心理语言学chapter 2
现代语言学前五章课后习题答案
Chapter 1 Introduction1.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study oflanguage. 请解释以下语言学的定义:语言学是对语言的科学研究。
Linguistics investigates not any particular languagebut languages in general.Linguistic study is scientific because it is baxxxxsed on the systematic investigation of authentic language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually usedformulating some hypothesesand testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.语言学研究的不是任何特定的语言，而是一般的语言。
语言研究是科学的，因为它是建立在对真实语言数据的系统研究的基础上的。
只有在语言学家做了以下三件事之后，才能得出严肃的语言学结论:观察语言的实际使用方式，提出一些假设，并用语言事实检验这些假设的正确性。
1.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?语言学的主要分支是什么?他们每个人都研究什么?Phonetics-How speech sounds are produced and classified语音学——语音是如何产生和分类的Phonology-How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning音系学——声音如何形成系统和功能来传达意义Morphology-How morphemes are combined to form words形态学——词素如何组合成单词Sytax-How morphemes and words are combined to form sentences句法学-词素和单词如何组合成句子Semantics-The study of meaning ( in abstraction)语义学——意义的研究(抽象)Pragmatics-The study of meaning in context of use语用学——在使用语境中对意义的研究Sociolinguistics-The study of language with reference to society社会语言学——研究与社会有关的语言Psycholinguistics-The study of language with reference to the workings of the mind心理语言学:研究与大脑活动有关的语言Applied Linguistics-The application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning应用语言学——语言学原理和理论在语言教学中的应用1.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?现代语言学与传统语法有何不同?Modern linguistics is descxxxxriptive;its investigations are baxxxxsed on authenticand mainly spoken language data.现代语言学是描述性的，它的研究是基于真实的，主要是口语数据。
第二言语产出的心理语言学分析.doc
第二言语产出的心理语言学分析0. 引言Levelt （1989）第一次系统考察了说话的复杂过程，提出了母语的言语产出模型。
后在新的心理语言学研究成果的基础上，Levelt （1999）提出修改的母语产出模型（参见缪海燕、刘春燕2013）.他认为语言产出是模块的，即系统中某些加工成分的功能相对自足，它们有自己特定的输入，并独立于其他成分处理该输入。
该模型主要是词汇驱动的模块的语言产出过程模型，为我们研究第二言语（简称为二语）产出提供了心理语言学基础。
de Bot 和Kormos 等人分别在Levelt 模型的基础上提出了二语产出模型。
本文以母语产出和二语产出的对比为基础，首先介绍3 个二语产出模型，然后对二语产出中最重要的特征---控制，进行综述，最后对二语产出的影响因素及个体差异进行分析，从而得出相关结论。
1. 二语产出模型1. 1 de Bot 的双语产出模型（binlingual production model）de Bot （1992,2004）在Levelt （1989）的母语产出模型基础上研究了双语产出模型。
他认为双语产出模型是个默认系统，一个人使用该系统时总是只用其中一种语言。
这样，双语产出模型与单语产出模型没有本质的区别。
Levelt （1989）的产出模型将概念系统与语言系统分开且有 3 个储存器：概念形成器（conceptulizer）、话语形成器（formulator）和发音器（ar-ticulator）.与该模型的假设相一致，de Bot （1992,2004）设定一个共用的概念形成器，负责语言的选择并形成用所选语言进行表达的信息。
de Bot 还遵循双语词汇系统的理论假设，在双语产出模型中采用了词库的子系统假设。
一个词库包含两种语言专用的子词库。
他设定两个话语形成器以容纳两个词库，每一个形成器都包含两种语言专用的形态句法信息。
他还提出发音器的扩展系统，认为双语者通常说第二语言时会有外国口音,因为两种语言共用一个发音器。
语言学总复习
Origin of language
Divine- origin theory 神授说 Bow-wow theory 汪汪理论 摹声说 Pooh-pooh theory 噗噗理论 感叹说 Yo-he-ho theory 呦嘿吼理论 劳动叫喊说
Functions of language
The nose: the nasal cavity(鼻腔)
Table
2.1 A chart of English consonants
English vowels(RP)
Four basic requirements for the description of vowels 1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) 2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) 3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) 4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)
The classification of word 词的分类
1 variable and invariable words可变词与不 变词 2 grammatical (functional) and lexical (content) words词汇词和语法词 3 closed-class and open-class words 封闭 类词和开放类词 4 word class词类
Important distinctions in linguistics
实验心理学 第十二章——心理语言学——第2部分
85ms SOA
反应时 错误率
515** 1.3 544 0.7 534* 4.0 550 2.8
145ms SOA
反应时 错误率
533** 1.0
542 * 2.0
547* 3.8
565
1.1
音同启动效应已经出现，但是只表现在促进目标字的精确判断这一指标上。
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心理语言学 实验心理学
二、语言理解：视觉词汇通达
beach
XXX 200ms
nut
15
例如， 当目标词是nut（坚果）时， 启动词可以是目标词的语义相 关词beech（山毛榉树） 目标词语义相关词的同音词 beach（海滩） 目标词语义相关词的形似词 bench（长椅子） 或者无关词badminton（羽 毛球）。
565
1.1
字形最先得到加工。
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心理语言学 实验心理学
二、语言理解：视觉词汇通达
基于语义的任务结果
四种SOA条件下，高频目标汉字的反应时（ms）和错误率（%）
启动条件
形似启动 音同启动 义近启动 无关启动
43ms SOA
57ms SOA
85ms SOA
反应时 错误率 反应时 错误率 反应时 错误率
3
心理语言学 实验心理学
二、语言理解
词汇
语句
篇章
4
心理语言学 实验心理学
二Байду номын сангаас语言理解
