Prototype Theory
Prototype Theory
Rosch------Prototype Category Theory
• 语言学家Labov 和Rosch 先后发表了他们 对于自然范畴的试验研究结果，以此证明 维氏的“家族相似性”原理适用于描述自 然界中的许多范畴，即许多自然范畴都具 有维氏所说的“家族相似性”。Labov 和 Rosch 把具有“家族相似性”的这些自然 范畴称为“原型范畴”（prototype category），即具有原型（prototype, 即范 畴的典型成员）的范畴。从而建立了现代 范畴理论，原型范畴理论。
Definitions of Categorization
F.Ungerer ＆ H.J.Schmid: The mental process of classification. And its products are the cognitive categories. Categorization is
E.g.
• furniture / chair/ table/ lamp/ kitchen chair/living-room chair /kitchen table/dining room table/floor lamp/desk lamp
Category
Definitions
赵艳芳：严格来讲，范畴是事物在认知中的归类。 F.Ungerer＆H.J.Schmid: The product of the mental process of classification. They can be understood as mental concepts
• Definitions of Prototype • Basic contents of Prototype Theory • Factors that influence the Prototype
原型范畴理论
Prototype
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如果你早知道哥德尔定理，那么很多事情，你就不再困惑！
如果你早知道哥德尔定理，那么很多事情，你就不再困惑！哥德尔是奥地利裔美国著名数学家，不完备性定理是他在1931年提出来的。
这一理论使数学基础研究发生了划时代的变化，更是现代逻辑史上很重要的一座里程碑。
该定理与塔尔斯基的形式语言的真理论，图灵机和判定问题，被赞誉为现代逻辑科学在哲学方面的三大成果。
哥德尔证明了任何一个形式系统，只要包括了简单的初等数论描述，而且是自洽的，它必定包含某些系统内所允许的方法既不能证明真也不能证伪的命题。
第一定理任意一个包含一阶谓词逻辑与初等数论的形式系统，都存在一个命题，它在这个系统中既不能被证明为真，也不能被证明为否。
第二定理如果系统S含有初等数论，当S无矛盾时，它的无矛盾性不可能在S内证明。
20世纪20年代，在集合论不断发展的基础上，大数学家希尔伯特向全世界的数学家抛出了个宏伟计划，其大意是建立一组公理体系，使一切数学命题原则上都可由此经有限步推定真伪，这叫做公理体系的“完备性”；希尔伯特还要求公理体系保持“独立性”（即所有公理都是互相独立的，使公理系统尽可能的简洁）和“无矛盾性”（即相容性，不能从公理系统导出矛盾）。
值得指出的是，希尔伯特所说的公理不是我们通常认为的公理，而是经过了彻底的形式化。
他们存在于一门叫做元数学的分支中。
元数学与一般数学理论的关系有点像计算机中应用程序和普通文件的关系。
希尔伯特的计划也确实有一定的进展，几乎全世界的数学家都乐观地看着数学大厦即将竣工。
正当一切都越来越明朗之际，突然一声晴天霹雳。
1931年，在希尔伯特提出计划不到3年，年轻的哥德尔就使希尔伯特的梦想变成了令人沮丧的噩梦。
哥德尔证明：任何无矛盾的公理体系，只要包含初等算术的陈述，则必定存在一个不可判定命题，用这组公理不能判定其真假。
也就是说，“无矛盾”和“完备”是不能同时满足的！这便是闻名于世的哥德尔不完全性定理。
哥德尔不完全性定理一举粉碎了数学家两千年来的信念。
他告诉我们，真与可证是两个概念。
论标记理论和原型理论的关联
论标记理论和原型理论的关联摘要：标记理论是语言学中用以分析语言系统的重要原则之一。
标记性体现了语言范畴内部存在的对立的不对称关系,这一概念被广泛应用于音位学、语义学、语法分析和语用学中。
原型范畴理论是认知语言学的主要理论之一。
本文试图用原型范畴理论对词语层面上的标记性现象作出解释,来说明两种理论的关联之处。
关键词：原型理论，标记理论，范畴，有标记，无标记一．标记理论标记理论是结构主义语言学的重要理论之一。
布拉格学派的代表人物之一特鲁别茨柯依在《音位学原理》中提出了9种不同的音位对立,其中对标记概念的产生影响最大的是否定对立。
否定对立中,两个对立项除了具有共同的特征外,一个具有确定的特征(肯定形式的特征),另一个则不具有确定的特征(否定形式的特征)。
具有某种特征的为有标记项(the marked term),没有这种特征的为无标记项(the unmarked term)（刘润清，2002：96）。
雅柯布逊将这一概念引入语法和词汇领域,用来描写语法和语义现象。
此后语言学家又进一步发展了音位的标记理论,他们认为,语言系统中有一部分单位负载的意义是中性的,为无标记项；与其相对应的另一部分单位则在中性意义上附加了某些特征意义,为有标记项”无标记项比有标记项更基本、更自然、更常用,而有标记成分传达的信息比无标记成分所传达得信息更精确、更具体（李玉萍，2004）。
标记概念在语言分析的各个层面上均有解释作用,目前这一概念已广泛应用于语言研究的各个分支。
二．原型理论原型理论(prototype theory)是在现代哲学思想的发展、人类学的调查结果和认知心理学实验研究的基础上产生的。
其产生更多的是得益于上个世纪下半叶人类学与认知心理学对色彩词语以及人类家庭亲属词汇的广泛调查与深入研究。
（梁晓波、李勇忠，2006）与亚理士多德开始的经典理论的传统范畴观不同，认知语言学的原型理论认为许多范畴都是围绕一个原型而构成的，判断某事务是否属于某范畴，不是看它是否具备该范畴成员所有的共同特性，而是看它与其原型之间是否具有足够的维特根斯坦所说的“家族相似性”（family resemblance）。
原型理论
原型理论在英语学习和教学中的应用是心理学的一个重要理论,最早是由美国心理学家E·罗希于20世纪70年代初提出来的,很快便被广泛移用至语言学研究之中,尤其是在语义学和语用学研究领域里产生了很大的影响。
原型理论试图说明人们形成、掌握和理解概念的心理过程。
结构语义学中的成分分析方法认为,词语的意义由最基本的语义原素组合而成。
各个概念都有其特定的一套语义原素,如“椅子”可以分解为“坐具”和“带靠背”两个语义原素。
原型理论(prototype theory)是一种新兴的语义分析理论,目前已广泛应用于认知学科的各个领域。
原型最初是用来描述界,解释自然事物的,后来才被引入了认知语言学和语义学用来释义,到了20世纪80年代末形成了原型语义学(prototype semantics)。
西方对原型理论的研究要比国内早许多,国内现在也已经有很多研究原型理论及其应用的论著和文章。
随着原型理论在释义方面的作用得到广泛的肯定,语义学家和许多工作者开始逐步将原型理论应用到英语学习和教学中,使其功能得到更大的发挥。
1原型理论的提出“原型理论产生于当代语言学和界对于经典的亚里士多德范畴学说的批判,尤其是维特根斯坦对于语义范畴‘家族相似性’的深刻揭示。
