15Various Linguistic Views and Their Significance in Language Teaching
英文商务信函拒绝言语行为的礼貌策略研究
广西师范大学硕士学位论文英文商务信函拒绝言语行为的礼貌策略研究姓名：徐冬梅申请学位级别：硕士专业：外国语言学及应用语言学指导教师：罗耀光20080401英文商务信函拒绝言语行为的礼貌策略研究研究生：徐冬梅年级：2005级学科专业：外国语言学及应用语言学指导老师：罗耀光研究方向：语用学中文摘要“拒绝”是人们日常言语交际中经常会实施的一种言语行为，在过去的20年里，拒绝言语行为一直是语言学家们研究的热点之一。
其研究重点集中在几个方面，如社会因素对其策略使用的影响，跨文化语境中的拒绝策略使用，以及通过拒绝行为来研究语用迁移。
并且大部分研究都局限于以在校大学生实施的日常拒绝行为为研究对象。
在商务交往过程中实施的拒绝言语行为充分体现了其不礼貌（即威胁被拒绝者的面子）及冲突本质。
在英文商务信件中表达拒绝信息时写信人要完成两个目标：一是主要目标，传递坏消息，二是次要目标，和读者保持良好的关系。
任何不当的拒绝行为实施都有可能造成（潜在）客户流失，给公司带来经济损失。
这类英文商务信件的特点决定了写信人在信件写作过程中必须注重拒绝信息的礼貌传递。
有鉴于此，本文以布朗和列文森的面子理论为指导，对英文商务信件中拒绝言语行为的礼貌策略使用进行了专门研究。
本文首先对拒绝言语行为，尤其是英文商务信件中的拒绝言语行为，以及布朗和列文森的面子理论进行了阐述。
在此基础上，作者对英文商务信件拒绝言语行为中使用的礼貌策略进行了分析。
研究发现，应用于英文商务信件拒绝言语行为实施的礼貌策略有积极礼貌策略、消极礼貌策略和直接策略，每种策略都有不同的语言表现形式，在分析的过程中作者还作了进一步的阐述和例证。
通过对这些策略进行定量分析，作者发现在实施拒绝这一言语行为的时候，使用更频繁的礼貌策略是消极礼貌策略，其次是积极礼貌策略，直接策略的使用频率最低。
这一分布与写信人的写作目标有一定的联系。
最常用的语言表达形式有：关注听话人，宣称双方共同点，使用模糊语，表明原因以及非确指。
鹦鹉的模仿：语言的天才 英语作文
The Imitation of Parrots:Geniuses of LanguageParrots are fascinating creatures known for their exceptional ability to imitate sounds and human speech,making them geniuses of language. Their unique characteristics and impressive vocal skills have earned them the title of"masters of mimicry."Here's an exploration of the imitation of parrots and their significance as talented linguists:Remarkable Vocal Imitation:Parrots possess a remarkable talent for imitating a wide range of sounds,including human speech,animal calls, and environmental noises.They can accurately mimic the tones, rhythms,and even accents of various languages.Their ability to replicate sounds with precision showcases their exceptional vocal skills.Advanced Vocal Learning:Parrots are among the few species in the animal kingdom capable of advanced vocal learning.They have the ability to listen to and imitate complex sounds,demonstrating a level of cognitive sophistication.This talent sets them apart as linguistic prodigies.Human Speech Imitation:Parrots can imitate human speech with astonishing accuracy.They can learn and repeat words,phrases,and even entire sentences.Some parrots have developed extensive vocabularies and can engage in basic conversations with their human caretakers,showcasing their ability to comprehend and reproduce language.Social Interaction:Parrots use their imitation skills as a means of social interaction.In the wild,they communicate with other parrots through various vocalizations,including mimicry of other bird species.In captivity, they engage with humans by imitating their speech patterns,forming bonds and establishing a form of communication.Cognitive Flexibility:The ability of parrots to imitate sounds highlights their cognitive flexibility.They can adapt their vocalizations to mimicdifferent sounds and contexts,demonstrating their capacity for learning and problem-solving.This cognitive flexibility contributes to their linguistic prowess.Entertainment and Companionship:Parrots'imitation abilities make them popular pets and sources of entertainment.Their talent for mimicry provides amusement and joy to their human companions. Parrots can mimic laughter,sing songs,and even imitate household noises,adding a unique element of companionship to their presence.Conservation Awareness:The imitation skills of parrots have also raised awareness about the importance of conservation efforts.Certain parrot species,such as the African Grey Parrot,are endangered due to habitat loss and illegal pet trade.The recognition of their linguistic abilities has helped garner support for their protection and conservation.In conclusion,the imitation of parrots represents their extraordinary talent for language and mimicry.Their remarkable vocal imitation, advanced vocal learning,human speech imitation,social interaction, cognitive flexibility,role in entertainment and companionship,and contribution to conservation awareness highlight their significance as geniuses of language.Parrots serve as a reminder of the incredible diversity of communication in the animal kingdom and continue to captivate the fascination of people who appreciate their linguistic abilities.。
linguistic competence and performence
Linguistic competence refers to the knowledge of a language system. The term first emerged in the work of Noam Chomsky, where it referred specifically to syntactic competence, and was specifically opposed to linguistic performance. The term was used more broadly by Dell Hymes in formulating the concept of communicative competence. Like communicative competence, language competence is often divided into various subcompetences, such as syntactic competence and lexical competence.According to Chomsky, competence is the ideal speaker /hearer, i.e. an idealized but not a real person who would have a complete knowledge of language. This means a person’s ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Performance is the actual use of the language by individuals in speech and writing.Speakers’ linguistic knowledge permits them to form longer and longer sentences by joining sentences and phases together or adding modifiers to a noun. whether you stop at three, five or eighteen adjectives, it is impossible to limit the number you could add if desired. Very long sentences are theoretically possible, but they are highly improbable.Evidently, there is a difference between having the knowledge necessary to produce sentences of a language, and