve indirect functions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communicationpeople should be direct and say no more or less than needed, andthat what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore,all communication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, e.g.obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。

大学思辨英语精读备课Unit3

Unit 3 Bereavement and GriefPreparatory Work(1) According to Britannica, Luigi Pirandello was winner of the 1934 Nobel Prize for Literature. With his invention of the “theatre within the theatre” in the play Seipersonaggi in cercad’autore(1921; Six Characters in Search of an Author), he became an important innovator in modern drama. Influenced by his catastrophic personal experiences, he developed a literary style characterized by “the exploration of the tightly closed world of the forever changeabl e human personality” (Britannica). “War” reflects this style of psychological realism, for instead of depicting external circumstances of the Great War, it chooses to underline the cruelty of war from the perspective of the soldiers’ anxious, grieving pare nts.(2) The story was set in a train carriage at dawn. The war referred to in the story is most probably World War I, for during this war the author himself was a psychologically tormented father, both of whose sons were captured as prisoners of war. The World War I was an international conflict that resulted from clashes of interest among the world’s economic great powers assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies (including the United Kingdom/British Empire, France and the Russian Empire) versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary, though it did not join the Central Powers (Willmott 15). It is generally believed by historians that World War I was “virtuall y unprecedented in the slaughter, carnage, and destruction it caused” (Britannica). It led to the fall of four great imperial dynasties (Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey), resulted in the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, and, in its destabilization of European society, laid the groundwork for World War II.(3) Common symptoms of grief caused by bereavement include wistfulness, lethargy, hysteria, depression and so forth. According to the psychologist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, people who have lost someone close usually go through five emotional stages: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.(4) Luigi /luˈidʒi/Perandello/ˌpɪrənˈdɛloʊ; Italian ˌpi rɑnˈdɛllɔ/Fabriano/Italian ˌfabriˈaˌno/Sulmona /Italian sulˈmona/Critical ReadingI. Understanding the text1.(1) Their argument was about what attitude parents should take towards their childrengoing to war and killed in action. Of the passengers, the fat man appeared to have the strongest argument, who suggested that parents should withhold their own grief and feel proud and happy about their children who laid down their lives for the Country.(2) In Paragraphs 15 and 16, he is described as a “fat, red-faced man with blood-shoteyes of the palest gray”, who was “panting”, and “from [whose] bulging eyes seemed to spurt inner violence of an uncontrolled vitality which his weakened body could hardl y contain”. In Paragraph 17, it is revealed that his two front teeth are missing. His eyes are once again mentioned in Paragraph 29, described to be “bulging, horribly watery light grey”.These physical traits might suggest that the fat man was in poor health, and was grief-stricken by his son’s death.(3) The woman asked the question of the fat man because she was awed by his stoicresponse to his son’s death. She found it extremely diff icult to cope with her anxiety over her son’s departure for the front, and wished to confirm the fat man’s feelings so that she might derive some strength from his example. She was the one who asked the question, rather than one of the other passengers, because she,as a focalized character whose inner consciousness was explored at great length, was trying to emphasize with the fat man. The fat man reacted strongly to this question, stupefied, brought into painful awareness of his son’s death, and reduced to uncontrollable sobs. This reaction indicates that the fat man, instead of calmly accepting the fact of his son’s death as he claimed, had been desperately rejecting this horrible idea.2.(1) F(2) F(3) T(4) T3.(1) D(2) A(3) AII. Critiquing the Text(1) Instead of giving direct description of war action, the story depicts the emotionalturmoil on the part of the soldiers’ parents. The author intends to send a message about the cruelty of war, by showing that war imposes great suffering in more ways than one, not only on the soldiers who go to the battlefield, but also on their parents who are extremely worried about their safety and may have to endure the pain of loss.(2) The fat, red-faced man started his part of the argument by putting a stop to theother passengers’ debate over the correlation between the intensity of the parents’ anxiety and the number of children they have on the battlefield. He insisted that parents gave life to their children not for their own benefit, and that they should r espect their children’s wish to go to the front. He ended his argument by claiming that parents should accept their children’s death on the battlefield without grief, showing that he himself chose not to wear mourning for his son.His argument is inconsistent, for at first he mentions all the glamour of youthful life, including “girls, cigarettes, illusions, new ties”, but then he talks about dying “young and happy”, “without having the ugly sides of life, the boredom of it, the pettiness, the bitterness of disillusion”. The latter statement overlooks the good sides of life mentioned in the former one. His argument is also somewhat illogical, because the awareness that children do not belong to their parents does not necessarily lead to the conclusion that parents should not grieve over their children’s death. Therefore, the reason he gave for not grieving was unconvincing.His pause and hesitation in the middle of the sentence “Our sons are born because…well, because they must be born” might be seen as a rev elation of his checked impulse to articulate his paternal affection. It is as if he were to blurt out “Our sons are born because we love them”. He refrained from saying something like this probably for fear that he could not check his emotion once letting it out.(3) When he mentioned “girls, cigarettes, illusions, new ties”, he was referring to theelements of youthful life that were more alluring to young people than their parents’ affection. He was trying to say that young people had so much to enjoy that their lives would never be centered around their parents. His thoughts about being young can barely support his subsequent view that there should be no mourning for someone who died young and happy. On the contrary, the fact that young people have many good things in store for them makes their death all the more lamentable.(4)The fat man’s feeling for the “Country” was more likely to be a clichéconveniently used to advance his argument, for he used the “if” clause instead of stating it as a matter of course. This indicates his awareness that the Country being a natural necessity is merely a popular notion. However, there might be an element of sincerity in his feelings for the “Country”, as he repeatedly spoke of “decent boys” that chose to fight for their country. But on the whole, the notion of the Country might just be a convenient platitude to veil or suppress his bitterness about his son’s death.