”[1]“原型理论是针对传统释义方式的缺陷而提出来的,原型语义学的建立是与传统的充分必要条件从根本上决裂的。
”[2]说到原型理论的提出,我们就不能不提到古希腊哲学家亚里士多德的“经典范畴理论”和“充分必要条件”(sufficient andnecessary conditions)。
在原型理论之前,经典范畴理论一直占主导地位。
为了弥补经典范畴理论的不足和“充分必要条件”的缺陷,原型理论就被提了出来。
对于原型理论的提出,贡献最大的要属哲学家维特根斯坦和认知心家罗斯(E. Rosch)。
1953年,维特根斯坦在其《哲学研究》中,提出了对经典范畴理论和“充分必要条件”的质疑,提出了他的“家族相似性”(family resemblance)。
语言学名词解释和简答题的出题范围
words that differ in only one soundThey differ in meaning, they differ only in one sound segment, the different sounds occur in the same environmentExample: beat, bit They form a minimal pairSo /ea/ and /i/ are different sounds in EnglishThey are different phonemes1.the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesislinguistic determinism (语言决定论) -Language determines thought.and linguistic relativity (语言相对论)-There is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.2.BehaviorismBehaviorism in linguistics holds the view that Children learn language through a chain of stimulus-response-reinforcement (刺激—反应—强化), and adults’ use of language is also a process of stimulus-response.3.discovery proceduresA grammar is discovered through the performing of certain operations on a corpus of data4.Universal GrammarUG consists of a set of innate grammatical principles.Each principle is associated with a number of parameters.5.Systemic GrammarIt aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential.6.Ideational MetafunctionThe Ideational Function (Experiential and Logical) is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. It is a meaning potential.It mainly consists of “transitivity” and “voice”. This function no t only specifies the available options in meaning but also determines the nature of their structural realisations. For example, “John built a new house” can be analysed as a configuration of the functions (功能配置): Actor: JohnProcess: Material: Creation: builtGoal: Affected: a new house7.Interpersonal MetafunctionThe INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech act.8.basic speech rolesThe most fundamental types of speech role are just two: (i) giving, and (ii) demanding.Cutting across this basic distinction between giving and demanding is another distinction that relates to the nature of the commodity being exchanged. This may be either (a) goods-&-services or (b) information.9.finite verbal operatorsFiniteness is thus expressed by means of a verbal operator which is either temporal or modal.10.Textual MetafunctionThe textual metafunction enables the realization of the relation between language and context, making the language user produce a text which matches the situation.It refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into coherent and unified texts and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.It is realized by thematic structure, information structure and cohesion.11.theme and rhemeThe Theme is the element which serves as the point of departure of the message. The remainder of the message, the part in which the Theme is developed, is called the Rheme.As a message structure, a clause consists of a Theme accompanied by a Rheme. The Theme is the first constituent of the clause. All the rest of the clause is simply labelled the Rheme12.experientialismExperientialism assumes