二语习得期末论文作业
二语习得社会文化理论论文【论文】
二语习得社会文化理论论文一、社会文化理论的学科定位社会文化理论研究社会的、交际的问题，认为习得语言的必要途径是与其他人进行真正的社会互动或者交流。
社会文化理论不仅是一个社会方向的研究，也是心理语言学角度的研究，我们认为社会文化理论属于第三代心理语言学研究。
里昂且夫（Ｌｅｏｎｔｉｅｖ）曾从心理语言学角度对社会文化理论的研究内容进行了阐述，认为在上世纪５０年代社会文化理论发展伊始，心理语言学的主流理论是行为主义，研究重点是独立的语言单位（如词）的加工过程；到了６０年代，出现了第二代心理语言学，以语言学家乔姆斯基和心理学家乔治•米勒为代表，他们认为语言习得的是抽象的规则，而非独立的语言单位，研究重点是语言学习者对句子的理解和输出。
里昂且夫认为第二代学者的研究更倾向于语言学，对心理学方面的研究较少。
而且，这一代的学者对语言的形式特征更感兴趣。
前两代的学者们显然都没有关注语言的意义，也没有对语言作为符号工具如何被用于交流和思维等问题展开研究；而且在对个体的研究上，前两代心理学学者不仅将个体与社会隔离开来，而且通常还会脱离实际交际过程，个体之间的交际被简化为复制性的从说者到听者的信息转移，即说者输出的信息，会被听者以完全一样的形式理解；第三代心理语言学研究则更加倾向于心理学研究，对语言学方面的研究相对较少，研究焦点也从原来的对句子、文本的理解和加工转移到了交际和思维过程的心理学分析。
第三代心理语言学并不是对服务于言语行为的心理结构的实现进行研究，而是探索在活动中使用语言（作为工具）的不同策略进行研究。
当活动的目的是对他人产生影响的时候，活动即为交际性的；当活动的目的是对自身产生影响的时候，活动即为认知性的。
两种活动是相辅相成、辩证性存在的，因此从一开始就有必要对二者进行管理。
也就是说，自我导向的言语活动，来源于他人导向的言语活动，在本质上二者都是交际形式的一种。
将交际活动优先于对抽象性语言规则加工过程的习得进行研究，使第三代心理语言学将言语（和书面语言）对人类具体的社会和思维活动的调节作为研究重点，认为言语活动是有动机性和目的性的。
第二语言习得理论及应用论文
第二语言习得理论及应用语言是人类区别于其他动物的重要标志之一。
人借助于语言进行交际，交流思想，达到互相了解，组成人类社会生活;人还借助于语言，进行思维活动，揭露事物的本质和规律，创造人类的物质文明和精神文明，然而语言的作用还远不止如此。
如果我们探讨外语学习心理的主要目的是教好一门语言，是帮助学习者学会用这门外语进行交际，那么，我们应该懂得什么是语言。
Brown，H列出语言的八个特点，它们是:1.语言是系统，可能是一个生成系统。
2.语言是一种任意的符号。
3.这些符号是声音符号，但也可能是视觉符号。
4.符号有约定俗成的意义。
5.语言用于交际。
6.语言在言语社团或言语文化中发生作用。
7.语言实质上为人类所有，虽有可能不限于人类。
8.所有的人以大致相同的方式习得语言。
语言和语言学习具有普遍的特征。
”①第二语言习得理论作为一门独立的学科形成于60年代末，70年代初。
然而，人们对第二语言习得产生兴趣和开展研究的历史却要早得多。
50年代初，Weinreich就在它的著作《语言的联系》中讨论了母语和第二语言两种语言体系的关系，并提出了一个重要的概念“干扰”。
这种干扰可以发生在语音、语法、语义三个层面上。
1957年，美国语言学家Robert Lado发表了具有很大影响的著作《跨文化语言学》。
从某种意义上来说，Lado的著作是对Weinreich理论的补充。
Lado的结论是：“对第二语言学习者来说，学习中最为困难的地方就是第二语言与第一语言差别最大的地方。
因此，外语教学的重点应该集中在两种语言的差别上。
”②60年代在语言和语言习得的研究领域发生了一场大争论，这场争论被不少人称为一场“革命”。
在这场“革命”中，由Bloomfield提出的结构主义和由Skinner在语言习得研究领域提出的极端的行为主义理论对语言本质和语言习得的基本观点都受到了Chomsky的猛烈攻击。
①Brown,R.1973.Afirst langusge:The Early Stages.Harmondsworth: PenguinBooks.Page89.②Lado,R.1957.Linguistics across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers. Miehigan:University of Miehigan. Page 53.争论过后，人们开始认识到一个事实，那就是语言是一种特殊的体系，要了解这一体系的发展过程，我们不能单纯的从外界的因素中去寻找答案，它有它自己的内在发展规律。
论文期末作业 (3)
English is a language tool, the ultimate goal of learning English is to use this tool to free and fluent communication with others. The main purpose of the primary school to teach English is not to the students master a lot of English knowledge, more is to cultivate students ' interest in learning English, and love, lets the student in English have a preliminary introduction to understanding and mastering. Many experts and scholars to understand the importance of phonetic teaching gradually the attention, also gradually improve, but the influencing factors of phonetic teaching is complicated, in a short period of time we are unable to control, so the phonetic teaching in English classroom in China is still a weak link. Due to the limitation of Language environment, many language workers for a long time continuously explore how to improve classroom teaching with students phonetic knowledge ability to participate in actual communication.The purpose of this Paper is to emphasize the importance of English phonetic teaching in primary school English learning phase at the same time through the excellent primary school English teachers ' classroom teaching observation and follow -up interviews to understand and explore their phonetic teaching strategies and methods, in order to provide some phonetic teaching for primary school English teachers. Can help primary school English teachers in order to improve the phonetic teaching organic integration and infiltration in primary school English teaching classroom, strengthen the consciousness of the elementary student's phonetic basis, pave the way for their future English learning.Key words: Primary school; English phonetics; Factors of effect; Teaching strategies英语是一种语言工具,学习英语的最终目标就是能利用这种工具与别人自由流畅的交流。
二语习得期末作业