(5) The reasons offered by the fat man when he said a young man could die happywere poorly grounded and hardly convincing. He was indeed trying to rationalize the death of his son, so as to assuage his pain of bereavement, but the rationalization was too fragile to be of any comfort to him. The son might have mixed feelings about his father’s words. On the one hand, he might be able to understand his father’s inner struggle, but on the other, he might feel uncomfortable about his father saying he died satisfied.(6) The question is considered “silly” and “incongruous” from the passengers’ pointof view. In the eyes of other passengers, the fat man already made his point clearly, and the woman appeared absent-minded. Her question was considered silly because the answer was already evident. And it would seem incongruous with the whole atmosphere. While other passengers were voicing their agreement with the fat man, the woman’s question was abrupt and unexpected.This point of view has an emotional effect th at reinforces the fat man’s loneliness.He had to battle with his emotional turmoil all on his own, with all the other people believing he was coping really well.(7) All these four definitions are common denotations of the word patriotism, which isa controversial notion. It is morally valuable, for it can arouse noble sentiments ofheroism within people and unite them together as a whole nation. But whether it should be mandatory is disputable, for it may be pushed to an extreme and require people to sa crifice their personal interest for the “greater good” that might sometimes be questionable.(8) One possible version:January 1st, 1918 Dear Father,I wish you and Mother a happy new year. Perhaps you’re in no mood for celebrations for it has been almost three years since we celebrated the new year together as a family. I am in no festive mood either. The campsite here is cold and dreary, and is permeated with an atmosphere of mourning. I myself was lucky enough to survive the horrible battle in Caporetto, but hundreds of thousands of my comrades lost their lives in it. This is a nightmarish new year for me.Several years ago, I thought it a glorious thing to go to war in defense of our country. I would become a national hero if I fought valiantly. And now, I’ve come to realize that war is seldom about heroism; it is nothing but a massacre of innocent lives.I knew little about the enemies we killed, but I did know that some time before they had been allies with us. It is most likely that they, just like us, are innocent, naïve young people with an enthusiasm for heroic action.I used to say it would be a bliss to lay down my life for the Country. I still think so, but for a different reason. I never know when exactly I will get killed, but to be killed instantly is so much better than to take a bullet that cripples me for life, to get my face burnt beyond recognition, or to suffer any other kind of serious wounds with lifelong aftermaths. Such disasters happen to my comrades every single day, and I can only pray that they do not fall upon me. So, if I get killed someday, I will die satisfied at having ended my life in the best way I could wish.Remember me to all our friends back home, and do not wear mourning if I can never come back again.Your loving sonLanguage Enhancement5.(1) Pirandello employs the linear structure in the story, and develops the plot mostlythrough conversation. He includes so much conversation probably because he intends to “show more than tell”, to have the characters voice their own opinions instead of speaking for them himself. In this way, he can present a variety of clashing views and characterize each individual more effectively. The author’s narrative style can be characterized as internal focalization that places the woman at the center of consciousness. He describes the woman’s feelings and thoughts in great detail, while characterizing other passengers through external depictions. (2) The words that describe feelings and emotions include “sad” (Paragraph 6), “indistress” (Paragraph 18), “deep sorrow” (Paragraph 24), “harrowing, heart-breaking, uncontrollable sobs” (Paragraph 24), etc. Besides the use of adjectives, Pirandello builds up emotional intensity by delineating the gloomy setting (“stuffy and smoky second-class carriage” in Paragraph 2). Also, he does so by describing each character’s gestures and facial expressions. For example, the woman is portrayed as a pitiful sight, “twisting and wriggling, at times growling like a wild animal” (Paragraph 8), and the fat man “shook his light fawn coat” as to show he did not wear mourning, and “his livid lip over his missing teeth was trembling, h is eyes were watery and motionless, and soon after he ended with a shrill laugh which might well have been a sob” (Paragraph 22).Intercultural Reflection1. Grief is doubtless the dominant emotion in both Western and Chinese memorial services. Interestingly however, there is a difference as to whether grief is required to be displayed in public. In China, at least in the past, public demonstration of grief was considered mandatory for those in bereavement, especially for those who lost their spouses, parents or masters. There might even be professional mourners hired to weep funerals (take Grandfather Gao’s funeral in Ba Jin’s Family for example). It is extremely unorthodox behavior to replace heart-rending weeping with light-hearted rituals. Chuang-tzu’s affection for his wife was questioned when he played at a basin and sung after her death. RuanJi deliberately chose to conceal his grief and feast in front of mourners at his father’s funeral, an act that was considered eccentric. In the West, it is not a strict moral obligation to weep at funerals of one’s close relations. Upon Old Earnshaw’s death in Wuthering Heights, for example, each member of the younger generation had their own way of processing grief.Tomb-visiting is a common way to pay respects to the deceased both in China and the West. For example, Oskar Schindler’s grave was visited by the Jews whose lives he had saved. In “Thoughts on a Visit to an Ancient Battlefield”, Li Hua depicted scenes in which the dead soldiers’ families placed offerings and poured wine over imaginary graves while contemplating the distant horizon in tears (“布奠倾觞，哭望天涯”). There is a difference between these two mourning rituals, though. The Schindler Jews were to commemorate their deceased benefactor, while the dead soldiers’ families in Tang Dynasty wished to guarantee the well-being of the deceased in the underworld (“吊祭不至，精魂何依”). Tomb-visiting is also an effective way to cope with one’s own emotional problems, for the deceased can be regarded as an omniscient, non-judgmental listener. Zhang Wuji, hero of Jin Yong’s Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber, visited his parents’ grave after a severe fault in his decision-making. Christine Daye in The Phantom of the Opera also went to her father’s cemetery to assuage her emotional turmoil.Both Chinese and Western mourning customs would impose restrictions on entertainment. In The Dream of the Red Chamber, the domestic theatrical troupe of the Jia household was dismissed when an elder concubine passed away. In Gone with the Wind, Scarlet O’Hara was prohibited from wearing colorful clothing and dancing in public after her husband’s death, which was suffocat ing for her. This tradition is passed down to the modern era, though not as rigorous as before. After Wenchuan earthquake, for example, entertainment activities were suspended for three days in mourning for the deceased victims.2. 元缜《遣悲怀（其一）》谢公最小偏怜女，自嫁黔娄百事乖。

大学思辨英语教程精读1Unit 3教师用书

