质量控制和安全施工外文翻译
酒店服务质量管理外文文献翻译
酒店服务质量管理外文文献翻译This article examines the issue of service quality management in the hotel industry。
The importance of providing high-quality service to customers is emphasized。
as it is a key factor in customer XXX can use to improve their service quality。
such as employee training。
customer feedback。
and service recovery。
nally。
the article highlights the role of technology in service quality management and the XXX.In the hotel industry。
providing high-XXX service during their stay。
and any ings in service quality can lead to negative reviews and a loss of business。
Therefore。
XXX service quality management in order to XXX.XXX employees。
hotels XXX。
problem-solving。
XXX。
hotels XXX.XXX of service quality management is service recovery。
Even with the best ns and efforts。
mistakes and service failuresXXX must have a plan in place for addressing these XXX refunds。
土建专业外文翻译2
附录1翻译适当有效的建筑材料是限制富有经验的结构工程师成就的主要原因之一。
早期的建筑者几乎都只使用木材，石头，砖块和混凝土。
尽管铸铁在修建埃及的金字塔中已被人们使用, 但是把它作为建筑材料却由于大量熔炼它比较困难而被限制。
藉由产业革命，然而，受到把铸铁作为建筑材料和在大量融炼它的能力的两者对其双重需要的影响。
John Smeaton，一个英国土木工程师, 在十八的世纪中时，是第一广泛地使用铸铁作为建筑材料的。
在1841之后，可锻金属被发展成更可靠的材料并且广泛地被应用。
尽管可锻金属优于铸铁,但仍有很多结构破坏从而需要有更可靠的材料。
钢便是这一需要的答案。
1856年的贝色麦转转炉炼钢法和后来发展的马丁平炉炼钢法的发明使以竞争的价格形成了生产建筑用钢并且兴起了建筑用钢在下个百年的快速发展。
钢的最严重缺点是它容易被氧化而需要被油漆或一些其他的适当涂料保护。
当钢被用于可能发生火灾环境时, 钢应该包围在一些耐火的材料中, 例如石料或混凝土。
通常，钢的组合结构不易被压碎除非是在冶金成分不好，低温的不利组合, 或空间压力存在的情况下。
建筑用铝仍然不广泛被在土木工程结构中用,虽然它的使用正在稳定地增加。
藉着铝合金作为一个适当的选择和对其进行热处理,可获得各式各样的强度特性。
一些合金所展现的抗压强度特性相似于钢, 除线形弹性模量大约是7,000,000 牛/平方厘米，相当于刚的三分之一。
质量轻和耐氧化是铝的两个主要优点。
因为它的特性对热处理是非常敏感的,当铆接或焊接铝的时候，一定要小心仔细。
一些技术已为制造预制铝组合配件及形成若干的美丽的设计良好的外型结构的铝制结构而发展起来。
组合房屋配件制造的一般程序藉由螺栓连接，这似乎是利用建筑用铝的最有前途的方法。
加强和预应力混凝土是主要的建筑材料。
天然的水泥混凝土已经被使用长达数世纪之久。
现代的混凝土建筑兴起于十九世纪中叶,尽管人造水泥被Aspidin ，一个英国人于1825年申请了专利. 虽然一些建筑者和工程师在十九世纪后期用钢筋混凝土作实验, 但作为一种建筑材料它占统治地位是在二十世纪初期。
外文翻译 gongc
外文译文学院建筑工程学院专业班级工管普2007级（造价）学生姓名Works under the bill of quantitiesCost controlAbstract:The project under the bill of quantities in the project bidding, construction stage and the completed cost control in the focus and methods.Key words:bill of quantities; cost control; tender documents; contract; settlementCost control throughout the entire process of project construction, project cost under the bill of quantities should be greater control of project bidding phase, construction phase and completion of the settlement process, it is necessary to strengthen the Bill of Quantities means the process of building in the project application.1. The contents of the tender documentation to be complete, clear and rigorousThe implementation of the Bill of Quantities, is embodied in the principle of risk sharing, which compiled and made publicly available tender side of quantities, assume the risks of quantities, tender side the list provided under the tender offer, take the risk ofprice, any one not free to shift the risk factors. To reduce the risk of quantities required quantities of quality and depth of a certain level. Sub-segment of the preparation of quantities to meet the "Bill of Quantities Construction Standards" mandatory. Sub-segment of Quantities should be based on the unity of the provisions of sub-part of the project the project name, measurement units and the project codes and rules for the preparation of engineering calculation. First, prepare to be a complete description of quantities, such as description of all construction drawings for casing pipe through the floor to be, the list describes the content must be related to a detailed description of this: If the material specifications. Second, the list of items to avoid leakage, lack, such as the cable channel is not explicitly grounded construction drawings, construction specifications, but there are clearly defined list of items should be included, according to specification describes the contents and characteristics of the list. Third, the specification of the missing items, such as new materials, have to add settings, enabling it to meet the pricing norms also reflect the special characteristics of new materials. Fourth, measures of work projects and sporadic list of projects should be based on characteristics of the project as well thought out to avoid missing, reducing the process of visa and settlement of wrangling. Fifth, the reserve fundto fully consider the construction drawings depth and quality of quantities and units have been completed with reference to the situation of similar projects set aside a reasonable amount. Sixth, clutching the information unit supervisor for the relevant quantities to obtain the relevant provisions of documents in a timely manner, and the use of correct understanding.Tender documents for the actual work content of the author, the following points to a total of Opinion. First, self-insured for the required purchase of materials, equipment, shall require bidders to specify the brand, construction and supervision prior to recognition by the quality of the construction unit before use. Bidders bid not to specify the brand should have appropriate measures. Second, if tender is structurally similar group of buildings, different building sub-segment of the body of quantities integrated project characteristics and project content should be consistent with the same integrated unit, so as to avoid unnecessary trouble clearing. Third, the contract price in the deal does not include a detailed description of risk for comparison: for example, provides the wind, rain, snow, earthquake, etc. level, scope and size of the other force majeure. Fourth, the tender offer and the text version of the electronic version of the confirmation is inconsistent.2.Strict management of the signing of the contract, increase the