2020年12月13日托福阅读答案解析
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文TPO13--3 Methods of Studying Infant
托福考试 复习托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:Methods of Studying Infant Perception托福阅读原文In thestudy of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used todetermine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalizeor fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation areused as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, andso forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to theintroduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following thestimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher withan indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. Forexample, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visualfield of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur.The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving patternis perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant'sgeneral level of motor activity —turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, andso forth — have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant'sperceptual abilities.Suchtechniques, however, have limitations. First, the observation may be unreliablein that two or more observers may not agree that the particular responseoccurred, or to what degree it occurred. Second, responses are difficult toquantify. Often the rapid and diffuse movements of the infant make it difficultto get an accurate record of the number of responses. The third, and mostpotent, limitation is that it is not possible to be certain that the infant'sresponse was due to the stimulus presented or to a change from no stimulus to astimulus. The infant may be responding to aspects of the stimulus differentthan those identified by the investigator. Therefore, when observationalassessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities,care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or twostudies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of theinfant.Observationalassessment techniques have become much more sophisticated, reducing thelimitations just presented. Film analysis of the infant's responses, heart andrespiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive sucking devices are used as effectivetools in understanding infant perception. Film analysis permits researchers tocarefully study the infant's responses over and over and in slow motion.Precise measurements can be made of the length and frequency of the infant'sattention between two stimuli. Heart and respiration monitors provide theinvestigator withthe number of heartbeats or breaths taken when a new stimulusis presented. Numerical increases are used as quantifiable indicators ofheightened interest in the new stimulus. Increases in nonnutritive sucking werefirst used as an assessment measure by researchers in 1969. They devised anapparatus that connected a baby's pacifier to a counting device. As stimuliwere presented, changes in the infant's sucking behavior were recorded. Increasesin the number of sucks were used as an indicator of the infant's attention toor preference for a given visual display.Twoadditional techniques of studying infant perception have come into vogue. Thefirst is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in which a single stimulusis presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a measurable decline(habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being observed. At that point anew stimulus is presented, and any recovery (dishabituation) in responsivenessis recorded. If the infant fails to dishabituate and continues to showhabituation with the new stimulus, it is assumed that the baby is unable toperceive the new stimulus as different. The habituation-dishabituation paradigmhas been used most extensively with studies of auditory and olfactoryperception in infants. The second technique relies on evoked potentials, whichare electrical brain responses that maybe related to a particular stimulus because ofwhere they originate. Changes inthe electrical pattern of the brain indicate that the stimulus is gettingthrough to the infant's central nervous system and eliciting some form ofresponse.Each ofthe preceding techniques provides the researcher with evidence that the infantcan detect or discriminate between stimuli. With these sophisticatedobservational assessment and electro-physiological measures, we know that theneonate of only a few days is far more perceptive than previously suspected.However, these measures are only "indirect" indicators of theinfant's perceptual abilities.托福阅读试题1.Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to observe theA.range of motor activity in neonatesB.frequency and duration of various stimuliC.change in an infant's state following the introduction of a stimulusD.range of an infant's visual field2.The word uniformly in the passage (Paragraph 1)is closest in meaning toA.clearlyC.consistentlyD.occasionally3.Why does the author mention repetitive following movements of the eye(Paragraph 1)?A.To identify a response that indicates a neonate's perception of a stimulusB.To explain why a neonate is capable of responding to stimuli only through repetitive movementsC.To argue that motor activity in a neonate may be random and unrelated to stimuliD.To emphasize that responses to stimuli vary in infants according to age4.Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a problem in using the technique of direct observation?A.It is impossible to be certain of the actual cause of an infant's response.B.Infants' responses, which occur quickly and diffusely, are often difficult to measure.C.Infants do not respond well to stimuli presented in an unnatural laboratory setting.D.It may be difficult for observers to agree on the presence or the degree of a response.5.The word potent in the passage(paragraph 2)is closest in meaning toB.powerfulmonD.similar6.