词汇理解
• 视觉词汇通达 • 听觉词汇通达
语句理解
• 模块化理论 • 交互作用理论
篇章理解
• 情境模型 • 情境模型发展
5
心理语言学 实验心理学
二、语言理解：视觉词汇通达
语言学chapter 2
教案（首页）教案填写说明：①教材和主要参考资料要求表明教材或参考文献的名称、作者、出版社和出版时间。
②教学方法、手段指使用直观教具、挂图、板图、多媒体教学及双语教学等方法。
③教学进程内容包括课堂教学内容、教学方法、辅助手段、师生互动、时间分配、板书设计和作业布置等。
④板书设计可在教学进程中直接用横线、浪线等标示出来。
⑤教后感是对本次教学过程中自我感觉成功的地方以及存在的不足和学生反馈的信息情况进行总结。
课程名称：课程类型：第次课 3 学时：上课日期：1、Contents：Chapter 2: Phonetics: the study of speech soundsT eaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge about phonologyT eaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distribution2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about phoneticsLet the students understand the system of the articulatory apparatusLet the students know how to describe consonants and vowels3、Teaching importances: description of consonants and vowels;Teaching difficulties: manners and places of articulation:I.Phonetics: is the scientific study of speech sound. It is mainly concerned with how each speech sounds is articulated and what phonetic features it has.II.Speech organs:①The oral cavity②The nasal cavity③The pharynxSee the Figure 2.1 the articulatory apparatus( page 15)课程名称：课程类型：第4次课学时：上课日期：1、Contents：Chapter 2: Phonetics: the study of speech soundsT eaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge about phonologyT eaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distribution2、Teaching Objectives: let the students have the general idea about phoneticsLet the students understand the system of the articulatory apparatusLet the students know how to describe consonants and vowels3、Teaching importances: description of consonants and vowels;Teaching difficulties: manners and places of articulationIII.Classification of speech soundsEgressive sounds: produced by pushing the air stream out of the glottis, all English sounds and Chinese sounds.Ingressive sounds: by sucking the air in.A consonant is a sound produced by an obstruction or blocking of the airflow coming out from the two lungs and then going out through the oral or nasal cavity.A vowel is produced with the vibration of the two vocal cords but with no closure or obstruction when the air stream passes through the mouth.. Classification of consonants:1. V oicing2. Places of articulation (position or place of the obstruction of the air flow)3. Manners of articulation.1.Voiceless consonants:are those that are produced when the vocal cords are apart and the airflow passes freely through the vocal tract.Voiced consonants:are those that are produced when the vocal cords are together and the airstream forces its way through the two vocal cords and caused the vibrate.Whispering is invariably voiceless.* The binary system of description:[+voiced]: [b][d][g][-voiced]: [p][t][k]2.Places of articulationLabials:Bilabials :[p] [b] [m]Labiodentals: [f][v]Labiovelars: [w][M] [ ]Interdentals: [][]Alveolars: [t][d][n][s][z][l][r]Palatals: [ ][ ][ ][ ][j]Velars: [k][g][]Glottal: [h]3.Manners of articulationStopsBilabial stopsAlveolar stopsVelar stopsAspirationpin spin怕爸他搭喀嘎fricativesLabiodental fricativesInterdental fricativesAlveolar fricativesPalatal fricativesGlottal fricativeAffricates:Liquids:[l] The front of the tongue makes contact with the alveolar ridge, but the sidesof the tongue are down and the air can escape laterally through the two sides of the tongue. It is called a lateral.[r] It is formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back behind the alveolar ridge, it is called a retroflex.Glides:Nasals:Classification of vowelsmonophthongs diphthongs triphthongsDescription of simple vowels1.The part of the tongue involvedhat hut heart2.The height of the tongueFeet fit fetch fat3.The state of the musclesTense vowels: long vowels and diphthongsLax vowels: short vowels4.The shape of lipsRounded vowels:Unrounded vowels:DiphthongsCentering diphthongs: (from the front or back to the center)Rising /closing diphthongs: ( from a lower vowel to a higher one)IV Phonetic features and natural classesSounds can be analyzed into their phonetic features[u] has the features: [+high] [-back] [+round] [-tense]Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes. [+anterior] (a feature to specify consonants) bilabials, labiodentals, interdentals and alveolar, but not labiovelars.