contract's executionStrict response to the bidding documents, signed a contract. Implementation of the PRC Ministry of Construction, State Administration for Industry to develop a model textMost units have signed the contract Mixed flow, mixed signature should carefully review the contents of the contract to ensure the integrity of the contents of the contract, reasonable effectiveness and feasibility.The integrity of the contract reflects the power of both parties in the contract, the subject matter of the contract, the implementation time and place, the rights and duties, breach of contract, claims and termination of the contract conditions, etc.; reasonable validity of the contract are reflected in the duration of the feasibility of the project quality grade standards, settlement and other aspects can be implemented. Such as: a transformation of a hotel company, the reasons for the Government meeting, making the duration of the new catering building particularly tight. Moreover, construction drawings, great changes occurred after the tender, only the edges in the construction side, more than 20,000 square meters of construction contract requires 108 days, in which casethe feasibility of the construction unit of the contract period must be very careful . Contract settlement is not only workable in theory, in fact, should also be feasible. Construction contract for a project to determine the price on the change: change of quantities not exceeding the list of sub-section 25% of the project, the implementation has been integrated unit, but the measures cost the same. Change by more than 25%, 25% of the implementation as described above, the above is another part of the settlement method. This billing method is difficult to operate in practice, to the settlement of a lot of work has increased the workload of the invisible.Signed a strict contract, only the strict implementation of the contract effect can be achieved. This requires the construction unit should improve its field management system, site management should be standardized management and strengthen its management capacity constraints. Engineering change, field quantities visa changes caused by project cost overruns are often the main reason. First of all, a good grasp of change management, a reasonable argument to control costs. Both in the construction of the project less than innate factors, such as the design was incomplete, the design depth is not enough overlap problem or design professional materials market is not in stock, etc.; haveacquired factors, the construction unit weak management and supervision units and other organizations, not convergence. In order to increase the project construction unit cost of design changes continue to make an application. For example: a residential building designed for air conditioning condensate water UPVCφ30, the const ruction units to the market there is no such material, size pipes claimed a change UPVCφ50, the resulting material is poor, the hole is too small to expand the hole reserved for the two pen costs, only one building once plus 2 million . In addition, a visa to live strictly off, conditions that do not have a visa, must be resolutely rejected. Visa, should the construction site conditions and detailed description of the project increases, the content, size, and should be carefully documented quantitative; of the increased workload in the field investigation should be based on the sketch, along with dimensioning the engineering calculation formulas and calculations; should be timely visas, visas for non-acceptance of the post. The material construction unit to prevent unreasonable brand, size, grade, type and other aspects of replacement changes. To ensure that the visa and what is actually in line, on-site project management staff must be familiar with the visa before the tender documents and the contents of the tender documents, a clear scope of the contract, do not blindly visa, visa toensure that the scope of accuracy. For the removal of transposition after the installation, utilization of the material should be fully considered; there should be rational to judge who had signed the visa has been engineering quantity, that is simultaneously changed by it?3. completion of the project and detailed balance sheet auditFirst, information on settlement completion of the project to complete. Completion of site management plans must be strictly reviewed and signed. Changes, visa, price should be considered binding settlement document number sequence data, the construction unit for the management of confusion, change the visa number of disorder, caused by the construction unit to facilitate completion of the submitted settlement, the cost varying by changes, the visa is not Report into them. Audit completion settlement officers personally as much as possible to the actual situation on-site survey works to be aware of. Second, audit the balance sheet should strictly implement the rules and regulations by government agencies, according to the construction contract, item by item review. As the project audit settlement of the bill ofquantities preparation as professional as relatively strong, the construction units can choose a good reputation and strong business intermediary for review.Bill of Quantities reasonable low bid to promote the management level of enterprises, improving the overall strength of a good grasp of the Bill of Quantities better way to bring huge economic benefits to the enterprise.工程量清单计价模式下的成本控制摘要：工程量清单计价模式下在工程招标、施工阶段和竣工结算中成本控制重点和方法。
建筑施工质量控制技术外文翻译参考文献