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage(paragraph 2)? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Researchers using observational assessment techniques on infants must not overgeneralize and must base their conclusions on data from many studies.B.On the basis of the data from one or two studies, it seems that some infants develop a particular perceptual ability not observed in others.C.To use data from one or two studies on infant's perceptual abilities, it is necessary to use techniques that will provide conclusive evidence.D.When researchers fail to make generalizations from their studies, their observed data is often inconclusive.7.What is the author's primary purpose in paragraph 3?A.To explain why researchers must conduct more than one type of study when they are attempting to understand infant perceptionB.To describe new techniques for observing infant perception that overcome problems identified in the previous paragraphC.To present and evaluate the conclusions of various studies on infant perceptionD.To point out the strengths and weaknesses of three new methods for quantifying an infant's reaction to stimuli8.The word quantifiable in the passage(Paragraph 3)is closest in meaning toA.visualB.permanentC.meaningfulD.measurable9.Paragraph 3 mentions all of the following as indications of an infant's heightened interest in a new stimulus EXCEPT an increase inA.sucking behaviorB. heart rateC.the number of breaths takenD.eye movements10.According to paragraph 4, which of the following leads to the conclusion that infants are able to differentiate between stimuli in a habituation-dishabituation study?A.Dishabituation occurs with the introduction of a new stimulus.B.Electrical responses in the infant's brain decline with each new stimulus.C.Habituation is continued with the introduction of a new stimulus.D.The infant displays little change in electrical brain responses.11.In paragraph 4, what does the author suggest about the way an infant's brain perceives stimuli?A.An infant's potential to respond to a stimulus may be related to the size of its brain.B.Changes in the electrical patterns of an infant's brain are difficult to detect.C.Different areas of an infant's brain respond to different types of stimuli.D.An infant is unable to perceive more than one stimulus at a time.12.Paragraph 5 indicates that researchers who used the techniques described in the passage discovered thatA.infants find it difficult to perceive some types of stimuliB.neonates of only a few days cannot yet discriminate between stimuliC.observational assessment is less useful for studying infant perception than researchers previously believedD.a neonate is able to perceive stimuli better than researchers once thought13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? The repetition allows researchers to observe the infant's behavior until they reach agreement about the presence and the degree of the infant's response.Observational assessment techniques have become much more sophisticated, reducing the limitations just presented. Film analysis of the infant's responses, heart and respiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive sucking devices are used as effective tools in understanding infant perception. ■【A】Film analysis permits researchers to carefully study the infant's responses over and over and in slow motion. ■【B】Precise measurements can be made of the length and frequency of the infant's attention between two stimuli. ■【C】Heart and respiration monitors provide the investigator with the number of heartbeats or breaths taken when a new stimulus is presented. ■【D】Numerical increases are used as quantifiable indicators of heightened interest in the new stimulus. Increases in nonnutritive sucking were first used as an assessment measure by researchers in 1969. They devised an apparatus that connected a baby's pacifier to a counting device. As stimuli were presented, changes in the infant's sucking behavior were recorded. Increases in the number of sucks were used as an indicator of the infant's attention to or preference for a given visual display.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth 2 points.Researchers use a number of techniques to determine how infants respond to changes in their environmentA.Data from observational methods must be confirmed through multiple studies.B.New techniques for studying infant perception have improved the accuracy with which researchers observe and quantify infant responsesC.Indirect observation is most accurate when researchers use it to test auditory and olfactory perception in neonates.D.Visual indicators such as turning the head, blinking the eyes, or crying remain the best evidence of an infant’s perceptual abilities.E.Pacifiers are commonly used in studies to calm an infant who has been presented with excessive stimuli.F.Sophisticated techniques that have aided new discoveries about perception in the neonate continue to be indirect measures.托福阅读答案1.以indirect methods做关键词定位至第二句，说用间接方法来观察婴儿能看到什么听到什么，接下来又说与stimulus引入之前的状态进行对比，所以答案是C，不管是hear还是see都是婴儿的state，而且只有引入之后的state才能与之前的state对比得出变化2.uniformly统一地，一致地，持续地，所以答案C的consistently正确。
托福阅读真题第108篇Earthquake_Prediction（答案文章最后）