[+continuant] : fricatives, liquids, glides.[+sibilant]( [+strident]): are produced with a hissing noise, and they are called sibilants.[+sonorant]: vowels, glides, liquids and nasals[+syllabic]: vowels and [m] [ n] [l ]V. The IPADid he believe that Caesar could see the people seize the seas? 1888, The International Phonetic AssociationThe latest version revised in 1993 and updated in 1996The broad phonetic transcription transcribes only the sounds that contrast words in meaning.The narrow phonetic transcription provides minute differences in producing sounds.Symbols in IPA and those in American EnglishExercises:1.Fill in the following blanks1).Human communication usually takes place in the form of __________-communication and ___________communication.2).The medium of spoken language is __________.3).___________phonetics is the primary concern in linguistics.4).___________phonetics focuses on the perception of speech sounds.5).Speech organs are composed of three parts, the pharyngeal cavity, the________cavity, and __________cavity.6).The International Phonetic Transcription was devised in the year_______and has undergone several revisions.2. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions.1).Lateral liquid2).Lax high back vowel3).V oice bilabial oral stop4).Mid central lax vowel5).V oiceless labiodental fricative6).Low front vowel7).Palatal glide8).V oice interdental fricative9).V oiced affricate10).V elar nasal consonant11).V oiceless alveolar fricative12).Aspirated bilabial stop13).High front tense unrounded vowel14).Low back vowel15).High back tense vowel16).Mid back lax vowe5、References: 《语言学概论》杨忠高等教育出版社;《新编简明英语语言学教程》戴伟栋何兆熊上海外语教育出版社;《语言学导论论》陈林华吉林大学出版社;《语言学教程》胡壮麟北京大学出版社( 必读书籍)6、Summary after teaching: It is difficult for the students to understand the meta functions of language. I should make a further study for this part.一、双音节词一般地说，一个单词中有几个发音的元音字母，就有几个音节。
心里语言学
• 一、语言获得 • 二、字词识别中的词频效应 • 三、句子理解时间的测量
1
心理语言学
• 心理语言学是研究人类个体如何获得、理解和生成语言的心理学 分支。它从心理过程和心理机制的角度来研究人类的语言活动特 点。心理语言学研究是跨学科的。
– 首先，它以语言的结构和功能为线索来探讨人类言语活动的心理过 程和机制，而语言的结构和功能是语言学的研究对象。 – 其次，在对言语活动的心理过程和机制进行研究的过程中，必然要 涉及人脑的结构和特殊的机能，有时还要借助于对由脑损伤和发育 障碍导致的病历分析。 – 最后，人类言语活动是在社会环境中发生和发展的，复杂的社会因 素直接决定了语言系统的变化，并对言语活动产生重要影响。
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命 名
低 频 效 应 高 频
词汇命名
低 频 效 应
（一）词频效应与字词识别（5）
• 通过命名任务得到的词频效应为170ms，而通过词汇命名任务得到的 词频效应为214ms。两种不同的命名任务的差异在于，词汇命名比命 名增加了一个决策成分。214ms-170ms=44ms——词频效应中的决 策成分。 • 词汇判断任务得到的词频效应为105ms。这个词频效应包含两个成分： 词汇通达前的加工成分和决策成分。词汇通达前的词频效应成分为： 105ms-44ms=61ms。 • 词汇命名任务得到的词频效应（214ms）大于词汇判断任务得到的词 频效应（105ms）。由于两个任务所设计的加工环节仅仅在于词汇命 名任务在词汇判断结束后还要进行语音的提取，因此，在词频效应中 还存在着一个词汇通达后的加工成分（214ms-105ms=109ms）。 • 通过上述结果分析，刘英茂等认为，词频效应首先对词汇加工的编码 阶段起作用，它影响词汇通达的速度；词频效应还对词汇加工后的反 应性加工起作用，它影响词汇通达后汉字字型、读音、语义等编码形 式之间的转换过程。
语言学chapter2
语言学chapter2Chapter 2 phonology1,what are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?The two major media of communication are speech and writing. Speech is more basic than writing. Because the writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises, and in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds that is called voicing. It is caused by vocal cords which may also be held together tightly so that the air stream vibrates hem at different speeds .3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ.Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics,which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone can possible do. For example, in broad transcription, the symbol[l]is used for the sound[l]in the four words leaf[li:f],feel[fi:l], build[bild],and health[helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l]in all these four sound combination differ slightly. The [l]in[li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called clear[l], and no diacritic is need to indicate it; the [l]in[fi:l]and[bild]occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and innarr ow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sou nd [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ]. Another example is the consonant [p]. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broadtranscription, but i n narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiratio n, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4.How are the English consonants classified?English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth , the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. According to which part of the tongue is held highest, vowels may bedistinguished as front, central, and back. And according to the openness of the mouth, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels , semi-open vowels and open vowels. According to the shape of the lips, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, and all the back vowels, with the exception of[a:],are rounded vowels. According to the length of the sound, vowels can be classified into tense and lax vowels.6. Give the phonetic symbol fro each of the following sound descriptions:(1)voiced palatal affricate:[?] (2)voiceless labiodental fricative:[f](3)voiced alveolar stop: [d] (4)front, close, short: [i](5)back, semi-open, long: [?:] (6)voiceless, bilabial stop: [p]Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:(1)[d]: voiced alveolar stop (2)[l]: voiced alveolar liquids(3)[?]: voiceless palatal affricate (4) [w]: voiced bilabial glides(5) [?]: back, close, short (6) [?]: front, open, short7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.The difference between these sounds is what the phonetician are interested in. Because phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, but phonetician isinterested in how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess.8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophones are the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.Sequential rules refer to the ways the phonemes can be combined. Sequential rules regulate which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other. They are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].Deletion rule is when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.In the pronunciation of such wordsas sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter[g]. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented bythe letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Deletea [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?Suprasegmental features refer to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, and intonation.There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.。
《心理语言学》课件
治疗效果语言治疗在帮助患来自恢复或改善 语言能力上具有积极效果。
结语
总结心理语言学的重点内容和未来发展方向，展示心理语言学研究的意义和价值。
1 重点内容
心理语言学研究涉及词义、语音、认知和发 育等方面的内容。
2 发展方向
未来的心理语言学研究将更加深入和多样化。
《心理语言学》PPT课件
心理语言学PPT课件大纲
前言
心理语言学的定义和历史背景
定义
心理语言学是研究语言在心理认知过程中的作用和影响的学科。
历史背景
从20世纪60年代心理学与语言学的交叉领域发展而来。
语义与语境
语义的基本概念和分类，以及语境对语义的影响。
语义概念
语义研究词义、句义和篇义的组 织与表达。
语境影响
语境对语义的理解和表达产生重 要影响。
语义分类
语言单词按意义分类，探索它们 之间的关联。
语音与语调
语音的基本要素和特征，以及语音和语调对语言理解的影响。
1 语音要素
语音的元音、辅音、音节等基本要素的研究。
2 语调分类
语调在语言中的不同分类和作用的研究。
3 语音理解
语音和语调如何影响人们对语言的理解和沟通。
婴儿期、儿童期和成人期语 言发展的不同特点和规律。
习得过程
语言习得从模仿到形成独立 表达能力的演变过程。
影响因素
语言环境、个体差异和学习 条件对语言发展和习得的影 响。
语言障碍与治疗
语言障碍的类型和特征，以及语言障碍的治疗方法和效果。
障碍类型
语言障碍包括言语障碍、听力障 碍和语言发育障碍等。
治疗方法
语言认知与处理
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6. aking（轮流性）:
It means that humans take it in turns to speak. This is not an exclusively human characteristic. Birds sometimes sing duets together. One bird sings a few phrases, then pauses while the other has its turn antiphonal singing(交互轮唱).