Communicative Language TeachingAbstract:As long as the Communicative Language Teaching was introduced into China, it had been applied to language teaching immediately and gradually subsitute for our traditional teaching methods. This paper ,first of all,introduces Communicative Language Teaching in an all-round way by elaborating the primary principles of communicative language approach from five aspects.Then it go on to deal with the Communicative Approach in China and list some useful class activities that may utilize in the teaching process. At last, the passage also give some comments and suggestions on this approach.Key words:CLT;principle;class activities;evaluation1.IntroductionThe origins of the Communicative Language Teaching are to be found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s. In the late sixties, the current situational approach was questioned. British applied linguistics began to emphasize the fundamental dimension of language teaching at that time- the functional and communicative potential of language. Scholars like Christopher Candlin and Henry Widdowson drew on the work of British functional linguistics such as John Firth, and Halliday, American work in socioliguiticis like Dell Hymes as well as work in philosophy and argue for focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather thanon mere mastery of structures.In 1971, a group of experts began to investigate the possibility of developing language courses on a unit-credit system. At that time, Wilkins,a British linguist proposed a functional or communicative syllabus for language teaching. He attempted to demonstrate the systems of meaning that lay behind the communicative uses of language. He described two types of meanings, the notional categories and categories of communicative functions. He had his ideas published in Notional Syllabus (Wilkins 1976).Chomsky had demonstrated, in Syntactic Structures (1957),that the current standard structural theories of language were incapable of accounting for the fundamental characteristic of language--the creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences.Consequently, a new language teaching approach is needed that not only should emphasize on mere mastery of structures but also on communicative proficiency.Communicative Language Approach(CLA) is a system of teaching method that takes language function as the key link to cultivate students’ communicative ability. The theoretical origin of this approach can be traced back to the work of anthropological linguists (e.g. Hymes, 1972) and the functional linguist (e.g. Halliday, 1973), who take the view that language is for interaction and communication and language has functions related to society. In this light, language study has to look at the use(function) of language both in its linguistic and its social or situational text.Communicative Language Teaching (or Communicative Approach) is an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language teaching is communicative competence. Communicative language teaching can be understood as a set of principles about the goals of language teaching, how learners learn a language, the kinds of classroom activities that best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers and learners in the classroom. Although CLT is regarded by many linguists and teachers as the most effective approach among those currently used in ELT, the question of whether it is adaptable for English language teaching in China is still an controversial issue that has aroused lots of heated discussions.2.Primary Principles of CLACLA has to follow some primary principles, which are illustrated below.2.1 ApproachCLA accepts the structural view of language and added a functional view to it. Structural view focuses on the grammatical forms of language, while the functional view looks at what the structural forms express in specific context. Accordingly, social context is important in deciding whatlinguistic forms to use. In addition, the awareness of culture is viewed as sociocultural competence.2.2 Teacher and student roles in CLA2.2.1 The Role of the TeachersCommunicative language teaching is the generally accepted norm in the field of second language teaching. In CLT the teacher serves as more of a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning. 2.2.1.1 OrganizerIn the communicative language teaching, the teacher should organize the communicative activities, during which the students can have interactions according to the topics. Consequently, at the beginning of each class, the teacher should design various communicative activities that can arouse students’ interests.2.2.1.2 AdviserDuring the classroom communicative activities, the students may encounter different kinds of expressing difficulties, or sometimes