托福阅读真题第108篇Earthquake_Prediction（答案文章最后）Accurate prediction of earthquakes is not currently possible, although intensive research is proceeding in many areas.Two types of earthquake prediction are theoretically possible. The first type is long-term forecasting, in which the probability of an earthquake along a particular segment of a within a certain time interval is calculated by studying seismic gaps and historical records of earthquakes that have occurred along that fault segment. By plotting the number of earthquakes within specific time intervals against their magnitudes, diagrams can be constructed for a local area. From this plot it is possible to determine the recurrence interval, or the average time interval between earthquakes of a specific magnitude. Predictions can then be made that an earthquake of that magnitude has a high probability of occurrence within a specified time interval if the date of the last earthquake is known.Research leading to short-term forecasting, which involves a shorter time interval, has been focused on precursors observed prior to previous earthquakes. Precursors are physical or chemical phenomena that occur in a typical pattern before an earthquake. These phenomena include changes in the velocity of seismic waves, the electrical resistance of rocks, the frequency of the usually minor preliminary earthquakes (foreshocks), the deformation of the land surface, and the water level or water chemistry of wells in the area. Many of these precursors can be explained by a theory called the dilatancy model. Under this hypothesis, rocks in the process of strain along a fault show significant dilation or swelling before rupture. This volumeincrease is caused by the opening of microcracks, which are minute failure zones in weaker mineral grains in the rock and along grain boundaries. Groundwater flows into the highly stressed areas during the formation of microcracks. These changes in density and water content affect the ability of the rock to transmit seismic waves and conduct electricity. Therefore, seismic-wave velocity and electrical resistance progressively change as the overall rupture along the fault draws near. Localized changes in land-surface elevation are also related to volume changes at depth. An area of recent uplift along the San Andreas Fault near Los Angeles, which has been named the Palmdale Bulge, is being monitored in great detail as a possible indicator of a future earthquake.Volume changes and groundwater movement may be reflected by changes in water levels in wells and also by changes in the chemical composition of groundwater. Radon gas has been observed to increase in wells prior to earthquakes. These increases are perhaps related to the release of radon gas from rocks during the formation of microcracks. The pattern of seismic activity is also significant in the vicinity of a fault area where rupture is imminent. This pattern consists of an initial rise in the number of small events, followed by a decline in foreshocks just prior to the major earthquake. The decline may represent a temporary increase in rock strength before the newly formed microcracks are filled with water.The precursor phenomena can be grouped into stages according to the dilatancy model. Stage I consists of a gradual stress buildup along the fault. Stages II and III are correlated with dilatancy and water influx. Stage IV is the major earthquake, and stage V is the aftermath of the event. If every earthquakefollowed the sequence with uniform stage duration, earthquake prediction would be a simple matter. Instead of following the same patterns, each earthquake is unique in terms of specific precursor behavior patterns and length of precursor stages. A magnitude 6.9 North American earthquake in 1989 was preceded by a substantially smaller magnitude 5 earthquake fifteen months before the event. Another foreshock of similar size occurred two months before the event. In each case, a public advisory was issued stating that those smaller earthquakes could be foreshocks to a stronger earthquake within five days. However, the fault did not cooperate, and those predictions were not successful. Continued research and study of future earthquakes will certainly lead to refinement of the dilatancy model or to a replacement model with more accurate predictive capabilities.【Paragraph 2】Two types of earthquake prediction are theoretically possible. The first type is long-term forecasting, in which the probability of an earthquake along a particular segment of a within a certain time interval is calculated by studying seismic gaps and historical records of earthquakes that have occurred along that fault segment. By plotting the number of earthquakes within specific time intervals against their magnitudes, diagrams can be constructed for a local area. From this plot it is possible to determine the recurrence interval, or the average time interval between earthquakes of a specific magnitude. Predictions can then be made that an earthquake of that magnitude has a high probability of occurrence within a specified time interval if the date of the last earthquake is known.1. According to paragraph 2, all of the following information is used in the process of long-term earthquake prediction EXCEPT theA. analysis of seismic gapsB. record of past earthquakes in the fault areaC. date of the last recorded earthquake in the areaD. pattern of earthquake activity in other nearby fault segments2. According to paragraph 2, long-term forecasting can be used to predict which of the followingA. The influence of earthquake activity in one segment of the fault area on other segmentsB. The frequency with which earthquakes of a certain size will occurC. The possible date of the next earthquakeD. The magnitude of the next earthquake【Paragraph 3】Research leading to short-term forecasting, which involves a shorter time interval, has been focused on precursors observed prior to previous earthquakes. Precursors are physical or chemical phenomena that occur in a typical pattern before an earthquake. These phenomena include changes in the velocity of seismic waves, the electrical resistance of rocks, the frequency of the usually minor preliminary earthquakes (foreshocks), the deformation of the land surface, and the water level or water chemistry of wells in the area. Many of these precursors can be explained by a theory called the dilatancy model. Under this hypothesis, rocks in the process of strain along a fault show significant dilation or swelling before rupture. This volume increase is caused by the opening of microcracks, which are minute failure zones in weaker mineral grains in the rock and along grain boundaries. Groundwater