Unit 3 Verbaland Non-verbal CommunicationUnit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in Text B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of human language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units.Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are ., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a different background, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communication while Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesbothdifferences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writingIntercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectivesTeaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the two texts by quoting anecdotes or relating to students’own experiences(question 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic ., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can be divided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), the teacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to:Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of American,192: 85-89. Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals:Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy ofOriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published by AkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactionalsociolinguistics, conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an American anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of linguistic relativity or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. His research interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication", Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the . government and to governments elsewhere.(3) is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge ., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of p ragmatics include a speaker’s communicative intentions, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012)Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a piece of spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012)Formly incohesive discourse may be coherent through common se nse, cultural background, contextual information, imagination, logical assumption, etc.Husband: That’s the telephone.Wife: I’m in the bath.Husband: OK.(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er,and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization.Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication.(2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication.(3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision.(4) Section starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) research findings and section the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section is also organized in the order of “question-answer”. Section illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section : example-discussion. Section : personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section : the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese). Section : definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in which compliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplifythe cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, ., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the orderof importance, from the core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communicationinvolves many hidden rules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions. In this sense all communication is cross-cultural.Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemed appropriate in another to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies from culture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talks”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation of intonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing, their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherence and cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract anddifficult terms and add to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academicresearches . in para 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-culturalcommunication can vary at many other levels, ., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the textin part two and they are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Nowhow many milliseconds shall I wait”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topicof this section, what to say. It is a transition from section to section .c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It isasked simply to reinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of makingindirect requests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silencein face-to-face verbal interaction while extroverts usually findsilence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eye contact.Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for; (7) after; (8) out of, into; (9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context. II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk topeople they do not know. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances. (2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked toachieve indirect functions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communicationpeople should be direct and say no more or less than needed, and that what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore,all communication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, .obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。

大学思辨英语教程精读1 Unit 2教师用书(20150809)

Unit 2 Functions of languageOverviewTo further explore the nature of language, we naturally come to the question of what language is for. This unit deepens our understanding of the basics of language by offering refreshing ideas about language functions, which pave the way for the investigation of language in use, language evolution, language acquisition, and other important issues in linguistics.Text ALanguage is used for so many purposes (e.g., expressing feelings, providing information, and conducting social talking, to name just a few) that it is difficult for us to identify which one is its most basic (perhaps also its) original use. However, a careful examination of what language is good/bad at today can hopefully provide some useful clues to its basic function(s). Contrary to the mainstream assumptions, it has been observed that among its multiple purposes, language is good at interaction and persuasion but poor at information exchange.Text BThe hammer (with an iron head and a handle) is shaped to fulfill its functions of pounding nails into and removing them out of wood. Likewise, the form of language is also motivated by its basic functions. As a form-function composite, a linguistic unit consists of two parts, the signifier and the signified. The bond between the two parts is both arbitrary and motivated. It is arbitrary because there is no inherent connection between the form of a sign and its meaning; it is motivated in the sense that the bond between the signifier and the signified is intentional instead of rigid or random.The two texts approach the same issue from different perspectives. Text A discusses how the basic functions of a language can be traced in the development of language, while Text B focuses on the intriguing relationship between the form and the functions of language.