建筑施工质量控制技术外文翻译参考文献1. Zhang, H., Yu, S., & Yang, C. (2019). Research on Quality Control Technology of Construction Engineering. Journal of Wuhan University of Technology. 41(9), 28-33.2. Li, J., & Wang, Y. (2018). Application of Quality Management Technology in Construction Projects. China Construction Science and Technology. 45(2), 60-64.3. Chen, X., & Li, Z. (2017). Quality Improvement Measures and Evaluation Index System for Construction Projects. Construction Engineering Technology and Design. 28(4), 65-70.4. Zhao, Y., & Liu, W. (2016). Study on Quality Control Technology of Construction Engineering based on BIM. Modern Construction Technology. 57(1), 38-42.5. Wang, L., & Zhang, Y. (2015). Application of Lean Construction in Quality Control of Construction Projects. Construction Technology and Economy. 36(6), 45-49.6. Wu, Q., & Xu, H. (2014). Research on Quality Control Technology Innovation of Construction Projects. Journal of Building Materials and Structures. 35(8), 51-55.7. Li, H., & Zhu, L. (2013). Application of Six Sigma in Quality Control of Construction Engineering. China Construction Economy.40(3), 70-75.8. Tang, J., & Guan, J. (2012). Analysis of Quality Control Measures in Construction Engineering. Construction Engineering and Technology. 33(5), 32-37.9. Zhang, G., & Zhang, Q. (2011). Study on Quality Control of Construction Engineering based on PDCA Cycle. Construction Science and Management. 51(9), 47-51.10. Liu, Y., & Wang, X. (2010). Key Points and Methods for Quality Control of Construction Engineering. Building Construction. 42(4), 34-38.。
建筑施工质量控制外文翻译参考文献
建筑施工质量控制外文翻译参考文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)译文：建筑施工过程中质量管理的动机分析和控制方法的研究摘要在建筑施工过程中实施质量管理可以有效地防止在后续建筑产品使用过程中安全事故的发生。
与此同时可以减少建设供应链的总成本，这也有利于增强建筑施工企业的品牌知名度和声誉。
在建筑施工过程中结合质量管理过程和当前建筑施工阶段的主要质量问题，分析了建设过程中的管理动机，将供应链管理与目标管理理念和方法应用到质量管理中，最后提出了具体的质量控制措施。
这些都是为了在建筑施工过程中提高建筑产品的总体质量。
关键字——建筑施工、质量管理、质量动机、控制1.引言调查显示建筑施工企业主要采用现场控制的质量管理模式是预先控制。
大多企业常常使得建筑施工过程中与建设管理中的质量管理相同，他们通常忽略了施工准备阶段质量问题的预防，如供应商的选择、道路的规划和临时设施，这些因素在建筑施工过程中的质量管理上起着至关重要的作用。
建设质量事故频繁发生，引起了许多领域的高度关注，如各级政府部门、施工企业和业主，特别是重庆綦江虹桥的坍塌、五龙的滑坡和洪湖湿地路基施工中的一系列质量安全事故，人们开始对施工质量问题做全方位的思考。
通过研究李秀峰总结归纳了造成工程的质量问题并引入项目质量控制分析方法，Low Sui Pheng 和Jasmine Ann Teo[2] 建立了施工中的质量管理框架来通过经验分析实现项目的质量控制，SangHyun Lee and others[3] 利用系统质量动态结构和变更管理模型的编程方法和控制方法，最终实现了大规模的并行设计和施工项目的管理和控制。
方唐分析了建设项目质量管理的整个过程和控制方法，她认为应该实现对影响建设单位质量的人、材料、机械、方法和环境的完全控制；吴天翔研究出管理因素是影响建设项目质量控制的重要因素，强调了施工过程中需要严格控制的各个方面和整体实现加强管理的需要。
为了解决建设施工过程中的建设质量问题，韩伟建立了一个建筑项目的分析和处理程序。
质量与检测外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、检测检验类外文翻译
Quality and InspectionAccording to the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC), quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy given needs. The definition implies that the needs of the customer must be identified first because satisfaction of those needs is the “bottom line” of achieving quality. Customer needs should then be transformed into product features and characteristics so that a design and the product specifications can be prepared.In addition to a proper understanding of the term quality, it is important to understand the meaning of the terms quality management, quality assurance, and quality control.Quality management is that aspect of the overall management function that determines and implements the quality policy. The responsibility for quality management belongs to senior management. This activity includes strategic planning, allocation of resources, and related quality program activities.Quality assurance includes all the planned or systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy given needs. These actions are aimed at providing confidence that the quality system is working properly and include evaluating the adequacy of the designs and specifications or auditing the production operations for capability. Internal quality assurance aims at providing confidence to the management of a company, while external quality assurance provides assurance of product quality to those who buy from that company.Quality control companies the operational techniques and activities that sustain a quality of product or service so that the product will satisfy given needs. The quality control function is closest to the product in that various techniques of unsatisfactory sources of quality performance.Many of the quality systems of the past were designed with the objective of sorting good products from bad products during the various processing steps. Those products judged to be bad had to be reworked to meet specifications. If they could not be reworked, they were scrapped. This type of system is known as a “detection correction” system. With this system, problems were not found until the products were inspected or when they were used by the customer. Because of the inherent nature of human inspectors, the effectiveness of the sorting operations was often less than 90%. Quality systems that are preventive in nature are being widely implemented. These systems prevent problems from occurring in the fist place by placing emphasison proper planning and problem prevention in all phases of the product cycle.The final word on how well a product fulfills needs and expectations is given by the customers and users of that product and is influenced by the offering of competitors that may also be available to those customers and users. It is important to recognize that final word is formed over the entire life of the product, not just when it was purchased.Being aware of customers’ needs and expectat ions is very important, as was previously discussed. In addition, focusing the attention of all employees in an enterprise on the customers and users and their needs will result in a more effective quality system. For example, group discussions on