flows into the highly stressed areas during the formation of microcracks. These changes in density and water content affectthe ability of the rock to transmit seismic waves and conduct electricity. Therefore, seismic-wave velocity and electrical resistance progressively change as the overall rupture along the fault draws near. Localized changes in land-surface elevation are also related to volume changes at depth. An area of recent uplift along the San Andreas Fault near Los Angeles, which has been named the Palmdale Bulge, is being monitored in great detail asa possible indicator of a future earthquake.3. Paragraph 3 mentions all of the following as examples of precursors EXCEPTA. changes in the speed of seismic wavesB. changes in the availability of electricityC. changes in the frequency of foreshocksD. changes in land surfaces4. According to the dilatancy model, what happens to rocks shortly before an earthquake?A. They lose significant amounts of moisture.B. They show signs of expanding.C. They move downward at great speed.D. They increase in temperature.5. According to paragraph 3, the groundwater that flows into microcracks before an earthquake causesA. changes in seismic waves and electrical activityB. increases in the mineral content of rocksC. the disappearance of grain boundaries in rocksD. a release in the tension of highly stressed areas of rocks6. The author discusses the San Andreas Fault near Los Angeles in order toA. contrast past and future patterns of earthquake activity in the areaB. give an example of an area where underground earthquake activity is apparent from land changes above the groundC. explain why recent earthquake predictions have increased accuracyD. suggest that some areas of earthquake activity are easier to monitor than others【Paragraph 4】Volume changes and groundwater movement may be reflected by changes in water levels in wells and also by changes in the chemical composition of groundwater. Radon gas has been observed to increase in wells prior to earthquakes. These increases are perhaps related to the release of radon gas from rocks during the formation of microcracks. The pattern of seismic activity is also significant in the vicinity of a fault area where rupture is imminent. This pattern consists of an initial rise in the number of small events, followed by a decline in foreshocks just prior to the major earthquake. The decline may represent a temporary increase in rock strength before the newly formed microcracks are filled with water.7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following occurs just before an earthquakeA. The chemical content of groundwater drops.B. The rocks weaken as they fill with water.C. Seismic activity decreases.D. Radon gas causes microcracks to form.【Paragraph 5】The precursor phenomena can be grouped into stages according to the dilatancy model. Stage I consists of a gradual stress buildup along the fault. ■Stages II and III are correlated with dilatancy and water influx. Stage IV is the major earthquake, and stage V is the aftermath of the event. ■If everyearthquake followed the sequence with uniform stage duration, earthquake prediction would be a simple matter. ■Instead of following the same patterns, each earthquake is unique in terms of specific precursor behavior patterns and length of precursor stages. ■A magnitude 6.9 North American earthquake in 1989 was preceded by a substantially smaller magnitude 5 earthquake fifteen months before the event. Another foreshock of similar size occurred two months before the event. In each case, a public advisory was issued stating that those smaller earthquakes could be foreshocks to a stronger earthquake within five days. However, the fault did not cooperate, and those predictions were not successful. Continued research and study of future earthquakes will certainly lead to refinement of the dilatancy model or to a replacement model with more accurate predictive capabilities.8. How is paragraph 5 organized?A. The sequence of earthquake stages is given, and the effect of variable stage length on earthquake prediction is explained.B. The earthquake stages are named, and the most important stage is illustrated with a specific earthquake event.C. The sequence of earthquake stages is given, and evidence is presented that the intervals between stages are roughly equal in length.D. The earthquake stages are first named, and each is then described in greater detail.9. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. But the reality of earthquake forecasting is considerably more complex.Where would the sentence best fit?10.【Directions】Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas inthe passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Two types of earthquake prediction are theoretically possible: long-term forecasting and short-term forecasting.●●●Answer ChoicesA. Short-term forecasting has been used more widely than long-term forecasting in the prediction of earthquakes.B. Long-term forecasting of earthquakes uses data on past seismic activity to determine the likelihood that an earthquake will occur in a certain area within a certain time period.C. Short-term forecasting research has studied earthquake precursors such as volume increases in rocks and unusual movements in underground water that occur shortly before an earthquake takes place.D. The dilatancy model has been used to successfully forecast some recent earthquakes.E. Attempts to improve forecasting by using five stages of earthquake predictors have been unsuccessful because each earthquake has unique precursor patterns and durations.F. The magnitude 6.9 North American earthquake in 1989 was not successfully predicted because the many foreshocks before the event were too small to measure.。
老托福阅读试题及答案：PASSAGE12