that the external reality is constrained by our uniquely human experience.The parts of this external reality to which we have access are largely constrained by the ecological niche we have adapted to and the nature of our embodiment. In other words, language does not directly reflect the world. Rather, it reflects our unique human construal of the world: our ‘world view’ as it appears to us through the lens of our embodiment.This view of reality has been termed experientialism or experiential realism by cognitive linguists George Lakoffand Mark Johnson. Experiential realism acknowledges that there is an external reality that is reflected by concepts and by language. However, this reality is mediated by our uniquely human experience which constrains the nature of this reality ‘for us’.13.image schemataAn image schema is a recurring structure within our cognitive processes which establishes patterns of understanding and reasoning. Image schemas are formed from our bodily interactions, from linguistic experience, and from historical context.14.prototype theoryPrototype theory is a mode of graded categorization in cognitive science, where some members of a category are more central than others. For example, when asked to give an example of the concept furniture, chair is more frequently cited than, say, stool. Prototype theory has also been applied in linguistics, as part of the mapping from phonological structure to semantics.二、Directions: Please answer the following questions.1.Why is Saussure called “one of the founders of structural linguisticsand “father of modern linguistics”He helped to set the study of human behavior on a new footing (basis).He helped to promote semiology.He clarified the formal strategies of Modernist thoughts.He attached importance to the study of the intimate relation between language and human mind.2.W hat are the similarities and differences between Saussure’s langue andparole and Chomsky’s competence a nd performanceThe similarities (1) language and competence mainly concerns the user’s underlying knowledge; parole and performance concerns the actual phenomena (2) language and competence are abstract; parole and performance are concrete.The differences (1) according to Saussure, language is a mere systematic inventory of items; according to Chomsky, competence should refer to the underlying competence as a system of generative processes (2)According to Saussure, language mainly base on sociology, in separating language from parole, we separate social from individual; according to Chomsky, competence was restricted to a knowledge of grammar.3.What is the conflict between descriptive adequacy and explanatoryadequacy A nd what is Chomsky’s solution to thi s conflicta theory of grammar: descriptively adequate should adequately describethe grammatical dada of a language.should not just focus on a fragment of a language.a theory of grammar: explanatorily adequateshould explain the general form of language.should choose among alternative descriptively-adequate grammars.should essentially be about how a child acquires a grammar.A theory of grammar should be both descriptively and explanatorilyadequate.But there is a conflict:To achieve