product designs and specifications should include specific discussion of the needs to be satisfied.A basic commitment management should be that quality improvement must be relentlessly pursued. Actions should be ingrained in the day-to-day working of the company that recognize that quality is a moving target in today’s marketplace driven by constantly rising customer expectations. Traditional efforts that set a quality level perceived to be right for a product and direct all efforts to only maintain that level will not be successful in the long haul. Rather, management must orient the organization so that once the so--called right quality level for a product has been attained; improvement efforts continue to achieve progressively higher quality levels.To achieve the most effective improvement efforts, management should understand that quality and cost are complementary and not conflicting objectives. Traditionally, recommendations were made to management that a choice had to be made between quality and cost--the so--called tradeoff decision--because better quality inevitably would somehow cost more and make production difficult. Experience throughout the world has shown that this is not true. Good quality fundamentally leads to good resource utilization and consequently means good productivity and low quality costs. Also significant is the higher sales and market penetration result from products that are perceived by customers to have high quality and performance reliability during use.Four basic categories of quality costs are described in the following:（1）Prevention--costs incurred in planning, implementing, and maintaining a quality system that will ensure conformance to quality requirement at economical levels. An example of prevention cost is training in the use of statistical process control.（2）Appraisal—costs incurred in determining the degree of conformance toquality requirements. An example of appraisal cost is inspection.（3）Internal failure—costs arising when products, components, and materials fail to meet quality requirements prior to transfer of ownership to the customer. An example of internal failure cost is scrap.（4）External failure—costs incurred when products fail to meet quality requirements after transfer of ownership to the customer. An example of external failure cost is warranty claims.A problem—solving approach should be followed in seeking quality improvement. The results of any improvement effort will not be permanent unless the root causes of the problems have been found so appropriate (irreversible) corrective action can be implemented.The root cause can be defined as the real cause of a problem. This is often quite different from the apparent cause, which appears after a superficial investigation. A frequently asked question is how to known when the root cause is found and when the investigator is not still being deceived by the apparent cause. A meaning answer is that if the root cause has been found, the problem is able to be turned on and off by adding or removing the cause.Once the root cause has been found, an irreversible corrective action must be implemented so there is no foreseeable situation by which the root cause can return and so permanent improvement results.Although the level of quality control is determined in large part by probability theory and statistical calculations, it is very important that the data collection processes on which these procedures depend be appropriate and accurate. The best statistical procedure is worthless if fed faulty data, and like machining processes, inspection data collection is itself a process with practical limits of accuracy, precision, resolution, and repeatability.All inspection and/or measurement processes can be defined in terms of their accuracy and repeatability, just as a manufacturing process is evaluated for accuracy and repeatability. Controlled experiments can be performed, and statistical measures of the results can be made to determine the performance of a method of inspection relative to the parts to be inspected. Suitability of one or another method can be judged on the basis of standard deviations and confidence levels that apply to each approach as used in a given inspection situation.质量与检测根据美国质量管理协会的定义，质量是产品或服务能够满足规定需求而具有的特性和特征的总和。
招投标文件 毕业设计论文
投标文件毕业设计论文中文摘要建筑业是一个民族、一个国家的支柱产业，其耗费的人力、物力、财力相当巨大。
规范建筑市场，使其与国际接轨，让建筑交易市场化，必须实行招投标。
招投标的核心是投标文件的编制。
如何在激烈以及逐渐市场化规范化的投标市场中中标，投标文件的好坏是重要前提。
为此，我在了解了当今招投标的市场形式后，结合《株洲四三O厂职工单身宿舍》项目，对其进行投标文件（商务标）编制。
主要是根据图纸和清单计算规则编制出工程量清单。
再计算出综合单价，得出总价。
通过编制投标文件来体会工程量清单计价的优势和作用。
关键词建筑业投标文件工程量清单外文摘要Title Lin Cheng residential buildingsAbstractThe architecture industry is a pillar industry not only for a national but also for a country, whose consumption of manpower, the physical resource and the financial resource are quite huge. We must invite public bidding to standardize the construction market, which will cause the construction market to connect with the international market and make the building transaction to market. The bidding's core is how to authorize its documentation. For how to bid among the dog-eat-dog and standardized market, the key is to depend on the good or bad documents. Here my analysis on this year's biding marketform is linked with the program "Zhou Zhou 430 buildings " in order to authorize this program's documentation. This thesis is workout that the list for the engineering capacity according to the drawing and calculational formula, then to figure out the general unit price till total prices. You can realize the details of engineering capacity's advantage and effect from the authorized bidding documentation in this thesis.Keywords architecture industry； biding documentation； details of the engineering capacity前言毕业设计是大学本科教育培养目标实现的重要阶段，是毕业前的综合学习阶段,是深化、拓宽、综合教和学的重要过程,是对大学期间所学专业知识的全面总结。