even can not continue their conversation due to the limits of their language skills or lack of certain knowledge. When this happened, the teacher should help the students either by giving them the direct expressing or inspire them to express their ideas in another way.2.2.1.3 Facilitator and ParticipantBreen and Candlin pointed out that in communicative language teaching, there are two important roles the teacher should act as.The first role is to facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group. Thelatter role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises from it.2.2.2 The Role of the StudentsIn CLT, students practice real-life situations. In these exercises,the goal is for the student to communicate his or her needs and thoughts, without worrying about having perfect grammar.Consequently, in interactive classroom teaching, students can act as the master, cooperator and respondent in the classroom teaching activities.2.2.2.1 ManagerIn CLT, the classroom is like a public place; every student can have a discussion on a certain topic or make a role play according to one situation. CLT can give students access to a chance of free learning. In this kind of class, the learning and communicating of students become an active and meaningful process.2.2.2.2 ParticipantDuring the process of communicative activities, students learn and use language by discussing, communicating and cooperating. That means, the language learning depends on the cooperation with other students. One’s expression or discussion can have an influence on others as well as being inspired by others. Thus, the whole process of learning a language is also the course of cooperation.2.3 The role of learner’s native languageLearner’s language p lays absolutely no role in target language learning for the simple reason that classroom interaction should be conducted entirely in the target language in order to learn the language through genuine communication.2.4 Views on learners’ errorsErrors are regarded as a natural part of language development and are therefore regarded tolerated. Unless an error hinders communication, it is usually not corrected. So with CLA,learners will have ample opportunities in class to share their ideas, opinions and feelings with their peers.2.5 Characteristics of teaching and learning processCLA is most noted for the following features:1) It uses a need-based communicative syllabus, often a functional one. A lesson is usually organized through communicative activities and language functions, from which the necessary linguistic forms and structures, as well as the pragmatic elements of language, will be derived.2) It employs quantity of communicative activities that are purposeful, meaningful and that allow choice: CLA uses almost any activity that engages learners in authentic communication because it is believed that activities that involve real communication promote learning; activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.3) Materials are authentic. CLA considers it very important to choose study material that is authentic from the target language community for the reason that it renders the opportunity for learners to cope with the target language as it is actually used.Generally speaking, major distinctive features concluded by Finocchiaro and Brumfit(1983: 91-3) are that learners learn a language through using it to communicate; authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroomactivities;fluency is an important dimension of communication; communication involves the integration of different language skills; learning is a process of creative construction that involves trial and error.3.Classroom Activities in CLTA wild variety of materials can be used to support communicative approaches to language teaching. The followings are some methods we can utilize during the communicative language teaching.3.1 Scrambled sentencesThe students are given a passage in which the sentences are in ascrambled order. This may be a passage they have worked with or one they have not seen before. They are told to unscramble the sentences so that the sentences are restored to their original order.This type of exercise teaches students about the cohesion and coherence properties of language.3.2 Picture strip storyMany activities can be