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural competence and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Distinguish between general and specific statementsScan for a global understanding of the textRead charts, graphs and tables to organize and interpret informationCommunicative competence:Illustrate your points with appropriate examplesUse figures of speech to help Illustrate your pointsDifferentiate informative and affective uses of languageCritical thinking:Evaluate the logical strengths of the author’s evidence and supportOrganize and present your reasoning using diagramsIdentify and critique assumptions behind statementsIntercultural competenceAppreciate linguistic and cultural diversityInterpret language differences culturallyHave curiosity in and be ready to explore other languages and culturesTeaching strategiesThe functions of language are an interesting yet rather difficult topic. To arouse students’ interest, the teacher can start with a direct question “What do you think is the function of language?” or a more interesting one “In what way is language similar to a hammer?”The questions in Critical reading and Intercultural reflection are mostly mini-research projects. To guarantee quality answers from students and to improve the classroom efficiency, it is recommended to divide the class into groups and assign different tasks to them in advance. Each group is required to do in-depth researches on a few of the questions.Further readings on functions of language:Jakobson, Roman. (1960). Closing statement: linguistics and poetics. In Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.). Style in Language, Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press. 350-377. Halliday, M.A.K. (1973). Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold.Coq, John P. (1955). The Function of Language. The Modern Language Journal, 39(4): 177-180.Jackson, Howard & Peter Stockwell. (2011). An introduction to the nature and functions of language. London & New York : Continuum.Preparatory work(1)Main publications:New media language. London and New York: Routledge, 2003.Words in the mind: An introduction to the mental lexicon. 3rd edition. Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell, 2003.The Articulate Mammal: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. 4th edition. London and New York: Routledge, 1998.The seeds of speech: Language origin and evolution. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996.Main research interests:1)(Socio-)historical linguisticsThe description, implementation and causation of language change, with particular reference to current changes.2)Language and mindLanguage acquisition, speech comprehension, speech production, with particular reference to lexical storage and retrieval.3)Language and the mediaThe language used by the media, and the effect of the media on language, with particular reference to language change, language and power, the relationship of media language to language in literature.(2)The whole book consists of four parts, namely, Puzzles, Origin, Evolution, and Diffusion. Text A “What is Language for” is from the first part Puzzles. The other three questions addressed in this part are: How did language begin? Why do languages differ so much? and Is language an independent skill?Part 2, 'Origin', explores how language probably originated. Chapter 5 outlines the 'East Side story', which suggests that humans separated from apes when they were stranded on the east side of Africa, after the Great Rift Valley split the terrain. Humans were forced to live on their wits in a harsh landscape, and began to develop language. Chapter 6 examines the prerequisites for language, which are shared with our ape cousins: first, friendly involvement with others and a predisposition for grooming; second, an aptitude for tactical deception, or lying, which depends on 'a theory of mind', and an ability to understand the intentions of others. Chapter 7 considers the basic requirements for speech, many of which are also present in other primates. For example, sound-receiving mechanisms are shared with apes, yet sound-producing ones differ, perhaps because of our upright posture, which in the long run enabled humans to produce a range of finely tuned sounds. Chapter 8 notes that ontogeny, the development of the individual, only sometimes correlates with phylogeny, the development of the species. Two ways in which these coincided were the lowering of the larynx and the development of the 'naming insight', an understanding of the power of naming.Part 3, 'Evolution', examines how language might have evolved. Chapter 9 looks at ways in which words could have been combined. At first, many sequences were possibly repetitive and inconsistent. But gradually, strong preferences may have become rules. These preferences were based on pre-linguistic 'mind-sets'. Chapter 10 looks at how language expanded and how it made use of the human body and its location in space for extending word meanings. The evolution of different parts of speech occurred probably via reanalysis: adjectives and prepositions both grew out of reinterpretation of nouns and verbs. Chapter 11 considers attachments to verbs. Verbs acquire attachments via grammaticalization, in which a full lexical item developed into a grammatical marker. Chapter 12 examines generativity, the use of finite resources to produce an infinite variety of sentences. Such structures arose from reanalysis of existing structures.Part 4, 'Diffusion', considers the spread of language over the world, and discusses why languages have not become unlearnably different from one another. Chapter 13 outlines the route taken as humans moved out of Africa, and considered the possibility of reconstructing glimpses of language as it might have been more than 30,000 years ago. Chapter 14 examines the difficulties and frustrations of hunting for language universals. Chapter 15 points out that looking for constraints, things that languages don't do might be more enlightening. Implicational links, it notes, are important for keeping language in check. Such links are partially due to processing needs, but partly also to the overall structure of the system. Chapter 16 outlines the different components within the language system, and emphasizes that these interacted with the usage of the system in a complex way.(3)John Locke, widely known as the Father of Classical Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician. He was also memorized as one of the first British empiricists. His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.Major works:A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)Two Treatises of Government (1689)An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693)(4)Lord Byron’s (1788-1824) two best known long narrative poems are Don Juan and Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. His other major poems include: Prometheus, She walks in Beauty, When we Two parted, Darkness, and And Thou art Dead, as Young and Fair. (5)Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) is remembered as the father of the functionalistschool of anthropology and for his role in developing the methods and the primacy of anthropological fieldwork as well. He first rose to prominent notice through his studies of Pacific Islanders, especially those conducted among the Trobriand Islanders whose marriage, trade and religious customs he studied extensively. His best known works include Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922),Crime and Custom in Savage Society (1926), The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia (1929), and the posthumously published Magic, Science, and Religion and Other Essays (1948). Malinowski helped develop the field of anthropology from a primarily evolutionary focus into sociological and psychological enquiries. Some of the noteworthy byproducts of his fieldwork in this direction include various evidence that debunked the Freudian notion of a universal Oedipal Complex and evidence that showed that so-called primitive peoples are capable of the same types and levels of cognitive reasoning as those from more "advanced" societies. Malinowski's