老托福阅读试题及答案：PASSAGE12为了帮助大家备考托福阅读，提高成绩，下面小编给大家带来老托福阅读真题及答案:passage 12，希望大家喜欢!老托福阅读试题及答案：PASSAGE 12Among the species of seabirds that use the windswept cliffs of the Atlantic coast of Canada in the summer to mate, lay eggs, and rear their young are common murres, Atlantic puffins, black-legged kittiwakes, and northern gannets. Of all the birds on these cliffs, the black-legged kittiwake gull is the best suited for nesting on narrow ledges. Although its nesting habits are similar to those of gulls that nest on flat ground, there are a number of important differences related to the cliff-nesting habit.The advantage of nesting on cliffs is the immunity it gives from foxes, which cannot scale the sheer rocks, and from ravens and other species of gulls, which have difficulty in landing on narrow ledges to steal eggs. This immunity has been followed by a relaxation of the defenses, and kittiwakes do not react to predators nearly as fiercely as do ground-nesting gulls. A colony of Bonaparte's gulls responds to the appearance of a predatory herring gull by flying up as a group with a clamor of alarm calls, followed by concerted mobbing, but kittiwakes simply ignore herring gulls, since they pose little threat to nests on cliffs. Neither do kittiwakes attempt to conceal their nest. Most gulls keep the nest area clear of droppings, and remove empty eggshells after the chicks have hatched, so that the location of the nest is not given away. Kittiwakes defecate over the edge of the nest, which keeps it clean, but this practice, as well as their tendency to leave the nest littered with eggshells, makes its location very conspicuous.On the other hand, nesting on a narrow ledge has its own peculiar problems, and kittiwake behavior has become adapted to overcome them. The female kittiwake sits when mating, whereas other gulls stand, so the pair will not overbalance and fall off the ledge. The nest is a deep cup, made of mud or seaweed, to hold the eggs safely, compared with the shallow scrape of other gulls, and the chicks are remarkably immobile until fully grown. They do not run from their nests when approached, and if they should come near to the cliff edge, they instinctively turn back.1. What aspect of the kittiwake gull does the passage mainly discuss?(A) Its defensive behavior(B) It interactions with other gull species(C) Its nesting habits(D) Its physical difference from other gull species2. The word "rear" in line 2 is closest in meaning to(A) visit(B) watch(C) reverse(D) raise3. The word "scale" in line 8 is closest in meaning to(A) climb(B) avoid(C) approach(D) measure4. The word "immunity" in line 9 is closest in meaning to(A) distance(B) transition(C) protection(D) reminder5. Why is it difficult for ravens to steal the kittiwakes' eggs?(A) The kittiwakes can see the ravens approaching the nest.(B) The ravens cannot land on the narrow ledges where kittiwakes nest.(C) The kittiwakes' eggs are too big for the ravens to carry.(D) The female kittiwakes rarely leave the nest.6. The author mentions that eggshells litter around the nests of kittiwakes in order to(A) demonstrate that kittiwakes are not concerned about predators(B) prove how busy kittiwakes are in caring for their offspring(C) show a similarity to other types of gulls(D) illustrate kittiwakes' lack of concern for their chicks7. According to the passage , it can be inferred that which of the following birds conceal their nest?(A) Bonaparte's gulls(B) Atlantic puffins(C) Kittiwake gulls(D) Northern gannets8. The word "it" in line 17 refers to(A) location(B) edge(C) nest(D) practice9. The word "conspicuous" in line 18 is closest in meaning to(A) disordered(B) suspicious(C) noticeable(D) appealing10. The phrase "On the other hand" in line 19 is closest in meaning to(A) therefore(B) however(C) for example(D) by no means正确答案： CDACB AACCB如何提高托福阅读理解能力?一、学会概括主旨大意任何一篇文章都有一个主题思想。
托福阅读笔记之TPO13 婴儿的感知能力
托福阅读笔记之TPO13 婴儿的感知能力说到托福阅读备考，TPO是必不可少的备考神器，通过TPO练习来更好的适应阅读考试的节奏。
本文小编带来的托福阅读笔记是TPO13 Methods of Studying Infant Perception的内容，希望能够与正在备考的大家一起进步。
TPO13 Methods of Studying Infant Perception文章题材：生命学科——婴儿的感知能力常见词汇：quantifiableadj. 可以计量的indication[.indi'keiʃən]n. 表示，指示，象征overcome[.əuvə'kʌm]vt. 战胜，克服，(感情等)压倒，使受不了display[di'splei]n. 显示，陈列，炫耀vt. 显示，表现describe[dis'kraib]vt. 描述，画(尤指几何图形)，说成multiple['mʌltipl]adj. 许多，多种多样的n. 倍数，并联respond[ris'pɔnd]v. 回答，答复，反应，反响，响应preference['prefərəns]n. 偏爱，优先，喜爱物measurable['meʒərəbəl]adj. 可测量的technique[tek'ni:k]n. 技术，技巧，技能易错题解析：Paragraph 1: In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between thetwo measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity —turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth —have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities.1. Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to observe the○range of motor activity in neonates○frequency and duration of various stimuli○change in an infant's state following the introduction of a stimulus○range of an infant's visual field题型：推论题。
2020年12月12日托福阅读真题
2020年12月12日托福阅读真题12月12日托福阅读第一篇主要内容：讲learning standard test set，就是如何测试不同种类动物的intelligence。
不同物种的智商不一样。
人们很想知道动物的智商和人类有什么不同，遇事通过动物学习水平来检测。
前三段都是讲的这个test是怎么操作的。
最先举的例子好像是猴子和什么，做的对比实验。
第一次让它从三角形和长方形里选，选三角形就给奖励，选正方形就不给;第二次从圆形和多边形里选，依旧是选圆形给奖励，选择多边形不给。
后面持续变化通过大量实验来看这种动物的improvements，就比如这种动物在实行第几十次测试时准确率增加了多少。
一种猴子经过了三十次测试准确率就达到百分之九十了，然后这个测试的结果表明智商高的动物大脑也大。
于是大家都觉得能够参考。
后面三段都在反驳这个方法不可取。
又举了一个澳大利亚的mouse like的动物的例子，同样做类似上面的实验，第一次区分ab第二次区分黑白。
这种动物大脑很小但是测试结果很高，是因为他们生活在wide open areas，很容易被捕食者发现，他们要避免天地还要抓很敏捷的昆虫做实物，所以这方面水平很强。
然后这里有个句子简化题，大意是说动物的process different，不能说明学习水平，也不能用之前的实验来测试。
然后还说了海豚虽然做这个实验成绩很低，但是如果把visual的图形换成auditory的声音就会很好，所欲这个实验不可取是因为首先实验produce中很小的difference都会造成result的很大不同，而且这些difference都是不可避免的。
其次，对某些动物不适用。
12月12日托福阅读第二篇主要内容：中世纪欧洲政府的变革。
宗教变得影响力越来越小，政府的管辖范围越来越大。
法国葡萄牙等一些国家创造了nation这个定义。
国家边界变得更清晰了。
荷兰和英国建立了parliament，具有立法权。
托福TPO13阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析
托福TPO13阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO13阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析，希望对大家备考有所帮助。
▉托福TPO13阅读Passage1原文文本：Types of Social GroupsLife places us in a complex web of relationships with other people. Our humanness arises out of these relationships in the course of social interaction. Moreover, our humanness must be sustained through social interaction—and fairly constantly so. When an association continues long enough for two people to become linked together by a relatively stable set of expectations, it is called a relationship.People are bound within relationships by two types of bonds: expressive ties and instrumental ties. Expressive ties are social links formed when we emotionally invest ourselves in and commit ourselves to other people. Through association with people who are meaningful to us, we achieve a sense of security, love, acceptance, companionship, and personal worth. Instrumental ties are social links formed when we cooperate with other people to achieve some goal. Occasionally, this may mean working with instead of against competitors. More often, we simply cooperate with others to reach some end without endowing the relationship with any larger significance.Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their ownright. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships. This happens in many work settings. People on the job often develop close relationships with coworkers as they come to share gripes, jokes, gossip, and satisfactions.A number of conditions enhance the likelihood that primary groups will arise. First, group size is important. We find it difficult to get to know people personally when they are milling about and dispersed in large groups. In small groups we have a better chance to initiate contact and establish rapport with them. Second, face-to-face contact allows us to size up others. Seeing and talking with one another in close physical proximity makes possible a subtle exchange of ideas and feelings. And third, the probability that we will develop primary group bonds increases as we have frequent and continuous contact. Our ties with people often deepen as we interact with them across time and gradually evolve interlocking habits and interests.Primary groups are fundamental to us and to society. First, primary groups are critical to the socialization process. Within them, infants and children are introduced to the ways of their society. Such groups are the breeding grounds in which we acquire the norms and values that equip us for social life. Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity.Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is.Third, primary groups are fundamental because they serve as powerful instruments for social control. Their members command and dispense many of the rewards that are so vital to us and that make our lives seem worthwhile. Should the use of rewards fail, members can frequently win by rejecting or threatening to ostracize those who deviate from the primary group's norms. For instance, some social groups employ shunning (a person can remain in the community, but others are forbidden to interact with the person) as a device to bring into line individuals whose behavior goes beyond that allowed by the particular group. Even more important, primary groups define social reality for us by structuring our experiences. By providing us with definitions of situations, they elicit from our behavior that conforms to group-devised meanings. Primary groups, then, serve both as carriers of social norms and as enforcers of them.Paragraph 1: Life places us in a complex web of relationships with other people. Our humanness arises out of these relationships in the course of social interaction. Moreover, our humanness must be sustained through social interaction—and fairly constantly so. When an association continues long enough for two people to become linked together by a relatively stable set of expectations, it is called a relationship.▉托福TPO13阅读Passage1题目：1. The word “complex” in the passage is closest in meaning to○ delicate○ elaborate○ private。
2020年托福阅读模拟试题及答案(卷四)
2020年托福阅读模拟试题及答案（卷四）托福阅读文本：Scientists have discovered that for the last 160,000 years, at least, there has been a consistentrelationship between the amount of carbon dioxide in the air and the average temperature of theplanet. The importance of carbon dioxide in regulating the Earth's temperature was confirmed byscientists working in eastern Antarctica. Drilling down into a glacier, they extracted a mile-longcylinder of ice from the hole. The glacier had formed as layer upon layer of snow accumulatedyear after year. Thus drilling into the ice was tantamount to drilling back through time.The deepest sections of the core are composed of water that fell as snow 160,000 years ago.Scientists in Grenoble, France, fractured portions of the core and measured the composition ofancient air released from bubbles in the ice. Instruments were used to measure the ratio of certainisotopes in the frozen water to get an idea of the prevailing atmospheric temperature at the timewhen that particular bit of water became locked in the glacier.The result is a remarkable unbroken record of temperature and of atmospheric levels of carbondioxide. Almost every time the chill of an ice age descended on the planet, carbon dioxide levelsdropped. When the global temperature dropped 9°F (5 °C), carbon dioxide levels dropped to 190parts per million or so. Generally, as each ice age ended and the Earth basked in a warminterglacial period, carbon dioxide levels were around 280 parts per million. Through the 160,000years of that ice record, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere fluctuated between 190 and280 parts per million, but never rose much higher-until the Industrial Revolution beginning in theeighteenth century and continuing today.There is indirect evidence that the link between carbon dioxide levels and global temperaturechange goes back much further than the glacial record. Carbon dioxide levels may have beenmuch greater than the current concentration during the Carboniferous period, 360 to 285 millionyears ago. The period was named for a profusion of plant life whose buried remains produced alarge fraction of the coal deposits that are being brought to the surface and burned today.