done with picture strip stories. In the activity, one student in a small group can be given a strip story. He shows the first picture of the story to the other members of his group and asks them to predict what the second picture would look like. An information gap exists-the students in the groups do not know what the picture contained. They have a choice as to what their prediction would be and how they would word it.3.3 Role playRole plays are very important in CLT because they give students an opportunity to practice communicating in different social contexts and in different social roles. Role plays can be set up so that they are very structured or in a less structured way. The latter is more in keeping with CLT, of course, because it gives the students more of a choice.4.the Communicative Approach in ChinaIn the history of EFL teaching, China saw its first movement toward communicative language teaching (CLT) in secondary schools in the early 1990s. In 1992 the State Education Development Commission (SEDC)introduced a functional syllabus that set the goal of communicative teaching and listed the communicative functions to be taught. In the same year, in cooperation with the publisher Longman, the SEDC published a new textbook series for communicative teaching. The syllabus and the textbooks required teachers to teach communicatively in classrooms.The movement toward CLT was not accidental. It came from an educational problem that needed to be solved: the widespread use of the traditional grammar-oriented method. Because teachers focused on grammar and structure, the traditional method produced unsatisfactory teaching results. Students became almost "structurally competent but communicatively incompetent"). Faced with this backward situation, the SEDC felt an urgent need to change.The SEDC is the official authority for setting educational policy. It is the representative of the highly centralized Chinese system of education. Because the SEDC has so much power, it may seem that every teacher would have switched to CLT. However, because CLT was new in every way, it met with considerable resistance from the start. Many teachers tried to change the dominant teaching procedures but quickly got frustrated, lost their initial enthusiasm, and returned to tradition. As a result, CLT did not gain popularity in the early 1990s.The key word underlying the use of CLT was feasibility: Was the use of CLT feasible? Opponents of CLT held that CLT was neither possiblenor feasible in China because of specific conditions there. Proponents argued that CLT was indeed feasible if there was a sweeping change of curriculum. The SEDC authorities supported this favorable view and took some measures to ensure that CLT was used effectively.First, the SEDC authorities suggested using an eclectic method that includes various elements of many methods according to the teachers' actual situation. Teachers were required to use CLT as a main method while accepting elements of other methods. The authorities pointed out that in the mid-1980s some key schools in Beijing and Shanghai had already shown some tendency toward eclecticism, so teachers should follow this trend. An advantage of using an eclectic method was that it could help teach students knowledge of both the language's usage and its use and meet students' differing needs.Second, in the late 1990s the Matriculation English Test (MET), one of the National College Entrance Exams developed by the SEDC, began to include the Language Use Section so that teachers could teach to the test. This section was added to measure the four language skills used for communication and included such elements such as role plays, reading comprehension, and communicative writing. Passing the MET in order to be able to attend colleges and universities is secondary students' most important consideration while learning English. The test has beenidentified as the single most powerful influence in the resistance to innovation in educational practice in China.Third, teacher training was conducted. One reason to reject reform was the inability of the teachers to do their jobs well. Most Chinese teachers, especially those in rural schools, lack a sufficient level of English proficiency. Many teachers attended in-service training in teachers' colleges