applying this knowledge. It is a difference between what you know, which is your linguistic competence, and how you use this knowledge in actual speech production and comprehension, which is your linguistic performance.When we speak, we usually wish to convey some message. At some stage in the act of producing speech, we must organize our thoughts into strings of words. Sometimes the message is garbled. We may stammer, or pause, or produce slips of the tongue. We may even sound like the baby, who illustrates the difference between linguistic knowledge and the way we use that knowledge in performance.Linguistic competence is the system of linguistic knowledge possessed by native speakers of a language, it is in contrast to the concept of Linguistic performance, the way the language system is used in communication. The concept was first introduced by Noam Chomsky[1] as part of the foundations for his Generative grammar, but it has since been adopted and developed by other linguists, particularly those working in the generativist tradition. In the generativist tradition competence is the only level of language that is studied, because this level gives insights into the Universal Grammar, that generativists see as underlying all human language systems. Functional theories of grammar tend to dismiss the sharp distinction between competence and performance, and particularly the primacy given to the study of competence.According to Chomsky, competence is the 'ideal' language system that makes it possible for speakers to produce and understand an infinite number [nb 1] of sentences in their language, and to distinguish grammatical sentences from ungrammatical sentences. This is unaffected by "grammatically irrelevant conditions" such as speech errors.[1]Competence versus performance"Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its (the speech community's) language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of this language in actual performance."~Chomsky,1965[1]Chomsky differentiates competence, which is an idealized capacity, from performance being the production of actual utterances. According to him, competence is the ideal speaker-hearer's knowledge of his or her language and it is the 'mental reality' which is responsible for all those aspects of language use which can be characterized as 'linguistic'.[2] Chomsky argues that only under an idealized situation whereby the speaker-hearer is unaffected by grammatically irrelevant conditions such as memory limitations and distractions will performance be a direct reflection of competence. A sample of natural speech consisting of numerous false starts and other deviations will not provide such data. Therefore, he claims that a fundamental distinction has to be made between the competence and performance.[1] Chomsky dismissed criticisms of delimiting the study of performance in favor of the study of underlying competence, as unwarranted and completely misdirected. He claims that the descriptivist limitation-in-principle to classification and organizationof data, the "extracting patterns" from a corpus of observed speech and the describing "speech habits" etc. are the core factors that precludes the development of a theory of actual performance.Competence and components of grammarOne's competence is defined by the grammar,[nb 2][3] or set of language rules, that is represented mentally and manifested based on his or her own understanding of acceptable usage in a given linguistic idiom. Therefore, grammatical competence defines an innate knowledge of rules rather than knowledge of items or relations. According to Chomsky, it is regarded to be innate because one does not have to be trained to develop it and will still be able to apply it in an infinite number of unheard examples.[4]The core components of the grammar are included in the speaker's linguistic competence and these components corresponds to five of the major subfields of linguistics:Phonetics: Phonology: Morphology: Syntax: Semantics:Linguictic performanceIn linguistics, performance has two senses:[1](1) A technique used in phonetics whereby aspiring practitioners of the subjectare trained to control the use of their vocal organs(2) A term used in the linguistic theory of transformational generativegrammar, referring to language being seen as a set of specific utterancesproduced by native speakersIt is also one of the two elements in Chomsky's performance-competence distinction, which relates to Language production(parole), with an emphasis upon how this is different from Competence, or the mental knowledge of language itself. Linguistic performance does not simply reflect the intrinsic sound-meaning connections established by the system of linguistic rules. It involves many other factors, such as extra-linguistic beliefs concerning the speaker and the situation play a fundamental role in determining how speech is produced, identified and understood. Furthermore, it is governed by principles of cognitive structure such as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) that are technically not considered to be aspects of language.Communicative competenceCommunicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966,[1] reacting against the perceived inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's (1965) distinction between competence and performance.