ideas and methodologies came to be widely embraced by the Boasian school of American Anthropology, making him one of the most influential anthropologists of the 20th century.Source: /people/320/000099023/For more information about Malinowski, please refer to: Murdock, George(1943). Bronislaw Malinowski. American Anthropologist, 45:441-451./committees/commissions/centennial/history/095malobit.pdf Critical readingI. Understanding the text1. OutliningThesis: Among its multiple purposes, language is good at interaction and persuasion but poor at information talking.We would like to emphasize that what we have just provided is not the only answer to the outlining task. To start with, we can divide the text in different ways. For example, we can follow the traditional trichotomy and dividing it into introduction, main body and conclusion; we can also divide part III and part IV into further sections. The main idea of each part varies accordingly.2. Comprehension check(1)The transfer of information is not the only purpose of using language. In greetingsand some pointless chitchat, communicators use language primarily, if not exclusively, for constructing or maintaining certain social relationship. Even when information is the major concern, the speaker and hearer must take into consideration some other factors, such as politeness and aesthetics (cf. Paras. 22-22).(2)In Paragraph 6, Aitchison divides the question “what is language for” into twosub-questions: “For what purpose did language develop?” and “For what purpose is language used nowadays?” Since there are so many purposes of using language and the original one is difficult to identify, she argues in paragraph 8 that we can find clues by looking at what language is good at and what it finds difficult to express. The rest of the text (paras.9-28) provides discussion about and answers to these two questions.(3)According to Aitchison, the list of language functions in paragraph 7 is not exhaustive,and it is not clear which one is the most basic. Aitchison discusses in some detail thefollowing four functions, providing information, expressing feelings, influencing others and social talking, which are roughly organized in the order of importance in the traditional view.(4)Aitchison suggests that the early functions of language can be traced in the way weuse language today to some extent. The assumption behind is that the origin of language is accountable in its early function(s) and that the early function(s) must be reflected in what language is good at today. In other words, if language was created to perform a particular function, it must still be good at it nowadays.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Figure drawing(2)ExemplifyingAn utterance may serve more than one purpose simultaneously. Donking is used metalinguistically in example (6), but the whole sentence “Donking isn’t a word” is informative. We can provide information, express our feelings and initiate social talking by asking questions or giving commands.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Some scholars believe that language facilitates thinking and that our thinking wouldbe impossible without an inner language. In many cultures language is also used as a symbol of magic or as something that carries mysterious power (e.g., religious Taoism, couplets for Spring Festival). Different functions of language are not equally important. For example, the functions of communicating and of facilitating thinking are more fundamental while those of religious use and word play are more derivative.(2)Generally speaking, there are two different views on the relationship betweenlanguage and thinking. Some scholars claim that language restricts thinking.According to this view, people perceive the world through the language that they speak. It follows that people speaking different languages experience different worlds, just like people seeing different things with different eyes. Others believe that language and thinking are separate and should not be equated with each other. For example, even if a language does not have the word for chartreuse, people speaking the language can still perceive this color, think about it and even talk about it,using not a single word but a kind of paraphrase.(3)Some utterances may basically serve only one function. For example, people greeteach other saying “Hi!” or “Morning!” to neighbors to maintain social connections; inchurch, the priest pr eaches a sermon to call for piety to the Lord. But more often than not an utterance and its context produce some “side effects” and serve different functions simultaneously. In saying “It’s gonna rain. You’d better take an umbrella.”to a lady, the speaker not only provides information about the weather, but also shows his/her concern toward the addressee and enhances the solidarity.(4)Language changes for different reasons, e.g., language users’ a version to cliché andpreference to creativity, language contact, language planning and so on. While some changes may not be directly related to functions of language, others are indeed motivated by certain functions of language. For example, neologisms related to science and technology emerge primarily because there is a need to talk about such new things. In this case the function of providing information requires the creation of some new words.(5) The best-known examples for “phatic communion” in tradi tional Chinese society areprobably greetings such as “吃了吗？(have you had your meal?)”and “去哪儿啊？(where are you going?)”. Neither is considered imposing or offensive because in traditional Chinese society, it is more important to show mutual concern than respect for privacy. The British follow a different tradition. Brown and Levinson (1987) recognize two sides of face, a positive one and a negative one. Positive face refers to “the desire to be appreciated and approved” and negative face “the freedom of act ion and freedom from imposition”. For Chinese people (especially in traditional society), negative face is not as important as positive face. The British, on the other hand, value negative face more than positive face.Language EnhancementI. Words and phrases1. Word formationPart of speech:Nouns: Taking-off, air-traffic, take-off-point, London-York, two-thirds, real-life, non-reality, self-repetition, other-repetitionAdjectives: non-existentAdverbs: half-wayStructure:Noun-noun: air-traffic, London-York, self-repetition, other-repetitionAdjective-noun: real-lifeCardinal-ordinal numeral: two-thirdsPrefix-noun: non-realityGerund-adverb: Taking-offVerb-adverb-noun: take-off-point2. Articles and prepositions(1)/(2)/(3) a, the, with(4) /, the(5) /, the, the, on, a3.Verbs and phrases(1)convey, handle(2)convey(3)transfer(4)coincide(5)collide(6)date back to(7)originate fromII. Sentences and discourse1. Paraphrasing(1) Even when language is used simply to transfer information, the accuracy of the information transferred is still unlikely to reach 100%.(2) Less affirmative claims about the purpose of language may be at least superficially more acceptable: when early people found that facial expressions and body movements could not fully express themselves, they invented language to communicate their thoughts.(3) So long as the speaker is telling the truth, language is reasonably good at transferring sim ple pieces of factual information, such as “Bob is Petronella’s cousin.”(4) Even in cultures where lying is officially discouraged, people are still unwilling to tell the whole truth. A government official invented the phrase “being economic with the tru th” to deny that he was lying.(5) According to George Orwell, political language is designed to beautify horrible things and to tell lies.2. Translation(1) 英国哲学家约翰·洛克在其颇有影响的著作《人类理解论》(1690)中指出，语言是一个伟大的传输渠道，人类通过这一渠道相互传达各自的发现、推理和知识。