and normal universities. Apart from learning the English language, teachers also learned about the principles of CLT. Before CLT was introduced into China, not many teachers were familiar with the trends in teaching methodology. As a result of this training, many teachers came to realize that teaching English does not consist only of teaching grammar but that the true mastery of a language involves communicative competence.Fourth, the authorities publicized the advantages of using CLT. For example, CLT views language as a tool for communication, insists that interactional speaking activities in classrooms be instances of real communication, and ensures that students have sufficient exposure to the target language. All these would develop in students an ability to use English for communication. Li (1984), one of the first defenders of CLT in China, argued that using CLT would be of great benefit to students. Her arguments in favor of CLT had a big influence on Chinese teachers' attitudes toward CLT.As a result of these measures, more teachers accepted CLT. In the mid-1990s, "there [was] widespread awareness of more communicative approaches"). The efforts of the educational authorities in China thus had a big influence on EFL teaching, causing CLT to be accepted as the main teaching method in China.The traditional language teaching method has been prevalent in Chinese college English classroom for years. English teaching in China is dominated by teacher-centered and book-centered grammar-translation method. The teacher dominates the classroom by explaining the usage of language during all the class hours with less participation of learners.Some language teachers in China have now realized that learning is for communication. Since CLA came into China in the 1970s, after being studied and practiced for more than twenty years, its fundamental theories and thoughts have been the mainstream that exerts great impacts on the foreign language teaching in China and have been widely used in Chinese English classroom in current days.5.Evaluations of CLTCommunicative Language Teaching focus on student-centered teaching practice. It simulates various situations according to real life, provides opportunities for students to communicate with each other.5.1 The Advantages of CLTThe interaction between teachers and students are greatly enhancedin CLT. One of the obvious characteristic of CLT is that the students are more responsible of their own learning than in a traditional teacher-centered classroom. The relationship between students and teachers is interactive and harmonious.The strong version of communicative approach advances the claim that language is acquired through communication, so that it is merely a question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language, but of stimulating the development of the language system itself. Within this version, one uses English to learn it.Communicative language teaching is a new approach in China,it emphasizes on the communicative competence and can stimulate students interest more than traditional teaching methods. However,it also has some shortcomings.5.2 The disadvantages of CLTOverdoing certain CLT features.The weak version of communicative approach stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes and characteristically attempt to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching. In the weak version, one learns to use English. Moderation is needed in combination with common sense and a balanced approach.6.Conclusion and SuggestionsToday CLT can be seen as describing a set of core principles aboutlanguage learning and teaching, as summarized above,assumptions which can be applied in different ways and which address different aspects of the processes of teaching and learning. Today CLT continues in its classic form as seen in the huge range of course books and other teaching resources that cite CLT as the source of their methodology. In addition, it has influenced many other language teaching approaches that subscribe to a similar philosophy of language teaching. However, it is faced lotsof challenges.Due to the several challenges which are faced in the CLT,the author believe that first of all, English teachers should continue to learn advanced teaching theory, improve their