[2]To address Chomsky's abstract notion of competence, Hymes undertook ethnographic exploration of communicative competence that included "communicative form and function in integral relation to each other".[3] The approach pioneered by Hymes is now known as the ethnography of communication.Debate has occurred regarding linguistic competence and communicative competence in the second and foreign language teaching literature, and scholars have found communicative competence as a superior model of language following Hymes' opposition to Chomsky's linguistic competence. This opposition has been adopted by those who seek new directions toward a communicative era by taking for granted the basic motives and the appropriateness of this opposition behind the development of communicative competence.communicative competenceAnother functionalist theory advances the notion of communicative competence, which focuses on socially-situated performance, was developed by Dell Hymes in response to the abstract nature of linguistic competence.[22][23]Communicative competence is also sometimes referred to as pragmatic or sociolinguistic competence, especially when the emphasis is on how to interpret the speaker's intended meaning in a particular utterance, apart from the literal meaning.The major criticism towards Chomsky's notion of linguistic competence by Hymes is the inadequate distinction of competence and performance. Furthermore, he commented that it is unreal and that no significant progress in linguistics is possible without studying forms along with the ways in which they are used. As such, linguistic competence should fall under the domain of communicative competence since it comprises four competence areas, namely, linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic.[25]Use in educationThe notion of communicative competence is one of the theories that underlies the communicative approach to foreign language teaching.[3]Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of three components:1.grammatical competence: words and rules2.sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness3.strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategiesCanale (1983) refined the above model, adding discourse competence: cohesion and coherenceA more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence.[6] Strategic Competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in using communication strategies (Faerch & Kasper, 1983; Lin, 2009).Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education, central to good classroom practice.[7] This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin.Competence vs. PerformanceLinguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-communication, who know its (the speech community's) language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of this language in actual performance. (Chomsky, 1965, p. 3)In this definition, Chomsky separates 'competence,' an idealized capacity, from the production of actual utterances, 'performance.' Additionally, competence, being an ideal, is located as a psychological or mental property or function (Lyons, 1996). This is in contrast to performance, which refers to an actual event.This definition of linguistic competence has come to be associated with a rigid and narrowly defined concept of grammatical competence. Therefore, Hymes (1974)introduced the idea of 'communicative competence." This has become generally defined as 'the socially appropriate use of language" (Paulston, 1992, p. xiv). Linguistic competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, competence refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the linguistic system of the rules. When we talk about it, the speaker is an ideal speaker. It is someone who has a complete knowledge of the language, has the ability to create and understand sentences, even the sentence they had never heard before. One’s competence is insensible and is an abstract conception.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. It is sensible and is the actual use of the language by individuals in speech and writing. It is sensible, in other words, others can see and know how the person act or express.In my opinion, competence and performance, they are all linguistic abilities. However, they are much different from each other. Competence is the ability to use the language, while performance is how people use language. With linguistic competence, we can form sentences by joining sentences and phases together or adding modifiers to a noun, as long as we can. We have the ability to speak due to competence. While performance requires people make their speech or writings more attractive, they should have different methods to speak and express. When they are in different situations, they will perform differently. In addition, they shall pay attention to how they perform, it depends on the roles they play in conversations.As a teacher, it is quite important to have both competence and performance. For many of the teachers, they are equipped with abundant professional knowledge. As speakers of the language, they are professional and have great linguistic competence. While in the class, they are not just speakers, the most important role for them is: teacher. Then they should act as teachers and impart knowledge in a proper manner, but not just tell the knowledge. The act of telling can be done by everyone who majors in the language or studies it, a translator, an interpreter or just a language learner, etc.I do think it will be much easier for a teacher to develop linguistic rather than try it for level of performance. But we need to pay attention to it. E.g. when we are having linguistic class, the teacher doesn’t only tell us the deep knowledge, but also gives us a lot of examples to get us understand it. Another example, when I learnt the word” Christmas” in middle school. The teacher told us a story about Christmas and taught us some more words. She wouldn’t just tell us how to spell and write the words, she thought of ways to make the word impressive for us. This is linguistic performance for a teacher in teaching.。