大学英语精读第1册（3）

大学英语精读第1册（3）UNIT3TEXTThey say that blood is thicker than water, that our relatives are more important tous than others. Everyone was so kind to the old lady on her birthday. Surely herdaughter would make an even bigger effort to please her?The PresentPt was the old lady's birthday.She got up early to be ready for the post. From the second floor flat she could see the postman when he came down the street, and the little boy from the ground floor brought up her letters on the rare occasions when anything came.Today she was sure there would be something. Myra wouldn't forget her mother's birthday, even if she seldom wrote at other times. Of course Myra was busy. Her husband had been made Mayor, and Myra herself had got a medal for her work for the aged.The old lady was proud of Myra, but Enid was the daughter she loved. Enid had never married, but had seemed content to live with her mother, and teach in a primary school round the corner.One evening, however, Enid said, "I've arranged for Mrs. Morrison to look after you for a few days, Mother. T omorrow Ihave to go into hospital-just a minor operation. I'll soon be home."In the morning she went, but never came back-she died on the operating table. Myra came to the funeral, and in her efficient way arranged for Mrs. Morrison to come in and light the fire and give the old lady her breakfast.Two years ago that was, and since then Myra had been to see her mother three times, but her husband never.The old lady was eighty today. She had put on her best dress. Perhaps-perhaps Myra might come. After all, eighty was a special birthday, another decade lived or endured just as you chose to look at it.Even if Myra did not come, she would send a present. The old lady was sure of that. Two spots of colour brightened her cheeks. She was excited-like a child. She would enjoy her day.Yesterday Mrs. Morrison had given the flat an extra clean, and today she had brought a card and a bunch of marigolds when she came to do the breakfast. Mrs. Grant downstairs had made a cake, and in the afternoon she was going down there to tea. The little boy, Johnnie, had been up with a packet of mints, and said he wouldn't go out to play until the post had come."I guess you'll get lots and lots of presents," he said. "I did last week when I was six."What would she like? A pair of slippers perhaps. Or a new cardigan. A cardigan would be lovely. Blue's such a pretty colour. Jim had always liked her in blue. Or a table lamp. Or a book, a travel book, with pictures, or a little clock, with clear black numbers. So many lovely things.She stood by the window, watching. The postman turned round the corner on his bicycle. Her heart beat fast. Johnnie hadseen him too ad ran to the gate.Then clatter, clatter up the stairs. Johnnie knocked at her door."Granny, granny," he shouted, "I've got your post."He gave her four envelopes. Three were unsealed cards from old friends. The fourth was sealed, in Myra's writing. The old lady felt a pang of disappointment."No parcel, Johnnie?""No, granny."Maybe the parcel was too large to come by letter post. That was it. It would come later by parcel post. She must be patient.Almost reluctantly she tore the envelope open. Folded in the card was a piece of paper. Written on the card was a message under the printed Happy Birthday-Buy yourself something nice with the cheque, Myra and Harold.The cheque fluttered to the floor like a bird with a broken wing. Slowly the old lady stooped to pick it up. Her present, her lovely present. With trembling fingers she tore it into little bits.NEW WORDSRelative 亲属，亲戚Present gift 礼物，赠品Postman 邮递员Rare not happening often 罕见的；不常发生的Occasion special time; time when sth. Happens 时刻，时机；场合Mayor chief official of a city or town 市长Medal 奖章Aged oldContent satisfied; pleased 满意的；高兴的Primary first; earliest 首要的；最初的Arrange make preparations; plan 作安排，筹划Minor not serious or important 较小的；次要的Operate cut the body in order to set right or remove a diseased part 开刀，动手术Operating table a special table in a hospital, where operations are done手术台Funeral 葬礼Efficient able to plan and work well 效率高的Decade ten yearsEndure bear (pain, suffering, etc.)忍受，忍耐Spot a round area that is different from the main surface 点，斑点Brighten make bright or brighter 使发光，使发亮Cheek either side of the face below the eye 面颊Extra additional 额外的，外加的Clean cleaningBunch things of the same kind that are tied together 一）束，（一）串Marigold 万寿菊（花）Packet small parcel or box 小包（裹）Mint 薄荷糖Slipper 拖鞋Cardigan (羊毛)开衫Clatter a number of rapid short knocking sounds 咔嗒声Granny (colloq. For) grandmotherEnvelope a paper cover for a letter 信封Unsealed 未密封的SealSealed 密封的Writing handwriting 书法；笔迹Pang sudden, sharp pain 剧痛Disappointment sadness because one does not get what one hopes for 失望DisappointParcel 包裹Reluctantly unwillingly 不情愿地，勉强地ReluctantFold bend into two or more parts 折叠cheque 支票flutter move quickly to and fro in the air 飘动stoop bend the body forwards and downwards 弯腰tremble shake uncontrollably with quick short movements 颤抖PHRASES EXPRESSIONSAt other times on other occasions 在别的时候；平时Round/ around the corner very near in distance or time 在附近；即将来临After al in spite of everything; it must be remembered 毕竟，终究Be sure of 对... 有把握，确信Pick up take hold of and lift up from a surface 拿起，捡起PROPER NAMESMyra 迈拉（女子名）Enid 伊妮德（女子名）Morrison 莫里森（姓氏）Grant 格兰特（姓氏及男子名）Johnnie 约翰尼（john的呢称）Jim 吉姆（james的呢称）Harold 哈罗德（男子名）NOTES1 This text is adapted from New Horizons in English 6 edited by Lars Mellgren and Michael Walker.2 the ground floorNotice the difference in floor system between the United States and Britain:U.S. BritainThe first floor the ground floorThe second floor the first floor3 ... eighty was a special birthday, another decade lived or endured just as you chose to look at it:... eighty was a special birthday, because it meant that the old lady had lived another ten years, or you might say that she had suffered another ten years. It depended on how you would look at the life she had been living.4 a bunch of marigoldsSome nouns in English take a unit word. Besides marigolds (flowers), such nouns as keys, grapes, and bananas also take bunch as a unit word.There are some other unit words in this text:A packet of mintsA piece of paperA pair of slippers5 ... and in the afternoon she was going down there to tea.In England, tea(sometimes called afternoon tea) may be a light meal of bread and butter and cakes eaten between 4 P.m.and 5 P.m., or it may be a bigger meal with a cooked dish or cold meat, etc., in addition to bread or cakes. It is called high tea and is usually eaten at about 6 p.m.6 Jim had always liked her in blue.Jim had always liked her wearing blue clothes.Other examples:A girl in redA woman in whiteA man in slippers7 That was it: That was the reason why there was no parcel.STUDY PRACTICEWords to DrillArrange bunch content disappointment efficientEndure extra fold minor occasionOperate present primary rare reluctantlySpot trembleReading Aloud and Memorizing1 Read the following paragraphs until you learn them by heart, paying special attention to sense groups and the sentence stress:The `old `lady was `eighty to `day. //She had `put `on her `best `dress.// Per `haps --/ per `haps `Myra might `come.// After `all, / `eighty was a `special `birthday,/ a `nother `decade `I\lived or en `dured / `just as you `chose to `look at it .//Even if `Myra did `not `come,/ she would `send a `present.// The `old `lady was `sure of `that.//`Two `spots of `colour `brightened her `cheeks.// She was ex `cited--/ like a `child. // She would en `joy her `day.