建筑工程外文文献(含翻译)
外文文献：Construction of the competition and competition strategy Engineering and construction firms from the United States dominated the global market for many decades but recent world events have altered their position.To investigate the driving forces and trends that will affect engineering and construction competition in the next decade, a research project, called the "Anatomy of Construction Competition in the Year 2000", was sponsored by the Construction Industry Institute's Construc—tion 2000 Task Force— The project examined the factors that affect competitiveness, including the following, The shaping of corporate capabilities; vertical integration and horizontal expansion to increase corporate capabilities and market share, including acquisition and mergers by offshore conglomerates and the acquisition of foreign firms by U. S. companies.Financing options； the role of privatization， build-own-transfer projects， and the nature of project financing in future markets，Management, organization， and structure; future management and organizational approaches, structures, and techniques to attract personnel to perform in a global competitive environment.Work force characteristics; future availability of engineering and construction workers at the professional and craft levels.Technological issues：how technology will affect competition and be used to offset work force shortages.Research Objectives and ScopeThis research project's goal is to collect information， to adapt to the 2000 and the engineering construction after adjustment，formulate strategies needed to provide insight and formulate 2000 engineering construction of possible development plan. This study reviewed the project construction process of history, current development trend， to determine the impact of the industry, and the impetus to the future industrial enterprises are related to reshape the ability, privatisation and financing methods of potential function and management, organization structure, methods for future development direction。
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本文献来源于：[1] 董祥. 土木工程英语. 2010（9）：145-151质量控制和安全施工1在施工中存在的质量和安全问题质量控制和安全问题对项目经理来说变得越来越重要。
施工过程中的设备缺陷或故障可能会导致非常大的成本。
即使有轻微缺陷, 也可能需要重新建设使设施运营受损。
导致成本的增加和延误结果。
在最坏的情况下，故障可能导致人身伤害甚至死亡。
在施工过程中的事故可能导致人身伤害和巨大的花费。
保险，检验和监管的间接成本迅速增加，会导致直接成本的增加。
好的项目经理应尽量确保在第一时间完成任务，并且在工程中没有重大事故发生。
随着成本的控制，关于已完成设施的质量的最重要的决策是在设计和规划阶段，而不是在施工阶段。
正是在该组件的配置，材料规格和功能性能这些初步阶段而决定的。
施工过程中的质量控制主要是确保其是否符合原先的设计和规划决策。
虽然符合现有的设计决策是质量控制的首要重点，但也有例外的情况。
第一，不可预见的情况下，错误的设计决策或希望通过在设备功能的所有者权益变动，可能在施工过程中要求对设计决策进行重新评估。
虽然这些变化可能是出于关心质量，但他们意味着随之而来的所有目标和限制因素都要进行重新设计。
至于第二种情况，一些明智且适当的设计决策就是取决于施工过程本身，例如，一些隧道要求在不同的位置作出一定数量支护的方法，就是根据土壤条件，观察在隧道里面的过程而做出的决策。
由于这样的决定是基于有关工地的实际情况，因此该设施的设计可能会更符合成本效益的结果。
任何特殊的情况下，重新设计的施工过程中都需要考虑各种因素。
在施工过程中以讲究一致性作为质量的衡量标准，质量要求的设计和合同文件中的说明将变得极为重要。
质量要求应该是明确的、可验证的，能使项目中的各方都能够理解的一致性要求。
本章的大部分讨论均涉及到发展和建设的不同质量要求，以及确保符合性的相关问题。
建设项目中的安全性也在很大程度上影响到规划设计过程中的决策。
一些设计或施工计划本身就是又危险又很难实现的，而其他类似的计划，则可以大大降低事故发生的可能性。
例如，从施工区域内修复巷道使得交通分道行驶可以大大降低意外碰撞的可能性。
除了这些设计决策，在施工过程中安全在很大程度上取决于教育，提高警惕，合作。
工人应对可能发生意外保持时刻警惕，避免不必要的风险。
2组织的质量和安全在施工过程中，各种不同的组织均可对质量和安全进行控制。
一个常见的模式是由一个组负责质量保证而另一个组则主要负责集团内的安全组织。
在大型的组织中，各部门致力于确保质量和安全，可能会指定专人来承担这些具体项目的责任。
对于较小的项目，项目经理或助理可能会承担相应责任。
在任一情况下，确保安全和质量建设是项目经理在除人事、成本、时间和其他管理问题以外必须重点关注并全面负责的。
检查人员和质量保证人员将代表各种不同的组织共同参与一个项目。
跟项目直接相关的各方都可能有自己的质量和安全检查，包括业主，工程师/设计师，和各种构造公司。
这些检查员可以从专业的质量保证机构组织选择担任。
除了现场检查，材料样品通常会由专门的实验室测试，以确保其权威性。
为了保证符合监管要求，相关部门也将参与其中。
常见的例子是当地政府建设部门的督察，环境机构，和职业健康与安全机构。
美国职业安全与健康管理局（OSHA）与获批准的国家检验机构合作，定期对工作场所进行实地考察。
OSHA的检查人员必须依法对所有违背标准的行为进行采证。
以保障安全标准规定的各种机械措施和程序; 例如，梯子的安全有超过140个法规。
在极端不符合标准上面法规的情况下，安全检查员可以停止在一个项目的工作。
然而，只有一小部分的建筑工地是由OSHA督察巡视的，大多数施工现场的事故并非由违反现有标准造成的。
因此，安全问题在很大程度上应由现场管理人员而非公共督察负责。
而施工过程中的众多参与者都需要检查人员的服务，也不能过于强调检查人员只检查质量控制的过程。
好的质量控制应该是一个项目团队所有成员的首要目标。
管理者应承担维护和提高质量控制的责任。
员工参与质量控制包括引入了新的思路都应该被奖励。
最重要的是，质量改进可以作为提高生产率的催化剂。
良好的质量控制可以通过提出新的工作方法，避免返工，并避免长期的问题，达到自给自足。
业主应促进良好的质量控制，并寻求能保持这样的水准的承包商。
除了参与质量控制的各种组织机构，质量控制问题在几乎所有的建筑活动功能区均出现过。
例如，确保准确和有用的信息是保持质量性能的重要组成部分。
质量控制的其他方面包括文件控制（包括在施工过程中的变更），采购，现场检查和测试，以及设施的竣工验收。
3工作和材料规范工作质量的规格是设备设计的一个重要特性。
要求的质量和部件的规格代表了必要的文件来描述一个设备的一部分。
通常情况下，这个文件包含了施工期间使用的设备设计文件和公认的规范的任何特殊规定，作为参考。
工作质量一般规格在许多领域都是在如美国材料与试验协会（ASTM），美国国家标准协会（ANSI），或施工规范协会（CSI）等组织的刊物上发表。
不同规格的形式为特定类型的建设活动，如由美国焊接协会颁发的焊接标准，或特定设施的类型，如由美国协会的国家公路和运输官员颁发的公路桥梁的标准规范。
这些一般规格必须进行修改，以反映当地的条件，政策，提供的材料，地方性法规及其他特殊情况。
施工规范通常由一系列的具体操作指令或禁令组成。
例如，下面的文章说明了一个典型的对在这种情况下的挖掘结构的规范：符合标高和尺寸正负0.10英尺的容差范围内的计划显示，从地基和基础延伸足够的距离，允许放置及拆除混凝土模板，安装服务，其他建筑，并进行检查。
在挖掘挖掘地基和基础时，当心别影响基坑开挖。
用手挖掘并最终分级来填置钢筋混凝土。
调整（挖掘的）最底层到需要的路线和坡度，留下坚实的基础去填充坚实（的混凝土）。
这一组规范要求应用判断，是由于有些项目不能精确地指定。
例如，开挖必须延长“足够”的距离，以便进行检查和其他活动。
显然，“足够”这个词，在这种情况下，可能会受到不同的解释。
相反，一个规范，公差内加或减十分之一英尺则是直接测量。
然而，由于网站的设施或特征的具体要求，可能会使得十分之一英尺的标准公差变得不合适。
书写规范通常需要在假设有关各方在诸如“充足”与预指定所有操作的努力和可能的解释不准确的话双方的部分合理的行为之间的权衡。
近年来，性能规格已经被开发运用于许多施工作业。
这些规范是指所要求的性能的成品设施或质量，而不是指定所需的施工过程中的规范。
而如何从其中获得此性能的具体方法则是留给建筑承包商的。
例如，传统规格为沥青路面中指定的沥青材料，沥青组合物的摊铺温度，压实过程。
相反，一个性能规格沥青所需的详细性能是关于路面的抗渗性及强度等。
如何达到所期望的性能水平则要依靠铺路承包商。
质量控制（Ⅰ）1全面的质量控制在施工质量控制一般包括投保符合材料和工艺上最低准则，以便根据设计，以确保设备的性能。
这些最低标准都包含在上一节中描述的规范。
对于符合保险的目的，随机抽样和统计方法通常用于为基础，接受或拒绝工作完成，材料批次。
一批拒绝是基于不符合或违反有关设计规范。
这种质量控制的实践过程在下面的章节中描述。
在这些传统的质量控制方法的一个隐含的假设是可以接受的质量水平，这是不良品的允许分数的概念。
由一个组织进行供应商或工作组获得的材料进行检查，如果估计有缺陷，但是所占百分比是在可接受的质量水平，让供应商和工作组来判断判断是否通过验收。
如果是材料或货物的问题则是在产品交付后校正。
与此相反，质量控制这种传统的方法是全面质量管理的目标。
在这个系统中，施工过程中的任何地方都不允许有次品。
而完美的目标却是永远无法达到的，它提供了一个目标，让组织永远不会满足于它的质量控制程序，使得缺陷在年复一年的大量减少。
这个概念和质量控制的方法最初是开发制造在日本和欧洲的公司，但已蔓延到许多建筑公司。
最有名的质量改进的正式认证是国际标准化组织ISO 9000标准。
ISO 9000强调良好的文档，质量目标和一系列的周期规划，实施和审查。
全面质量管理是一个对质量的承诺，表现在组织的各个部分，通常涉及许多元素。
设计审查是确保安全和有效的施工程序的一个主要元素。