linguisticcompetenceandperformence
Linguistic competence refers to the knowledge of a language system. The term first emerged in the work of Noam Chomsky, where it referred specifically to syntactic competence, and was specifically opposed to linguistic performance. The term was used more broadly by Dell Hymes in formulating the concept of communicative competence. Like communicative competence, language competence is often divided into various subcompetences, such as syntactic competence and lexical competence.According to Chomsky, competence is the ideal speaker /hearer, i.e. an idealized but not a real person who would have a complete knowledge of language. This means a person’s ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Performance is the actual use of the language by individuals in speech and writing.Speakers’ linguistic knowledge permits them to form longer and longer sentences by joining sentences and phases together or adding modifiers to a noun. whether you stop at three, five or eighteen adjectives, it is impossible to limit the number you could add if desired. Very long sentences are theoretically possible, but they are highly improbable.Evidently, there is a difference between having the knowledge necessary to produce sentences of a language, and applying this knowledge. It is a difference between what you know, which is your linguistic competence, and how you use this knowledge in actual speech production and comprehension, which is your linguistic performance.When we speak, we usually wish to convey some message. At some stage in the act of producing speech, we must organize our thoughts into strings of words. Sometimes the message is garbled. We may stammer, or pause, or produce slips of the tongue. We may even sound like the baby, who illustrates the difference between linguistic knowledge and the way we use that knowledge in performance.Linguistic competence is the system of linguistic knowledge possessed by native speakers of a language, it is in contrast to the concept of Linguistic performance, the way the language system is used in communication. The concept was first introduced by Noam Chomsky[1] as part of the foundations for his Generative grammar, but it has since been adopted and developed by other linguists, particularly those working in the generativist tradition. In the generativist tradition competence is the only level of language that is studied, because this level gives insights into the Universal Grammar, that generativists see as underlying all human language systems. Functional theories of grammar tend to dismiss the sharp distinction between competence and performance, and particularly the primacy given to the study of competence.According to Chomsky, competence is the 'ideal' language system that makes it possible for speakers to produce and understand an infinite number [nb 1] of sentences in their language, and to distinguish grammatical sentences from ungrammatical sentences. This is unaffected by "grammatically irrelevant conditions" such as speech errors.[1]Competence versus performance"Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its (the speech community's) language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of this language in actual performance."~Chomsky,1965[1]Chomsky differentiates competence, which is an idealized capacity, from performance being the production of actual utterances. According to him, competence is the ideal speaker-hearer's knowledge of his or her language and it is the 'mental reality' which is responsible for all those aspects of language use which can be characterized as 'linguistic'.[2] Chomsky argues that only under an idealized situation whereby the speaker-hearer is unaffected by grammatically irrelevant conditions such as memory limitations and distractions will performance be a direct reflection of competence. A sample of natural speech consisting of numerous false starts and other deviations will not provide such data. Therefore, he claims that a fundamental distinction has to be made between the competence and performance.[1] Chomsky dismissed criticisms of delimiting the study of performance in favor of the study of underlying competence, as unwarranted and completely misdirected. He claims that the descriptivist limitation-in-principle to classification and organizationof data, the "extracting patterns" from a corpus of observed speech and the describing "speech habits" etc. are the core factors that precludes the development of a theory of actual performance.Competence and components of grammarOne's competence is defined by the grammar,[nb 2][3] or set of language rules, that is represented mentally and manifested based on his or her own understanding of acceptable usage in a given linguistic idiom. Therefore, grammatical competence defines an innate knowledge of rules rather than knowledge of items or relations. According to Chomsky, it is regarded to be innate because one does not have to be trained to develop it and will still be able to apply it in an infinite number of unheard examples.