//Comprehension of the Text2 Answer the following questions:1. What was the special occasion? How old was the old lady?2. Did Myra and her husband often come to see the old lady?3. What had happened to Enid?4. Whom did the old lady love more, Myra or Enid? Why?5. Why was the old lady proud of Myra?6. The old lady lived alone. But do you think she was very lonely? Why or why not?7. Who was Jim? Was he still alive?8. Who was Johnnie? How old was he? What do you think of him?9. Why did the old lady tear the cheque into pieces?10.The story tells us that Myra had won a medal for her work with old people. Do you think she deserved the medal? Do you think she really cared about old people? Why or why not?Vocabulary3 Find in the text the words or expressions which fit the following descriptions:1. gift2. ten years3. satisfied4. make preparations for5. not important6. able to work well7. bear patiently 8. additional9. unwillingly 10. shake uncontrollably4 Fill in the blanks with proper unit words:1. a of flowers2. a of cigarettes(香烟)3. a of chalk4. a of boots(长统靴)5. a of news6. a of keys7. a of scissors(剪刀) 8. a of land9. a of bananas 10. a of needles(针)11. a of socks(短袜) 12. a of furniture5 Fill in the blanks with the words or expressions given below. Change the form wherenecessary.Minor content primary after allEfficient endure occasion round the cornerFold extra arrange for at other times1. If you have worked hard _______ , you won't have to sit up (熬夜)all night before the exam.2. I think we should let Mary go camping with her classmates. __________ She is a big girl now.3. Since you are so busy, you do need a very _______ secretary (秘书)4. As a fireman, you must be ready to _______ hardships (困苦) and even suffer death.5. They did a lot of _______ work but \refused to take any _______ pay.6. Let's go to the park. It's just ________ .7. Prof. Smith is not a stranger to us .We've met him on several _______ .8. Jim had a _______ problem with his car, but he fixed it himself.9. They've __________ her to be operated on by the best doctors.10.Our history professor explained the ________ cause of the First World War.11.The old couple seem ______ to sit in front of the television all evening.12.After writing the letter, John ______ it and put it in an envelope.6 Complete the following sentences, using the words given in brackets:1. Very few plants and animals ... heat or cold for a long time. (endure)2. This was given us as a present ... our silver wedding (银婚)（occasion）3. The old lady dropped her spoon and bent ... , causing her to feel a sharp pain in the back. (pick up)4. If you ... the word, look it up in the dictionary. (sure of)5. Mr. Park, a candidate for Mayor of Chicago, ... at losing the election. (disappointment)6. ... with life in his hometown, the young man moved away to the city at the earliest opportunity. (content)Word Building7 One who delivers （送） the post is a postman;One who works with his hands or with machines is a workman; so1. one who sells or delivers milk is a _______2. one who fights fires is a _______3. one who catches fish is a _______4. one who runs a business is a ______5. one who is a member of the police is a _______6. one who travels in outer (外部的) space is a _______7. one who reports weather conditions is a _______8. one who takes part in sports is a _______8 The suffix-en can be added to adjectives to form verbs, meaning "make" or "become", e. g.bright+-en->brighten: make or become bright or brighterNow complete the following sentences with verbs formed in this way from the adjectives given in brackets:1. The river _______ at its mouth where it meets the sea. (broad)2. His interests _______ as he grew up. (wide)3. We must _______ our steps if we don't want to be caught in the rain.(quick)4. As the storm approached(即将来临)，the sky _______ .(dark)5. This knife of yours needs _______ . ( sharp )6. This new highway the trip from this city to the capital. (short)9 Study the following words. Then use them correctly in the sentences below.Verbs Nouns Adjectives AdverbsParticiplesExcite excitement excited excitedlyExcitingDisappoint disappointment disappointedDisappointingPatience patient patientlyReluctance reluctant reluctantlyEfficiency efficient efficiently1. excite, excitement, excited, exciting, excitedly(1) The baby's first step caused great in the family.(2) After reading the novel he was too to go to sleep that night.(3) His report on the 26th Olympic Games(奥运会)was really .(4) The chickens fluttered when they saw the dog.(5) The news of victory everybody.(6) What are you so about?2. disappoint, disappointment, disappointed, disappointing(1) Hewas very much with his son, who had failed again in his final exams.(2) The weather this summer has been . We have had too much rain.(3) The book me. It was not half so good as I had expected.(4) To her great .her daughter didn't send her a real present for her eightieth birthday.(5) Jim had a very look when Tom told him Mary was not coming.3 patience, patient, patiently(1) The cat watched the mouse(老鼠) hole with great .(2) Enid was a good teacher. She was very with her pupils.(3) "Couldn't you explain the problem a little more ?" said Mary to her husband. "It's too difficult for Johnnic."(4) He can't be a good teacher. He has no with children.4 reluctance, reluctant, reluctantly(1) John was to go out in the storm, but he went anyway.(2) He went to the concert with much because he doesn't like pop music at all.(3) In the end he agreed to go with us.(4) I am get out of bed on cold mornings.5 efficiency, efficient, efficiently(1) The skilled carpenter(木匠) worked with great and finished the job quickly.(2) He did the work in a more way and saved a lot of time.(3) In the past two years the young man has made great progress and now he can work as as a skilled worker.(4) Our production will not increase unless we introducemore techniques.Structure10 Rewrite the following sentences after the given models:Model 1: The parcel was so large that it couldn't come by letter post.The parcel was too large to come by letter post.1.The bottle is so small that it can't hold so much water.2.He was so tired that he couldn't go any further.3.He is so proud that he doesn't see his own shortcomings(缺点).4.It's so late now that the bookstore can't be open.Model 2: Johnnie said he would go out to play only after the post had come.Johnnie said he would not go out to play until the post had come.1.They stopped working only after it became completely dark.2.He came only after the meeting was over.3.He said he would get married only after he had found a satisfactory job.4.He went to bed only after he had finished his reading his reading assignment.Cloze11 Fill in the missing words:(A)On the o_______(1) of the old lady's eightieth birthday, she waited eagerly (热切的) to see what kind of p____(2) her daughter, Myra, would send to her. Since her first daughter, Enid, had diedtwo years before, the old lady had e ___(3) the loneliness of living by herself. It was r ___(4) for Myra to visit her mother, but still the old lady was proud of her. She felt sure that her daughter would celebrate(庆祝) her birthday with something special. As she waited for the postman, the old lady t___ (5) with excitement because she was quite sure she would receive a lovely present. After a _____ (6) , she thought, even it Myra paid little attention to her mother a_____ o ______ t ___(7) , today was a very special day. However, when the postman came, the old lady found to her d ____(8) that, rather than choosing a special gift, Myra had simply sent her a cheque f ___(9) in a card.(B)1. Old age has always been thought of as the worst age to be; but it is not n __(1) for the old to be unhappy. With old age should come wisdom ____ (2) the ability to help others ____ (3) advice wisely given.______(4) old can have the joy ____(5) seeing their children making progress _____(6) life; they can watch their grandchildren ______(7) up around them; and, perhaps best of all, they can,_____(8) their life has been a useful _____(9) , feel the happiness of having come ____(10) the battle of life safely and of having reached a time _____(11) they can lie back and rest, leaving others to c _____(12) the battle.2. A Hollywood producer was determined to give his mothera birthday _____ (1) that would be better than _____ (2) his brothers were giving her. He heard about an amazing bird which _____(3) talk in twelve languages and ____(4) ten famous operas(歌剧). He immediately bought the bird and _____(5) it to his mother. It ____ (6) him $50,000.The day after her b _____(7) , he phoned his mother. "What did you think of the ______(8), Mother?" he asked eagerly. Hismother ______ (9), "Delicious!"Translation12 Translate the following sentences into English:1．那位名演员似乎很乐意在剧中扮演一个次要角色。