其他因素包括大量的人员培训，转移检测产品缺陷的质量控制员的责任，并不断维护设备。
在质量圈中的工人小组定期开会，提出质量改进的建议，但工人参与改进质量控制往往是形式化的。
材料供应商也需要确保交付货物的零缺陷。
首先，从供应商的所有材料进行检查，有缺陷的商品被分批次退回。
能证明自己信誉优良的供应商，则可以在之后完成检查。
质量控制的传统微观经济学的观点是有缺陷的项目的“最优”的比例。
努力实现比这更大的最佳的质量会大幅增加检验成本，降低员工的工作效率。
然而，许多公司都发现，致力于全面质量控制可以产生可观的经济效益，这是一个曾经一直不受重视的传统方法。
全面质量控制使得返工，废钢和保证与库存相关费用均减少，并且改善工作人员的积极性和工作决心。
客户往往喜欢更高质量的作品，并会为其高质量支付高价。
其结果是，完善的质量控制成为了一个竞争优势。
当然，全面的质量控制是很难应用的，尤其是在建设中。
各设施的独特性，劳动力的变化性，众多分包商，教育和程序进行必要的成本投资，使项目全面质量控制的实施难度大。
然而，一个组织虽不能保证达到完美的目标但却一直致力于提高质量，那么它可以是一个真正为大家造福的组织。
附外文原文：Quality Control and Safety during Construction1 Quality and Safety Concerns in ConstructionQuality control and safety represent increasingly important concerns for project managers. Defects or failures in constructed facilities can result in very large costs. Even with minor defects，re-construction may be required and facility operations impaired. Increased costs and delays are the result. In the worst case, failures may cause personal injuries or fatalities. Accidents during the construction process can similarly result in personal injuries and large costs. Indirect costs of insurance, inspection and regulation are increasing rapidly due to these increased direct costs. Good project managers try to ensure that the job is done right the first time and that no major accidents occur on the project.As with cost control, the most important decisions regarding the quality of a completed facility are made during the design and planning stages rather than during construction. It is during these preliminary stages that component configurations, material specifications and functional performance are decided. Quality control during construction consists largely of insuring conformance to these original designs and planning decisions.While conformance to existing design decisions is the primary focus of quality control, there are exceptions to this rule. First, unforeseen circumstances, incorrect design decisions or changes desired by an owner in the facility function may require re-evaluation of design decisions during the course of construction. While these changes may be motivated by the concern for quality, they represent occasions for re-design with all the attendant objectives and constraints. As a second case, some designs rely upon informed and appropriate decision making during the construction process itself. Forexample, some tunneling methods make decisions about the amount of shoring required at different locations based upon observation of soil conditions during the tunneling process. Since such decisions are based on better information concerning actual site conditions, the facility design may be more cost effective as a result. Any special case of re-design during construction requires the various considerations.With the attention to conformance as the measure of quality during the construction process, the specification of quality requirements in the design and contract documentation becomes extremely important. Quality requirements should be clear and verifiable, so that all parties in the project can understand the requirements for conformance. Much of the discussion in this chapter relates to the development and the implications of different quality requirements for construction as well as the issues associated with insuring conformance.Safety during the construction project is also influenced in large part by decisions made during the planning and design process. Some designs or construction plans are inherently difficult and dangerous to implement, whereas other, comparable plans may considerably reduce the possibility of accidents. For example, clear separation of traffic from construction zones during roadway rehabilitation can greatly reduce the possibility of accidental collisions. Beyond these design decisions, safety largely depends upon education, vigilance and cooperation during the construction process. Workers should be constantly alert to the possibilities of accidents and avoid taken unnecessary risks.2 Organizing for Quality and SafetyA variety of different organizations are possible for quality and safety control during construction. One common model is to have a group responsible for quality assurance and another group primarily responsible for safety within an organization. In large organizations, department dedicated toquality assurance and to safety might assign specific individuals to assume responsibility for these functions on particular projects. For smaller projects, the project manager or an assistant might assume these and other responsibilities. In either case, insuring safe and quality construction is a concern of the project manager in overall charge of the project in addition to the concerns of personnel, cost, time and other management issues.Inspectors and quality assurance personnel will be involved in a project to represent a variety of different organizations. Each of the parties directly concerned with the project may have their own quality and safety inspectors, including the owner, the engineer/architect, and the various constructor firms. These inspectors may be contractors from specialized quality assurance organizations. In addition to on-site inspections, samples of materials will commonly be tested by specialized laboratories to insure compliance. Inspectors to insure compliance with regulatory requirements will also be involved. Common examples are inspectors for the local government's building department, for environmental agencies, and for occupational health and safety agencies.The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) routinely conduct site visits of work places in conjunction with approved