[4]The core components of the grammar are included in the speaker's linguistic competence and these components corresponds to five of the major subfields of linguistics:Phonetics: Phonology: Morphology: Syntax: Semantics:Linguictic performanceIn linguistics, performance has two senses:[1](1) A technique used in phonetics whereby aspiring practitioners of the subjectare trained to control the use of their vocal organs(2) A term used in the linguistic theory of transformational generativegrammar, referring to language being seen as a set of specific utterancesproduced by native speakersIt is also one of the two elements in Chomsky's performance-competence distinction, which relates to Language production(parole), with an emphasis upon how this is different from Competence, or the mental knowledge of language itself. Linguistic performance does not simply reflect the intrinsic sound-meaning connections established by the system of linguistic rules. It involves many other factors, such as extra-linguistic beliefs concerning the speaker and the situation play a fundamental role in determining how speech is produced, identified and understood. Furthermore, it is governed by principles of cognitive structure such as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) that are technically not considered to be aspects of language.Communicative competenceCommunicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966,[1]reacting against the perceived inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's (1965) distinction between competence and performance.[2]To address Chomsky's abstract notion of competence, Hymes undertook ethnographic exploration of communicative competence that included "communicative form and function in integral relation to each other".[3] The approach pioneered by Hymes is now known as the ethnography of communication.Debate has occurred regarding linguistic competence and communicative competence in the second and foreign language teaching literature, and scholars have found communicative competence as a superior model of language following Hymes' opposition to Chomsky's linguistic competence. This opposition has been adopted by those who seek new directions toward a communicative era by taking for granted the basic motives and the appropriateness of this opposition behind the development of communicative competence.communicative competenceAnother functionalist theory advances the notion of communicative competence, which focuses on socially-situated performance, was developed by Dell Hymes in response to the abstract nature of linguistic competence.[22][23]Communicative competence is also sometimes referred to as pragmatic or sociolinguistic competence, especially when the emphasis is on how to interpret the speaker's intended meaning in a particular utterance, apart from the literal meaning.The major criticism towards Chomsky's notion of linguistic competence by Hymes is the inadequate distinction of competence and performance. Furthermore, he commented that it is unreal and that no significant progress in linguistics is possible without studying forms along with the ways in which they are used. As such, linguistic competence should fall under the domain of communicative competence since it comprises four competence areas, namely, linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic.[25]Use in educationThe notion of communicative competence is one of the theories that underlies the communicative approach to foreign language teaching.[3]Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in terms of three components:1.grammatical competence: words and rules2.sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness3.strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategiesCanale (1983) refined the above model, adding discourse competence: cohesion and coherenceA more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence.[6] Strategic Competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in using communication strategies (Faerch & Kasper, 1983; Lin, 2009).Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education, central to good classroom practice.[7] This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin.Competence vs. PerformanceLinguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-communication, who know its (the speech community's) language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of this language in actual performance. (Chomsky, 1965, p. 3)In this definition, Chomsky separates 'competence,' an idealized capacity, from the production of actual utterances, 'performance.' Additionally, competence, being an ideal, is located as a psychological or mental property or function (Lyons, 1996). This is in contrast to performance, which refers to an actual event.This definition of linguistic competence has come to be associated with a rigid and narrowly defined concept of grammatical competence. Therefore, Hymes (1974)introduced the idea of 'communicative competence." This has become generally defined as 'the socially appropriate use of language" (Paulston, 1992, p. xiv). Linguistic competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, competence refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the linguistic system of the rules. When we talk about it, the speaker is an ideal speaker. It is someone who has a complete knowledge of the language, has the ability to create and understand sentences, even the sentence they had never heard before. One’s competence is insensible and is an abstract conception.