大学英语精读第三版第三册unit1-unit3课文翻译

事情发生在十一点半左右，我在当地图书馆谋职未成，刚从那出发，就看到一个人从马路对面走过来，显然是想跟我说话。我原以为他要问我时间，想不到，他说他是警官，要逮捕我，开始我还以为这是个玩笑，但接着又来了身穿警服的警察，这下我无可置疑了。
“为什么要抓我？”我问。
“四处游荡，有作案嫌疑。”他说。
“做什么案？”我又问。
学生们必须上网。你们家必须用数码与环球信息网联通。企业必须能即时下载大量资料。但是，除非我们改变范式、重新审视相关的各种因素，否则，信息高速公路就不会给我们带来什么结果。
无论是现在还是最近，我们都不缺乏信息。试想我们拥有的信息比四面年前的哥白尼多了多少。但他作出了足以震撼全球的（权作双关语）惊人之举，完全改变了人们对宇宙的看法。他作出此举不是靠发现更多的信息，而是靠用不同的眼光看大家都看到过的信息。爱德华·詹纳不是靠积累信息发明了预防药物，而是靠重新表述问题。
我本想在法庭上作自我辩护。但父亲一弄清事情的原委后，就为我请了一位很不错的律师。就在那个星期一，我们带着各种证人出庭了，其中包括我中学的英语老师作为我品行的见证人，但法庭并没有传话他作证。对我的“审判”也并没有进行到那一步，开庭才十五分钟，法官就驳回了此案，我被无罪释放。可怜的警察毫无胜诉的机会。我的律师甚至成功地使警察承担了诉讼费。
几分钟后，来了一辆警车。
“坐到后面去，”他们说，“把手放在前排的座椅上，不许乱动。”
他俩分坐在我的左右，这下了不是闹着玩的了。
在警察局，他们审问了我好几个小时。我继续装作老于世故，对此事习以为常的样子。当他们问我一直在干什么时，我告诉他们在找工作。“啊哈！”这下我可看到他们在想，“无业游民”。
最后，我被正式指控，并得到通知下周一到里士满地方法院受审。他们这才让我走。

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Unit 3 Verbaland Non-verbal CommunicationUnit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in Text B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of human language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units. Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are (e.g., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a different background, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communication while Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesboth differences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writing Intercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectives Teaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the two texts by quoting anecdotes or relating to students’own experiences (question 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic (i.e., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can be divided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), the teacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to:Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of Manners.Scientific American,192: 85-89.Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals:Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published byAkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactional sociolinguistics,conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of?a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she?is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an?American?anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of?linguistic relativity?or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. His research interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication", Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American?applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the U.S. government and to governments elsewhere.(3)Pragmatics is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language,pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge (e.g., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of pragmatics include a speaker’s communicative intentions, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012)Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a piece of spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012)Formly?incohesive?discourse?may?be?coherent?through?common?sense,?cultural?ba ckground,?contextual?information,?imagination,?logical?assumption,?etc.? Husband:?That’s?the?telephone.?Wife:?I’m?in?the?bath.?Husband:?OK.?(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er, and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization. Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication.(2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication.(3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision.(4) Section 2.1 starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) research findings and examples.In section 2.2 the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant researchfindings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section 2.3 is also organized in the order of “question-answer”. Section 2.4 illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section 2.5: example-discussion. Section 2.6: personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section 2.7: the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese). Section 2.8: definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in which compliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplify the cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, i.e., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the order of importance, fromthe core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communication involves many hiddenrules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions.In this sense all communication is cross-cultural.Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemed appropriate in another culture.What to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies from culture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talk s”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation ofintonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing, their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherence and cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract and difficult terms andadd to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academic researches (e.g. inpara 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-cultural communication can vary atmany other levels, e.g., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the text in part two andthey are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Now how many milliseconds shall I wait”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topic of this section,what to say. It is a transition from section 2.1 to section 2.2.c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It is asked simply toreinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of making indirectrequests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silence in face-to-faceverbal interaction while extroverts usually find silence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eye contact.Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for; (7) after; (8) out of, into;(9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context.II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk to people they do notknow. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances.(2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked to achieve indirectfunctions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communication people should bedirect and say no more or less than needed, and that what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore, allcommunication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, e.g. obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。