professional knowledge, know the correct meaning of communicative competence, understanding the substance of CLT , and master the ways and means of teaching. In the teaching process, teachers need to correctly handle the students' ability of listening and speaking and the relationship between reading and writing skills, to encourage students to participate in oral and written communication, not only to meet their current needs and meet the use of English in their future. In addition, teachers have to correct attitude towards grammar teaching in CLT. With the appropriate classroom time to the systematic teaching of grammar knowledge,teachers should provide some meaningful opportunities for students to communicate in the real situation, so that students can learn grammar structures, whiletraining their communicative competence.CLT focuses on teaching students the ability to make comprehensive use of language, the communicative ability as the ultimate goal of teaching. With the development of modern information technology, CLT continues to play an effective and active role. The author believes that CLT is an effective approach to improve the student's speaking ability. In present English teaching in China, Communicative Approach is a widely spread teaching method, but it still needs improving.Some challenges still remain to be tackled.References:[1]Chomsky Syntactic Structures [M].Dutch:Mouton＆CO.,1957.[2]Finocchiaro M,Brumfit C.The Functional-Notional Approach:From Theory to Practice[M].New York:Oxford:Oxford University Press,1983.[3]Larsen-Freeman.Techniques and principles in language teaching[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,1986.[4]Halliday M A K.Explorations in the Functions of Language [M].London:Edward Arnold,1973.[5]Hymes D.On Communicative Competence[C]//Pride J B,Holmes,1972.[6] Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers:Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2008。
二语习得 文献综述 作业样本
英师11101班201100495姓名：关于年龄因素与二语习得研究的文献综述姓名：摘要：年龄问题是二语习得研究领域一个热点话题，其研究主要集中在探讨语言学习有无一个敏感期（sensitive period）或临界期（critical period，有人译做关键期）的问题上。
通过对近20年来一些具有代表性的论文的分析，大概可将这些研究分为两类，一是翻译和评介外国理论，二是探讨年龄差异与外语教学。
关键词：年龄因素，二语习得，文献，综述。
第二语言习得（Second Language Acquisition）是一个相对比较年轻的一个领域。
但是，在过去的四、五十年间该领域的各项研究已有了一个长足的发展与进步。
年龄问题是二语习得研究领域一个热点话题，其研究主要集中在探讨语言学习有无一个敏感期（sensitive period）或临界期（critical period，有人译做关键期）的问题上。
（王初明，2001）我国学者除了翻译介绍国外理论以外，还主要探讨了所谓临界期或关键期对于外语教学的启示等问题，这方面已有大量文章问世。
下面，笔者将对近20年来关于二语习得年龄问题的论文作一综述，疏漏不当之处，敬请指教。
一、翻译、评介国外理论的论著国外有关二语习得年龄研究的理论成果大多围绕着所谓的关键假说（Critical Period Hypothesis，或译临界期假说）展开的。
这一理论最初的构想来自Lennenberg（1967），后来围绕此理论形成支持派和反对派。
我国学者对国外理论的引进主要集中在对支持派和反对派观点的介绍和评述上。
戴曼纯介绍了C .Snow和M. Hoefnagel-hohle（1978）有关关键期假说的相关试验及研究，以及一些学者有关“敏感期”假设的实验研究（戴曼纯，1994）。
王初明就国外语言习得临界期的研究所取得的成果进行了大致介绍（王初明，2001）。
王立非和李瑛就美国二语习得专家David Birdsong在1999年出版的《第二语言习得与关键期假设》（Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis）一书作了评介（王立非、李瑛，2002）。
第二语言习得论文
第二语言习得论课程论文题目：浅谈母语在第二语言习得中的影响文学艺术学院中文系汉文浅谈母语在第二语言习得中的影响我们都知道，任何事情都有两面性，有利也有弊，有积极的影响，也总会有消极的影响，母语在第二语言习得中的作用也是这样的。
这也就是学术界对于母语在第二语言习得中的影响一直存在着争议的原因。
大多数学者认为母语在第二语言习得中起着阻碍和干扰的作用，结合我们在第二语言学习中遇到的困难，的确证实了母语对第二语言习得中的干扰性和阻碍性。
但同时，我们不能因为母语在第二语言习得中的这些消极的阻碍和干扰就全盘的否定其在第二语言习得中的积极推动作用。
母语对第二语言习得的消极作用是非常明显的，这主要体现在以下的几个方面。
第一，在第二语言学习的过程中，我们经常受我们母语中的思维习惯的影响来表达和运用所学的语言知识，这就使得我们经常将第二语言母语化的倾向，为我们的学习带来消极的影响。
这主要体现在不同的文化背景下，我们的思维习惯不尽相同，很多我们习以为常的习惯和方式等，在另一文化背景下则显得不能接受和匪夷所思。
以英语和汉语的问候和寒暄习惯来说，中国人打招呼习惯问“你吃了吗？”，习惯谈论稍稍涉及隐私的诸如家庭，经历等话题，而英国人多谈论天气之类的话题，家庭经历等被视为禁忌。
这样就给我们的第二语言学习带来消极的影响，若是想将这种消极的影响降低，就必然增加了我们学习的负担。
当然，这种阻碍和影响也迫使我们拓展了知识，所以，也有它积极的一面。
第二，母语中的语法规和习惯也给第二语言的习得带来了一定的阻碍和影响。
这一影响在第二语言的学习中的消极影响最显而易见，也最为严重。
语法的规则和习惯很容易给第二语言的学习带来理解上的困惑和偏差，还是拿汉语和英语为例。
汉语和英语的语法在总体上非常相近，都是主谓宾等的基本语序，然而，汉语除了最基本的语法外，还经常有变式，如名词动用，宾语前置等，而且，汉语区分音节，这样就给以英语为母语的学习者在学习汉语时带来了诸多困难和阻碍；再拿英语来说，除了和我们的母语汉语较为相近的内容外，英语还有各种从句，是我们从未接触的，若是再用我们的母语进行学习的迁移，就会在理解上造成巨大的偏差，同样给第二语言的学习带来了阻碍。
《第一语言对第二语言习得的影响》论文
第一语言对第二语言习得的影响人们刚刚出生时的语言能力是极为有限的，只会哭、笑或者保持沉默。
四、五年之后，人们就学会了母语的全部基本语法和音位结构，并能在许多语境中用它来交际。
人是怎样学会他们的第一语言的呢？各个语言学习流派给出了不同的解释。
如行为主义就认为人通过不断的模仿来学习语言的。
而先天论则认为人一出生就具有天生的，遗传的语言习得能力。
这种能力常被称为语言习得机制。
据认为，儿童的语言习得机制从一出生就含有普遍语法的原则，而且一切语言到要遵守这些原则。
随着儿童的成长，普遍语法原则也在慢慢发挥它的作用。
因此，儿童在出生后几年中的某个时间，在某智力发展能力允许的范围内，已经建立起语言形式的最完整的系统。
即母语不必正式学习，儿童通过积极地与母语环境接触即可习得。
一切正常的儿童不用正式学习就能成功的习得母语，但在学习第二语言的时候，人们的学习速度和学习水平就大不相同，即使所花的时间和精力要远远超过第一语言的学习。