DOG
3. Semanticity（语义性）:
It is the use of symbols to ‗mean‘ or refer to objects and actions. Humans can generalize by applying ‗chair‘ to all types of chairs, not just one in particular.
Topics to be discussed
• Comparison between animal communication systems and human language to see if animals can be said to ‗talk‘ in any real sense • Various attempts to teach language to animals
4. Cultural transmission/tradition（文化传递）: It indicates that human beings hand down their languages from one generation to another. the distinction b/t humans & animals is not clear-cut! The role played by teaching in animal communication is unclear and varies from animal to animal – and even with species. It seems that a far greater proportion of communication is genetically inbuilt in animals than in humans.
• Problem 2: it is not always easy to decide what counts as communication in animals.
These fundamental problems show that any conclusions we draw are only tentative.
Children brought up in isolationdo not acquire language. Birds reared in isolationsing songs that are sometimes recognizable.
5. Spontaneous usage（自发使用）:
Do animals talk naturally?
• Problem 1: are we comparing systems which differ quantitatively or qualitatively?
Continuity theory: human language may have gradually evolved from a more primitive animal means of communication in a continuous line of growth-----language grew out of a primate call system (quantitatively different)
Chapter 2 Is language restricted to humans ?
• The word ‗talk‘ can be used in two totally different senses: (1) ‗to utter words‘------a talking parrot which says Damn if you poke it. (2) ‗to use language in a meaningful way‘--------humans • Can animals talk or learn to talk in a real sense? Are humans the only species which possesses language? If so, are humans the only species capable of acquiring it?
A continuity versus discontinuity divide may be over-simple. Language is a complex mosaic in which some features are continuous, and some discontinuous with ape communication.
Animals may be able to communicate about a total situation. But Vervet monkey ‘snake‘. We are not certain about whether this feature is present in animal communication. ???
Danger cries of the Vervet monkey: chutter puff adder/cobra, raup eagle, chirp lion/leopard, uh spotted hyena/Masai tribesman.
Discontinuity theory: language may be something quite different from our basic animal heritage, and superimposed on it. (qualitatively different)
to find out whether humans alone have the power of speech
• Some animals, such as dolphins and chimpanzees, have a high level of intelligence.
• If we find that language is beyond their capability, then that will indicate that language is a geneticallyprogrammed activity which is largely separate from general intelligence.
Humans still retain their basic set of animal cries, which exist alongside language. (Yelps of pain, shrieks of fear, and the different types of crying observed in babies may be closely related to the call systems of monkeys.)
How to define ‘language’?
Charles Hockett: Cornell
Ten design features which capture the essential nature of language: 1. The use of the vocal-auditory channel （发音-听觉频道）: It is the most obvious characteristic of language. It is neither unique to humans, nor all-important. (visual symbols—sign language/writing, tactile symbols—Braille) This characteristic is of little use in an attempt to distinguish animal from human communication.
9. Structure-dependence（结构依赖性）: Humans do not just apply simple recognition/ counting techniques when they speak to one another. They automatically recognized the patterned nature of language , and manipulate ‗structured chunks‘. Animals do not use structure-dependent operations.
2. Arbitrariness（任意性）: It means that human languages use neutral symbols. There is no connection between the word DOG and the four-legged animal it symbolizes. However, arbitrary symbols are not unique to humans. Gulls. Arbitrariness cannot be regarded as a critical distinction between human and animal communication.