DA, the grammar must be very detailed.To achieve EA, the grammar must be very simple. (think why)because the child can learn a language very easily on very little language exposure.Chomsky’s solution:construct a simple UGlet individual grammars be derivable from UG4.What are Chomsky’s contribution s to the linguistic revolutionChomsky’s contribution to the linguistic revolution is that he showed the world a totally new way of looking at language and at human nature, particularly the human mind. Chomsky challenged behaviorism and empiricism because he believes that language is innate.Rationalism (vs. empiricism in philosophy)Empiricist evidence is often unreliable.Innateness (vs. behaviorism in psychology)Children can acquire a complicated language on the basis of very limited exposure to speech.This indicates that UG is innate faculty.5.How to compare and contrast Generative Linguistics andSystemic-Functional Linguistics from perspectives of epistemology, theoretical basis, research tasks and methodology6.How many process types are there in the transitivity system Pleaseillustrate each type by a proper example.Six. Material Processes, Mental Processes, Relational Processes, Behavioural Processes, Verbal Processes, Existential Processes The typical types of outer experience are actions, goings-on and events: actions happen, people act on other people or things, or make things happen. This type of process is called Material Processes.The inner experience is that in our consciousness or imagination. You may react on it, think about it, or perceive it. This type of process is called Mental Processes.Then there is a third type of process: we learn to generalize, to relate one fragment of experience to another. It does this by classifying or identifying. This kind of process is called Relational Processes.These three processes are called major processes. Related to them are three minor processes: each one lies at the boundary between two processes of the three. Not so clearly set apart, they share some features of each, and finally acquire the character of their own.On the borderline between material and mental are the Behavioural Processes: those that represent outer manifestations of inner workings, the acting out of processes of consciousness and physiological states.On the borderline of mental and relational is the category of Verbal Processes: symbolic relationships constructed in human consciousness and enacted in the form of language.Then on the borderline between the relational process and the material process are Existential Processes, by which phenomena of all kinds are recognized to be or to exist.7.What is a multiple Theme to be contrasted with a simple Theme What isa marked Theme to be contrasted with an unmarked Theme Please illustratethem with proper examples.Conjunctions in ThemeConjunctive and modal Adjuncts in ThemeTextual, interpersonal and experiential elements in ThemeInterrogatives as multiple Themes8.What are the similarities and differences between conceptual metaphorand conceptual metonymyMetaphor and metonymy are viewed as phenomena fundamental to the structure of the conceptual system rather than superficial linguistic‘devices’.Conceptual metaphor (概念隐喻) maps structure from one conceptual domain onto another, while metonomy highlights an entity by referring to another entity within the same domain.隐喻就是把一个领域的概念投射到另一个领域，或者说从一个认知域（来源域）投射到另一个认知域（目标域）。