托福阅读题目：1. Which of the following does the passage mainly discuss?(A) Chemical causes of ice ages(B) Techniques for studying ancient layers of ice in glaciers(C) Evidence of a relationship between levels of carbon dioxide and global temperature(D) Effects of plant life on carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere2. The word "accumulated" in line 6 is closest in meaning to.(A) spread out(B) changed(C) became denser(D) built up3. According to the passage , the drilling of the glacier in eastern Antarctica was important becauseit(A) allowed scientists to experiment with new drilling techniques(B) permitted the study of surface temperatures in an ice-covered region of Earth(C) provided insight about climate conditions in earlier periods(D) confirmed earlier findings about how glaciers are formed4. The phrase "tantamount to" in line 7 is closest in meaning to(A) complementary to(B) practically the same as(C) especially well suited to(D) unlikely to be confused with5.According to the passage , Grenoble, France, is the place where(A) instruments were developed for measuring certain chemical elements(B) scientists first recorded atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide(C) scientists studied the contents of an ice core fromAntarctica(D) the relationship between carbon dioxide and temperature was discovered6. According to the passage , scientists used isotopes from the water of the ice core to determinewhich of following?(A) The amount of air that had bubbled to the surface since the ice had formed(B) The temperature of the atmosphere when the ice was formed(C) The date at which water had become locked in the glacier(D) The rate at which water had been frozen in the glacier7. The word "remarkable" in line 14 is closest in meaning to(A) genuine(B) permanent(C) extraordinary(D) continuous8. The word "link" in line 23 is closest in meaning to(A) tension(B) connection(C) attraction(D) distance9. The passage implies that the warmest temperatures among the periods mentioned occurred(A) in the early eighteenth century(B) 160,000 years ago(C) at the end of each ice age(D) between 360 and 285 million years ago10.According to the passage , the Carboniferous period was characterized by(A) a reduction in the number of coal deposits(B) the burning of a large amount of coal(C) an abundance of plants(D) an accelerated rate of glacier formation11. The passage explains the origin of which of the following terms?(A) glacier (line 5)(B) isotopes (line 11)(C) Industrial Revolution (line 21)(D) Carboniferous period (lines 26)托福阅读答案：CDCBC BCBAC D托福阅读文本：Of all modern instruments, the violin is apparently one of the simplest. It consists in essence ofa hollow, varnished wooden sound box, or resonator, and a long neck, covered with a fingerboard,along which four strings are stretched at high tension. The beauty of design, shape, and decorationis no accident: the proportions of the instrument are determined almost entirely by acousticalconsiderations. Its simplicity of appearance is deceptive. About 70 parts are involved in theconstruction of a violin. Its tone and its outstanding range of expressiveness make it an ideal soloinstrument. No less important, however, is its role as an orchestral and chamber instrument. Incombination with the larger and deeper-sounding members of the same family, the violins formthe nucleus of the modern symphony orchestra.The violin has been in existence since about 1550. Its importance as an instrument in its ownright dates from the early 1600's, when it first became standard in Italian opera orchestras. Itsstature as an orchestral instrument was raised further when in 1626 Louis XIII of Franceestablished at his court the orchestra known as Les vingt-quatre violins du Roy (The King's 24Violins), which was to become widely famous later in the century.In its early history, the violin had a dull and rather quiet tone resulting from the fact that thestrings were thick and were attached to the body of the instrument very loosely. During theeighteenth and nineteenth century, exciting technical changes were inspired by suchcomposer-violinists as Vivaldi and Tartini. Their instrumental compositions demanded a fuller,clearer, and more brilliant tone that was produced by using thinner strings and a far higher stringtension. Small changes had to be made to the violin's internal structure and to the fingerboard sothat they could withstand the extra strain. Accordingly, a higher standard of performance wasachieved, in terms of both facility and interpretation. Left-hand technique was considerablyelaborated, and new fingering patterns on the fingerboard were developed for very high notes.托福阅读题目：1. The word "standard" in line 12 is closest in meaning to(A) practical(B) customary(C) possible(D) unusual2. "The King's 24 Violins" is mentioned in line 15 to illustrate(A) how the violin became a renowned instrument(B) the competition in the 1600's between French and Italian orchestras(C) the superiority of French violins(D) why the violin was considered the only instrument suitable to be played by royalty3. What is the main idea presented in paragraph 3?(A) The violin has been modified to fit its evolving musical functions.(B) The violin is probably the best known and most widely distributed musical instrument in theworld.(C) The violin had reached the height of its popularity by the middle of the eighteenth century.