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. It is sensible and is the actual use of the language by individuals in speech and writing. It is sensible, in other words, others can see and know how the person act or express.In my opinion, competence and performance, they are all linguistic abilities. However, they are much different from each other. Competence is the ability to use the language, while performance is how people use language. With linguistic competence, we can form sentences by joining sentences and phases together or adding modifiers to a noun, as long as we can. We have the ability to speak due to competence. While performance requires people make their speech or writings more attractive, they should have different methods to speak and express. When they are in different situations, they will perform differently. In addition, they shall pay attention to how they perform, it depends on the roles they play in conversations.As a teacher, it is quite important to have both competence and performance. For many of the teachers, they are equipped with abundant professional knowledge. As speakers of the language, they are professional and have great linguistic competence. While in the class, they are not just speakers, the most important role for them is: teacher. Then they should act as teachers and impart knowledge in a proper manner, but not just tell the knowledge. The act of telling can be done by everyone who majors in the language or studies it, a translator, an interpreter or just a language learner, etc.I do think it will be much easier for a teacher to develop linguistic rather than try it for level of performance. But we need to pay attention to it. E.g. when we are having linguistic class, the teacher doesn’t only tell us the deep knowledge, but also gives us a lot of examples to get us understand it. Another example, when I learnt the word” Christmas” in middle school. The teacher told us a story about Christmas and taught us some more words. She wouldn’t just tell us how to spell and write the words, she thought of ways to make the word impressive for us. This is linguistic performance for a teacher in teaching.。
2015年英语一text4
2015年英语一text4In 2015, the English Language and Composition exam featured Text 4 as one of its reading passages. This particular text presented a thought-provoking argument about the relationship between language and culture. Through careful analysis and interpretation, we can gain a deeper understanding of the passage and its implications.The passage begins by asserting that language is not only a means of communication but also a manifestation of a particular culture. The author argues that language encapsulates the values, traditions, and unique perspectives of a community. To support this claim, various examples are presented, such as the multiple meanings of the word "blue" in Russian or the absence of personal pronouns in Japanese. These linguistic nuances highlight the influence of culture on language and emphasize the importance of language in preserving cultural identity.Furthermore, the passage explores how language shapes the way we perceive the world around us. Different languages have diverse vocabulary and structures that allow speakers to express concepts in distinct manners. For instance, while English uses the word "snow," the Inuit language includes several terms to describe various types of snow. This disparity suggests that language not only reflects cultural differences but also impacts our perception and understanding of reality. By delving into the complexities of language, the author prompts readers to recognize the intimate relationship between language and thought.Moreover, the passage raises questions about the role of language in globalization and the potential loss of diversity. As global communicationexpands, dominant languages such as English increasingly dominate international business and politics. In this context, smaller languages and their associated cultures face the risk of marginalization and potential extinction. The passage calls for the preservation and appreciation of linguistic diversity as a means of safeguarding the rich cultural heritage of different communities.In conclusion, Text 4 from the 2015 English Language and Composition exam presents a compelling argument about the inseparable connection between language and culture. It highlights the inherent link between language and thought, as well as the potential threats to linguistic diversity in the face of globalization. By exploring the impact of language on perception and cultural identity, the passage encourages readers to value and protect the diverse languages that contribute to our global community. In an ever-changing world, understanding and appreciating the importance of language is vital for fostering empathy, promoting multiculturalism, and preserving cultural heritage.(Note: This is a sample article written in response to the given title. The precise content and format of the actual Text 4 in the 2015 English Language and Composition exam may vary.)。