原型理论
原型理论在英语学习和教学中的应用是心理学的一个重要理论,最早是由美国心理学家E·罗希于20世纪70年代初提出来的,很快便被广泛移用至语言学研究之中,尤其是在语义学和语用学研究领域里产生了很大的影响。
原型理论试图说明人们形成、掌握和理解概念的心理过程。
结构语义学中的成分分析方法认为,词语的意义由最基本的语义原素组合而成。
各个概念都有其特定的一套语义原素,如“椅子”可以分解为“坐具”和“带靠背”两个语义原素。
原型理论(prototype theory)是一种新兴的语义分析理论,目前已广泛应用于认知学科的各个领域。
原型最初是用来描述界,解释自然事物的,后来才被引入了认知语言学和语义学用来释义,到了20世纪80年代末形成了原型语义学(prototype semantics)。
西方对原型理论的研究要比国内早许多,国内现在也已经有很多研究原型理论及其应用的论著和文章。
随着原型理论在释义方面的作用得到广泛的肯定,语义学家和许多工作者开始逐步将原型理论应用到英语学习和教学中,使其功能得到更大的发挥。
1原型理论的提出“原型理论产生于当代语言学和界对于经典的亚里士多德范畴学说的批判,尤其是维特根斯坦对于语义范畴‘家族相似性’的深刻揭示。
”[1]“原型理论是针对传统释义方式的缺陷而提出来的,原型语义学的建立是与传统的充分必要条件从根本上决裂的。
”[2]说到原型理论的提出,我们就不能不提到古希腊哲学家亚里士多德的“经典范畴理论”和“充分必要条件”(sufficient andnecessary conditions)。
在原型理论之前,经典范畴理论一直占主导地位。
为了弥补经典范畴理论的不足和“充分必要条件”的缺陷,原型理论就被提了出来。
对于原型理论的提出,贡献最大的要属哲学家维特根斯坦和认知心家罗斯(E. Rosch)。
1953年,维特根斯坦在其《哲学研究》中,提出了对经典范畴理论和“充分必要条件”的质疑,提出了他的“家族相似性”(family resemblance)。
认知心理学课后习题答案 (2)
第一章绪论1、什么是认知和认知心理学？认知：认知是对知识的获得和应用的过程，也可以叫做信息加工的过程。
认知心理学广义：一切对认知或认识过程的研究，包括感知觉、注意、记忆、思维和语言等。
狭义：指信息加工观点为特征的心理学，即信息加工心理学。
2、认知心理学产生的内外原因是什么？内部原因：行为主义的失败。
认知心理学重视心理学研究中的综合的观点，强调各种心理过程之间的相互联系、相互制约认知心理学在具体问题的研究方面，在扩大心理学研究方法方面都有所贡献。
认知心理学的研究成果对计算机科学的发展也有贡献。
外部原因：（1）“三论”的影响（系统论、信息论和控制论）（2）计算机科学的影响（3）社会的需要，计算机科学发展的需要（4）社会的实践教育和对智力的开发需要3、认知心理学有什么影响？（一）认知心理学否定了行为主义，重新恢复了意识在心理学中的地位（二）认知心理学将心理过程看做信息加工过程，为研究心理活动的内部机制或内部心理机制确立了一个新的具体研究方向，这个新的研究方向迅速渗透到普通心理学和实验心理学中，是心理学研究发生明显的变化，这种变化包含如下：（1）心理过程的研究领域扩大（2）从心理物理函数走向内部心理机制（3）从分析性研究转向综合性研究（4）开始重视个别差异和个案研究4、认知心理学的研究方法有哪些？认知心理学在其具体研究中，采用实验、观察（包括自我观察）和计算机化模拟等方法。
以反应时和作业成绩为指标的实验特别受重视，利用被试的出声思考也得到了发展。
（1）减法反应时实验减数反应时实验的逻辑是安排两种反应作业，其中一个作业包含另一个作业所没有的一个处理（加工）阶段，并在其他方面均相同，从这两个反应时间之差来判定此加工阶段。
（2）相加因素法实验（3）“开窗”实验（4）出声思考（5）计算机模拟第二章知觉1、现代认知心理学对知觉的基本看法是什么？第一：知觉是寻求对信息的最佳解释过程。
第二：知觉过程具有积极主动性和选择性。
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Presenter: Tory
• Development History • Prototype Theory
Categorization Classification of category Prototype Theory
• Applications • Limitations
something that underlies the mental processes of language
comprehension and language production. Vyvyan and Evans: Our ability to identify perceived similarities (and differences) between entities and thus group them together.
• Definitions of Prototype • Basic contents of Prototype Theory • Factors that influence the Prototype
Definitions of Prototype
• The term prototype has been defined in Eleanor Rosch's study "Natural Categories" (1973) and was first defined as a stimulus, which takes a salient position in the formation of a category as it is the first stimulus to be associated with that category. Later, she redefined it as the most central member of a category.
Principles of categorization
• Principle of perceived world structure • The world around us has correlational相互关系 structure. For instance, it is a fact about the world that wings most frequently co-occur with feathers and the ability to fly (as in birds), rather than with fur or the ability to breathe underwater. This principle states that humans rely upon correlational structure of this kind in order to form and organize categories.
其从无序转向有序的理性活动，也是人们认识世界的一个重要
手段。
Principles of categorization
• Principle of cognitive economy • This principle states that an organism, like a human being, attempts to gain as much information as possible about its environment while minimizing cognitive effort and resources. This cost-benefit balance drives category formation. In other words, rather than storing separate information about every individual stimulus experienced, humans can group similar stimuli into categories, which maintains economy in cognitive representation.
Levels of Categorization
• Superordinate level • Basic or generic level • Subordinate level
Levels of Categorization
Taxonimies of categories are organized into levels of categorization. There are three levels:
Definitions of Categorization
赵艳芳：主客观相互作用对事物进行分类的过程即范畴化的过
程，其结果是认知范畴。
王寅：我们拟将范畴化描写为：是一种基于体验，以主客体互 动为出发点，对外界事体（事物、事件。现象等）进行主观概 括和类属划分的心智过程，是一种赋予世界以一定结构，并使
Wittgenstein------Family Resemblance Theory • Wittgenstein 对家族相似概念的论证主要集中在 “spiel”（游戏）这个概念上。他指出种种游戏并 没有一种共同的特征，而是形成了一个家族，家 族成员具有某些相似之处。一个概念下的各种现 象A、B、C、D 并不具有唯一共同性质，而是A 相似于B, B相似于C,C相似于D。 • 维特根斯坦的“家族相似性”对于认知语言学 的一个重要贡献在于它揭示了语义范畴具有“中 心”（典型）和“边缘”（非典型成员）的内部 结构
E.g.
• furniture / chair/ table/ lamp/ kitchen chair/living-room chair /kitchen table/dining room table/floor lamp/desk lamp
Category
Definitions
赵艳芳：严格来讲，范畴是事物在认知中的归类。 F.Ungerer＆H.J.Schmid: The product of the mental process of classification. They can be understood as mental concepts
Rosch------Prototype Category Theory
• 语言学家Labov 和Rosch 先后发表了他们 对于自然范畴的试验研究结果，以此证明 维氏的“家族相似性”原理适用于描述自 然界中的许多范畴，即许多自然范畴都具 有维氏所说的“家族相似性”。Labov 和 Rosch 把具有“家族相似性”的这些自然 范畴称为“原型范畴”（prototype category），即具有原型（prototype, 即范 畴的典型成员）的范畴。从而建立了现代 范畴理论，原型范畴理论。
Aristotle------Classical Category Theory • 亚里士多德是西方哲学史上第一个对哲学范畴进 行系统阐述的学者。 • 亚里士多德提出的经典范畴观认为，一切范畴皆 由范畴成员共有的一组充分而且必要的特性来界 定。这些特征是二元对立的，一个物体如果具备 某个范畴成员的所有的重要特性，便可认定它属 于该范畴，否则不属于该范畴。因此，不存在 “好像属于该范畴、又好像不属于该范畴”的情 况。即是说，不同范畴之间存在清晰的界限；在 同一范畴中，各成员之间的关系是平等的，即不 存在典型成员与边缘成员之间的差别.
stored in o基础上对客观事物普遍 本质在思维上的概括反映，是由一个通常聚集在一起的属性 所构成的“完形”概念构成的。
Basic Rules of Categories
• 1) categories are defined in terms of a family of resemblance rather than by means of a set of necessary and sufficient features. • 2) membership in a category is determined by the perceived distance of resemblance of the entity to the prototype, there is no clear-cut boundaries. But there is a continuum. • 3) All members of a category don’t enjoy equal status.
Definitions of Categorization
F.Ungerer ＆ H.J.Schmid: The mental process of classification. And its products are the cognitive categories. Categorization is
• Definitions of Categorization • Principles of Categorization • Levels of Categorization
Definitions of Categorization
• Wikipedia :Categorization is the process in which experiences and concepts are recognised and understood. • Categorization implies that concepts are classified into categories based on commonalities and usually for some specific purpose. Categorization is fundamental in decision making, in all kinds of interaction with the environment, and in language.