(D) The technique of playing the violin has remained essentially the same since the 1600's.4. The author mentions Vivaldi and Tartini in line 19 as examples of composers whose music(A) inspired more people to play the violin(B) had to be adapted to the violin(C) demanded more sophisticated violins(D) could be played only by their students5. The word "they" in line 22 refers to(A) Civaldi and Tartini(B) thinner strings and a higher string tension(C) small changes(D) internal structure and fingerboard6. The word "strain" in line 22 is closest in meaning to(A) struggle(B) strength(C) strategy(D) stress7. The word "Accordingly" in line 23 is closest in meaning to(A) However(B) Consequently(C) Nevertheless(D) Ultimately8.According to the passage , early violins were different from modern violins in that early violins(A) were heavier(B) broke down more easily(C) produced softer tones(D) were easier to play9. According to the passage , which of the following contributes to a dull sound being produced bya violin?(A)A long fingerboard(B)A small body(C) High string tension(D) Thick strings10. Which of the following terms is defined in the passage ?(A) resonator (line 2)(B) solo (line 7)(C) left-hand technique (line 25)(D) fingering patterns (lines 24-25)11. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as contributing to the ability to play modernviolin music EXCEPT(A) more complicated techniques for the left hand(B) different ways to use the fingers to play very high notes(C) use of rare wood for the fingerboard and neck(D) minor alterations to the structure of the instrumentANSWER KEYS托福阅读答案：BAACD DBCAA C一、找关键词在托福阅读题目中找关键词，是解题的第一步。
2020年12月13日托福写作答案解析
2020年12月13日托福写作答案解析12月13日托福综合写作题目：Topic 议题：the special functions of the hammer-shaped head of a kind of a shark12月13日托福综合写作范文：Sample answer：The reading and listening discuss about the special functions of the hammer-shaped head of a kind of a shark. The passage mentions three functions. Whereas, the professor totally refutes the three points presented in the passage.Firstly, the professor rebuts the reading’s first point that sharks with such shaped head turn around quickly. The professor claims that this kind of shark does turn around quickly, but it is not because of the special head, but because of other factors such as skeleton. Besides young sharks were used in the previous experiment, thus the young also affected the result. Maybe the old ones with such special heads cannot turn around that quickly.Secondly, the professor contradicts reading’s second point that such head helps impr ove the shark’s sensitivity to electricity field. The professor mentions that an experiment proved that all sharks with and without this special head have similar sensitivity to artificial electric field.At last, the passage states the third view that the head can be used as a weapon to hunt prey. However, the professorexplains that Sharks’ eyes are located at both sides of the hammerhead, which is risky for them to use hammerheads as weapons. Besides, there’s no evidence to prove that sharks ever used heads as weapons.12月13日托福独立写作题目：作文题目：Some people believe older children should help parents to take care of younger siblings, while others believe this is parents' responsibility. Which do you prefer and why?12月13日托福独立写作解析：题型类别：价值判断类写作思路：本次的独立写作并不难，话题是我们日常生活中很常见的，(不由想起了前段时间的“二胎政策” two-child policy)。
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2020年12月13日托福阅读答案解析12月13日托福阅读词汇题：
Obviously=clearly
Widespread=common
Dense=thick
Thus=consequently
resultant
Shallow=small
depth
exercise
Profound=very strong
Emergence=rise
Tactic=strategy
Adjacent to=near to
Parallel=match
12月13日托福阅读第一篇
题材划分：生物类
主要内容：板块运动能够改变生物多样性，提到生物区的划分，少于百分之二十的物种相似度就是不同的区越多说明那里的多样性越高。
比如板块分开的时候，多样性增加，反之亦然。
一个山脉能够把原本的湿润风给挡了，就变成沙漠不适合生长了。
或者一个障碍的形
成能够把本来的一个物种分成两个，一南一北，等到在合并的时候，
发现北部的能够到南部生活，但南部的很少到北部生活。
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TPO31- Speciation in Geographically Isolated Populations
相关背景知识：
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. The biologist Orator F. Cook was
the first to coin the term 'speciation' for the splitting of lineages or "cladogenesis," as opposed to "anagenesis" or "phyletic evolution" occurring within lineages. Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural
selection in speciation.There is research comparing the intensity of sexual selection in different clades with their number of species.
There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating populations are isolated from one another： allopatric, peripatric, parapatric, and sympatric. Speciation may also be induced artificially, through animal husbandry, agriculture, or laboratory experiments. Whether genetic drift is a minor or major contributor to speciation is the subject matter of much ongoing discussion.
All forms of natural speciation have taken place over the course of evolution; however, debate persists as to the relative importance of each mechanism in driving biodiversity.
One example of natural speciation is the diversity of the three-spined stickleback, a marine fish that, after the last
glacial period, has undergone speciation into new freshwater colonies in isolated lakes and streams. Over an estimated 10,000 generations, the sticklebacks show structural differences that are greater than those seen between
different genera of fish including variations in fins, changes in the number or size of their bony plates, variable jaw structure, and color differences.
During allopatric speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by habitat fragmentation due to geographical change such as mountain formation). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or phenotypic divergence as： (a) they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures; (b) they independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different mutations arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging genes. Island genetics is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include insular dwarfism and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on Komodo. The Galápagos Islands are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that Galáp agos tortoises could be identified by island, and noticed that finches differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to England, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other。