语言学的英语作文
语言学的英语作文Linguistics is such a fascinating field! It's like unlocking the secrets of communication. You know, whenyou're learning a new language, it's not just about memorizing words and grammar rules. It's about understanding how people use language to express their thoughts and feelings.One thing I love about linguistics is that it helps us appreciate the diversity of languages around the world. There are so many different ways to say the same thing, and each language has its unique sounds, words, and structures. It's amazing to think about how people in differentcultures have developed their own ways of communicating.But linguistics isn't just about understanding other languages. It's also about understanding our own. Have you ever noticed how certain words or phrases can havedifferent meanings depending on the context? Or how our language changes over time as new words and expressions areinvented? That's all part of the study of linguistics.Another cool thing about linguistics is that it can help us improve our language skills. By understanding how language works, we can learn to speak more clearly, write more effectively, and even understand other people better. It's like having a secret weapon in the world of communication!So, whether you're interested in learning a new language or just want to understand more about the one you already speak, linguistics is definitely worth exploring。
英语作文大全关于共鸣的英语作文
英语作文大全关于共鸣的英语作文Resonance: A Profound Symphony of Coincidence and Connection.In the vast tapestry of human existence, where countless threads intertwine, the enigmatic phenomenon of resonance stands as a testament to the interconnectedness of life. Resonance, defined as the tendency of a system to oscillate with greater amplitude when subjected to a frequency that matches its natural frequency, transcends the physical realm to encompass a myriad of human experiences and endeavors.From the captivating harmonies of music to the profound insights of intellectual discourse, resonance serves as a catalyst for profound emotional and intellectual connections. It is the invisible force that binds us to others, igniting a shared sense of purpose, belonging, and understanding.Music, with its ability to transcend linguistic and cultural barriers, provides a prime example of the power of resonance. When an instrument is played at the right frequency, it sets off vibrations that resonating with the strings of a nearby instrument, causing them to vibrate in unison. This phenomenon, known as sympathetic resonance, is not limited to musical instruments but extends to human listeners as well.Exposure to music that resonates with our inner being can evoke a myriad of emotions, from joy and exhilaration to sadness and contemplation. It can stir memories, inspire dreams, and connect us with the universal human experience. Music has the power to heal, to unite, and to uplift, tapping into the deep emotional wellsprings that lie within us all.Beyond the realm of music, resonance manifests itself in numerous other facets of human life. In the field of communication, resonance fosters effective listening and understanding. When two individuals truly resonate with each other, they listen not only with their ears but alsowith their hearts and minds. They attune themselves to the nuances of each other's speech, their body language, and their emotions, creating a deep and meaningful connection.In the realm of ideas, resonance facilitates the exchange of knowledge and perspectives. When two minds come together on a topic that sparks their passion, they engage in a dialogue that resonates with both their intellects and emotions. They challenge each other's assumptions, share insights, and build upon each other's thoughts, leading to a synergistic synthesis of ideas.Resonance is not confined to intellectual pursuits. It permeates the social fabric, fostering a sense of community and belonging. When individuals feel like they resonate with the values, beliefs, and goals of their group, they experience a profound connection that transcends personal differences. This sense of shared purpose and mutual support provides a foundation for strong and resilient communities.The power of resonance extends to the very core of ourbeing. When we encounter people, places, or experiencesthat resonate with our innermost selves, we experience a sense of profound authenticity and connection. It is in these moments of resonance that we discover who we truly are and what we are meant to become.Resonance is not always a harmonious experience. It can also manifest in the form of conflict and disagreement. When two opposing views collide, it can be challenging to find common ground or to navigate the ensuing dissonance. However, even in these instances, resonance has the potential to lead to growth and understanding. By engaging in respectful and empathetic dialogue, individuals can bridge divides and forge new connections that transcend their differences.The phenomenon of resonance underscores the interconnectedness of all things. It reminds us that we are part of a larger tapestry of existence and that our actions and choices have ripple effects that extend far beyond ourselves. By embracing the power of resonance, we can cultivate deeper connections with others, foster a sense ofshared purpose, and unlock the transformative potential that lies within us all.In the words of the renowned author and philosopher Paulo Coelho, "When you want something, all the universe conspires in helping you to achieve it." Resonance is the embodiment of this universal conspiracy, a symphony of coincidences and connections that guide us towards our destiny. By attuning ourselves to the rhythms of life and embracing the power of resonance, we can unlock the full potential of our human experience and create a world that resonates with harmony, understanding, and boundless possibility.。