如果只是需要模仿或是天生语言习得机制可以起作用的话，为什么第二语言的习得会如此另人困惑呢？学习第二语言的过程和母语习得的过程到底有何区别呢？这些问题已探讨多年，也有涌现不同解释，如对比分析理论、语误分析理论，语境论等，但至今还未彻底解决。
因为篇幅有限，在此仅就第一语言对第二语言习得的影响来探讨这个问题。
根据教育心理学原理，迁移是一种学习中习得的经验对其他学习的影响，即一种学习对另一种学习的影响。
迁移现象广泛存在于学习过程之中，有正负迁移之分。
正迁移（积极迁移）有助于另一种学习的理解和掌握。
如：你来帮助我。
Y ou come to help me .反之，对另一种学习产生消极影响，导致错误和困难发生，就是负迁移（消极迁移）。
行为主义心理学试图用母语与第二语言的差别的大小来解释不同第二语言学习者能达到的不同水平。
如果第二语言与母语的差别越大，讲这种母语的人学习这种第二语言就越困难，母语对学习第二语言的“干扰”也就越大。
第二语言习得论文 二语习得过程中的错误分析
二语习得过程中的错误分析摘要：在语言学习过程中错误的出现是不可避免的现象，研究错误的产生及其特点对二语习得能起到积极的作用，作为研究者研究第二语言习得的首要途径之一，错误分析也就成为了外语学习过程中不可缺少的重要环节。
本文以错误分析理论为基础，探讨了引起二语习得错误的根源。
本文发现，引起错误的根源除了常见的语际迁移和语内迁移外，还有交际策略的误用和环境文化等因素的影响。
本文在探讨这些错误根源时，力图揭示这些根源是如何引起错误产生的。
紧接着阐释了错误分析的过程及错误分析对于外语教学的重大作用。
希望借此文能让大家对错误分析有更加全面的认识，期望能对大家的二语习得有所帮助。
Abstract：It is inevitable that errors occur in language learning,so the study of errors is good for second language acquisition and as one of the major method to study second language , error analysis play a very important role in language study . This article discusses the reasons of errors and reveal how they affect according to the theories of error analysis , including interlingual-transfer , intralingual-transfer,the improper use of communication strategies and the influence of environment . Then it explains the processes of error analysis and evaluate the significance of it . By writing this paper , I want to give a clear explanation of error analysis and hope it helpful in second language learning .关键词：错误，错误分析，二语习得，错误根源，外语教学一、引言错误分析是二语习得中的一个重要课题，也是近年来研究的一个热点问题。
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On Krashen’s Second Language Acquisition TheoriesAbstract : Krashen’s Second Language Acquisition Theories consist of five main hypothesizes : the acquisition-learning hypothesis ,the natural order hypothesis ,the monitor hypothesis ,the input hypothesis ,and the affective fliter hypothesis .These hypothesizes have certain directive significance to teaching practice ,but also has some limitations : ignore the output acquisition process ,lack of operability in actual teaching in some degree.Key words : acquisition-learning hypothesis , natural order hypothesis , monitor hypothesis ,input hypothesis ,and affective fliter hypothesisⅠ.IntroductionAs a part of Second Language Acquisition ,Krashen’s Second Language Acquisition Theories is very significant in Second Language Acquisition According to his theories second acquisition has two quite different systems : acquisition and learning systems .Acquisition is the subconscious development of language rules ,just like in first language development .It focuses on meaning ,instead of on language form . Learning involves formal knowledge (and teaching ) of a language ,including error correction .It is a conscious development of languagerules .Krashen argues that error correction and learning does not lead to acquisition of fluency ,and that acquisition is more important than learning .Next we will have detailed analysis of his hypothesizes .Ⅱ.General Understanding of Krashen’ Second Language Acquisition TheoriesAcquisition-Learning HypothesisThis hypothesis is what Krashen considers to be perhaps the most fundamental of all hypothesizes .And it has been highly influential, and still remains the source of much debate today. The starting point ,also the core of this hypothesis is the distinction between acquisition and learning, and the different roles they play in second language acquisition. When learners acquire a second language they will internalize the language rulesubconsciously .They will not pay much attention to the language forms ,but to the meaning they want to express and understand. Learning (usually refers to the formal classroom context ) is the process of conscious study of language uncover knowledge ,such as language rules. It is systematical and formal. According to Krashen, only acquired knowledge is readily available for natural fluent communication, and learned knowledge can only play as a monitor using language.Monitor HypothesisThis hypothesis has a close relationship with acquisition –learning hypothesis. It states that ,only language acquisition system ,also the potential language knowledge ,is the real knowledge competence, and that conscious learning has extremely limited function in adult L2 performance. Acquisition” innates “ the speaker’s utterances and is responsible for fluency .While learning has only one function –as a monitor or editor, making minor changes and polishing what the acquired system hasproduced .This monitor comes before ,while ,and after the language output (speaking and writing).There are three kinds of monitor users ,monitor over-users ,monitor under users ,and monitor optimal users. Learners should properly use this monitor according to their personal situations. While have a conversation with others, we should focus on meaning not language forms. And the conversation will not be fluent if we overuse the monitor. However, while writing it is necessary for us to use the monitor to avoid expressing faults. There are three conditions for us to use monitor：Time (best applied when there is enough time)Focus on form (not on communication)Know the rules.Natural Order HypothesisStudents acquire (not learn) grammatical structures in a predictable order, that is certain grammatical structures tend to be learned early and others later. It appears that the order of acquisition for first language acquisition is not identical for second language acquisition, but there are some similarities. The naturalorder hypothesis reflects Noma Chomsky’s revolutionary notion that we all have a built-in Language Acquisition Device (LAD).Because of the LAD we tend to learn different language structure at different levels/stages as young learners ( also the same for older learners).Equipped with this innatedevice ,language learning follows a its natural route .For example, when children and adults learn English as a second language, they will acquire the present continue tense earlier than past tense, and 名词复数 earlier than 名词所有格Input HypothesisAccording to Krashen , the input hypothesis attempts to answer what is perhaps the most important question in Second Language Acquisition filed ,that is ,how we acquire language .Thus this notion has become the central part of Krashen’s theories. The input hypothesis states that one can acquire language in only one way – by exposure to comprehensible input. If the input contains forms and structures just beyond the learners’ current level of competence in the language (what Krashen calls i+1).Then both comprehension and acquisition will occur. Input which is either too simple (i + i) or too complex (i + 2/3/4) will not be useful for acquisition.” i” represents learners’ current language level .1 represents the input that is slightly higher than learners’ current level. Krashen also provide the requirements of the idealinput :first,the input should be comprehensible. Second, it should be sufficient .third, it should be interesting and relevant to learners.Affective FilterKrashen believes that comprehensible alone is not sufficient for language acquisition. Learners also need to” let that input in “ .The affective filter determines how receptive to comprehensive input a learner is going to be. Learners with high motivation ,high self-confidence ,a good self- image ,and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in Second Language .Low motivation, ,low self- esteem ,and debilitating anxiety can combine to raise “affective filter” and form a “mental block” that prevents comprehensive input from entering the individual’s language acquisition device. The hypothesis is based on the theory of an “affective filter “ which states that successful secondlanguage acquisition depends on the learners’ feeling. Negative attitudes are said to act as a filter ,preventing the learners from making use of input, and thus hindering success in language learning. So to help students let that input in ,teachers should try to creat positive atmosphere in language teaching, try to activate learners’ positive feeling ,like interest ,good motivation, and attitude and desire to learn by encouragement, humanitycare ,vivid design of teaching ,extra-curricular activities.Ⅲ.ConclusionKrashen’s theories are very significant in that ,first , it makes a clear distinction between acquisition and learning ,second , it emphases the importance of the comprehensibility of the input , and that it should be slightly higher than learners’ present level, third , it attaches importance to learners’ feeling factors, like motivation, interest , anxiety and ect , and their influence on learners’ acquisition of a second language.。