state inspection agencies. OSHA inspectors are required by law to issue citations for all standard violations observed. Safety standards prescribe a variety of mechanical safeguards and procedures; for example, ladder safety is covered by over 140 regulations. In cases of extreme non-compliance with standards, OSHA inspectors can stop work on a project. However, only a small fraction of construction sites are visited by OSHA inspectors and most construction site accidents are not caused by violations of existing standards. As a result, safety is largely the responsibility of the managers on site rather than that of public inspectors.While the multitude of participants involved in the construction process require the services of inspectors, it cannot be emphasized too strongly that inspectors are only a formal check on quality control. Quality control should be a primary objective for all the members of a project team. Managers should take responsibility for maintaining and improving quality control. Employee participation in quality control should be sought and rewarded, including the introduction of new ideas. Most important of all, quality improvement can serve as a catalyst for improved productivity. By suggesting new work methods, by avoiding rework, and by avoiding long term problems, good quality control can pay for itself. Owners should promote good quality control and seek out contractors who maintain such standards.In addition to the various organizational bodies involved in quality control, issues of quality control arise in virtually all the functional areas of construction activities. For example, insuring accurate and useful information is an important part of maintaining quality performance. Other aspects of quality control include document control (including changes during the construction process), procurement, field inspection and testing, and final checkout of the facility.3 Work and Material SpecificationsSpecifications of work quality are an important feature of facility designs. Specifications of required quality and components represent part of the necessary documentation to describe a facility. Typically, this documentation includes any special provisions of the facility design as well as references to generally accepted specifications to be used during construction.General specifications of work quality are available in numerous fields and are issued in publications of organizations such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), or the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI).Distinctspecifications are formalized for particular types of construction activities, such as welding standards issued by the American Welding Society, or for particular facility types, such as the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges issued by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. These general specifications must be modified to reflect local conditions, policies, available materials, local regulations and other special circumstances.Construction specifications normally consist of a series of instructions or prohibitions for specific operations. For example, the following passage illustrates a typical specification, in this case for excavation for structures:Conform to elevations and dimensions shown on plan within a tolerance of plus or minus 0.10 foot, and extending a sufficient distance from footings and foundations to permit placing and removal of concrete formwork, installation of services, other construction, and for inspection. In excavating for footings and foundations, take care not to disturb bottom of excavation. Excavate by hand to final grade just before concrete reinforcement is placed. Trim bottoms to required lines and grades to leave solid base to receive concrete.This set of specifications requires judgment in application since some items are not precisely specified. For example, excavation must extend a "sufficient" distance to permit inspection and other activities. Obviously, the term "sufficient" in this case may be subject to varying interpretations. In contrast, a specification that tolerances are within plus or minus a tenth of a foot is subject to direct measurement. However, specific requirements of the facility or characteristics of the site may make the standard tolerance of a tenth of a foot inappropriate. Writing specifications typically requires a trade-off between assuming reasonable behavior on the part of all the partiesconcerned in interpreting words such as "sufficient" versus the effort and possible inaccuracy in pre-specifying all operations.In recent years, performance specifications have been developed for many construction operations. Rather than specifying the required construction process, these specifications refer to the required performance or quality of the finished facility. The exact method by which this performance is obtained is left to the construction contractor. For example, traditional specifications for asphalt pavement specified the composition of the asphalt material, the asphalt temperature during paving, and compacting procedures. In contrast, a performance specification for asphalt would detail the desired performance of the pavement with respect to impermeability, strength, etc. How the desired performance level was attained would be up to the paving contractor. In some cases, the payment for asphalt paving might increase with better quality of asphalt beyond some minimum level of performance.Quality Control (Ⅰ)1 Total Quality ControlQuality control in construction typically involves insuring compliance with minimum standards of material and workmanship in order to insure the performance of the facility according to the design. These minimum standards are contained in the specifications described in the previous section. For the purpose of insuring compliance, random samples and statistical methods are commonly used as the basis for accepting or rejecting work completed and batches of materials. Rejection of a batch is based on non-conformance or violation of the relevant design specifications. Procedures for this quality control practice are described in the following sections.An implicit assumption in these traditional quality control practices is the notion of an acceptable quality level which is an allowable fraction of defective items. Materials obtained from suppliers or work performed by an organization is inspected and passed as acceptable if the estimated defectivepercentage is within the acceptable quality level. Problems with materials or goods are corrected after delivery of the product.In contrast to this traditional approach of quality control is the goal of total quality control. In this system, no defective items are allowed anywhere in the construction process. While the zero defects goal can never be permanently obtained, it provides a goal so that an organization is never satisfied with its quality control program even if defects are reduced by substantial amounts year after year. This concept and approach to quality control was first developed in manufacturing firms in Japan and Europe, but has since spread to many construction companies. The best known formal certification for quality improvement is the International Organization for Standardization's ISO 9000 standard. ISO 9000 emphasizes good documentation, quality goals and a series of cycles of planning, implementation and review.Total quality control is a commitment to quality expressed in all parts of an organizationan17 Civil Engineering Management Ⅲ: Quality Control17.1.1 PassageQuality Control and Safety during Construction1 Quality and Safety Concerns in ConstructionQuality control and safety represent increasingly important concerns for project managers. Defects or failures in constructed facilities can result in very large costs. Even with minor defects，re-construction may be required and facility operations impaired. Increased costs and delays are the result. In the worst case, failures may cause personal injuries or fatalities. Accidents during the construction process can similarly result in personal injuries and large costs. Indirect costs of insurance, inspection and regulation are increasing rapidly due to these increased direct costs. Good project managers try to ensure that the job is done right the first time and that no major accidents occur on the project.As with cost control, the most important decisions regarding the quality of a completed facility are made during the design and planning stages rather than during construction. It is during these preliminary stages that component configurations, material specifications and functional performance are decided. Quality control during construction consists largely of insuring conformance to these original designs and planning decisions.While conformance to existing design decisions is the primary focus of quality control, there are exceptions to this rule. First, unforeseen circumstances, incorrect design decisions or changes desired by an owner in the facility function may require re-evaluation of design decisions during the course of construction. While these changes may be motivated by the concern for quality, they represent occasions for re-design with all the attendant objectives and constraints. As a second case, some designs rely upon informed and appropriate decision making during thed typically involves many elements. Design reviews to insure safe and effective construction procedures are a major element. Other elements include extensive training for personnel, shifting the responsibility for detecting defects from quality control inspectors to workers, and continually maintaining equipment. Worker involvement in improved quality control is often formalized in quality circles in which groups of workers meet regularly to make suggestions for quality improvement. Material suppliers are also required to insure zero defects in delivered goods. Initially, all materials from a supplier are inspected and batches of goods with any defective items are returned. Suppliers with good records can be certified and not subject to complete inspection subsequently.The traditional microeconomic view of quality control is that there are an "optimum" proportion of defective items. Trying to achieve greater quality than this optimum would substantially increase costs of inspection and reduce worker productivity. However, many companies have found that commitment to total quality control has substantial economic benefits that had been unappreciated in traditional approaches. Expenses associated with inventory, rework, scrap and warranties were reduced. Worker enthusiasm and commitment improved. Customers often appreciated higher quality work and would pay a premium for good quality. As a result, improved quality control became a competitive advantage.Of course, total quality control is difficult to apply, particular in construction. The unique nature of each facility, the variability in the workforce, the multitude of subcontractors and the cost of making necessary investments in education and procedures make programs of total quality control in construction difficult. Nevertheless, a commitment to improved quality even without endorsing the goal of zero defects can pay real dividends to organizations.。