linguistics studies particular language
linguistics studies particularlanguageLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It involves the analysis of language structure, language use, and language acquisition. Linguistics studies particular language by examining its sounds, grammar, vocabulary, and pragmatics.One of the main areas of linguistics is phonetics, which studies the sounds of language. Phoneticians analyze the physical properties of sounds, such as their pitch, loudness, and duration, and how they are produced and perceived. Another area of linguistics is morphology, which studies the structure of words. Morphologists examine how words are formed from smaller units, such as roots and affixes, and how these units combine to create different meanings.Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences. Syntaxians analyze the rules that govern the combination of words into phrases and clauses and how these combinations convey meaning. Lexicography is the study of vocabulary. Lexicographers编纂dictionaries and other lexical resources to document the meanings, pronunciations, and uses of words in a particular language.Pragmatics is the study of language use in context. Pragmaticians examine how speakers use language to convey meaning beyond the literal meaning of words and how listeners interpret this meaning based on the context and their knowledge of the world. Linguistics also studies language acquisition, which is the process by which humans learn to speak and understand a language.Overall, linguistics provides a framework for understanding how particular languages work and how they are used in different contexts. By studying the sounds, grammar, vocabulary, and pragmatics of a language, linguists can gain insight into the structure and meaning of that language and how it is acquired and used by speakers.。
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Structuralist Linguistics
• Language is a structural system • Language is speech while the written record is but a secondary representation of the language.
Community Language Learning Method(社团语言教学法)
Charles Curran/查尔斯·克伦 • Student-centered • Stressing the learning emotions of students • Cultivating the communicative ability of students
Various Linguistic Views and Their Significance in Language Teaching
赵霞 孙爱红 潘晓群 张艳珊 高鹏
蛐蛐和苗苗的甜甜的爱
Traditional Grammar Structuralist Linguistics Transformational-Generative Linguistics Functional Linguistics The Theory of Communicative Competence
Traditional Grammar
It lays emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority(优先性) of the written language.
Grammar Translation Method (语法翻译法)
Audio-lingual Method (听说法)
• Repeated practice and reinforcement (Behaviorism) • Focus on the grammatical structures of language (sentence patterns) • Teacher-centered
• Competence (Chomsky)
The Theory of Communicative Competence
Communicative competence (D.H.Hymes)
Possibility（可能性） （可能性）
feasibility (可行性 可行性) 可行性
Appropriateness（得体性） （得体性）
• A method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities. • It paid much attention on grammar. • Involved with massive translation practice and grammatical rules memory • Teacher-centered
1.在教学设计中将深层结构关系密切的句型 （如主动句和被动句）放在一起，有利于 教和学。 2.文体解析中运用名词化、动词化、被动化 等转换规则可以分析作家的文体风格 （Ohmann） 。
Functional Linguistics
• Language is an instrument used to perform various functions in social interaction. • To functionalist language is viewed as a dynamic, open system by means of which members of a community exchange information and communicate. • Halliday emphasizes the communicative functions and contexted and sociocultural differences of languages rather than the grammatical characteristics of languages. • It holds that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning.
Байду номын сангаас
Transformational-Generative Linguistics /Universal Grammar
• Language is an internalized(内化的) system of rules. • Human language is creative in that humans are able to produce and interpret an infinitely large number of sentences that they have never heard before. • A native speaker possesses a kind of linguistic competence. • The language is a set of deep structures which underline the surface structures
Performance（现实性） （现实性）
Communicative Teaching Approach (交际法)
• Class goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence and not restricted to grammatical or linguistic competence. • Accuracy is secondary to convey a message. Fluency may take on more importance than accuracy. The ultimate criterion for communicative success is the actual transmission and receiving of intended meaning. • In the communicative classroom, students ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts.