descriptive words
《英语语言学》复习重点(1)
《英语语言学》复习重点Chapter I Invitation to linguistics1. What is language and linguistics?●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barestdefinition, language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental, social and conventional.●Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.It concerns with the systematic study of language or, a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2. What are the design features of language? The definition of these design features: arbitrariness, duality, creativity, and displacement●Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, etc..●Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningLanguage is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, even with onomatopoeic words●Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composedof elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.●Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood bypeople who have never come across that usage before.●Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能4. The definitions of important distinctions in lingustics: Who distinguished them?descriptive VS. presriptive;Descriptive(描写式):a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.eg: American don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”Prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.eg: Don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”synchronic VS. diachronic;Synchronic study(共时性) --- description of a language at some point of timeDiachronic study(历时性) --- description of a language through the course of its history (historical development of language over a period of time)langue & parole;Langue: (说话者的语言能力.)the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole: (语言的实际现象或语料.) the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).competence and performance.Competence:(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.)a language user’s underlyin g knowledge about the system of rules.Performance:(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)the actual use of language in concrete situations.The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.5.What is the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?①Saussure's language is social product, a set of conversations for a speech community.②Chomsky regards competence as property of the mind of each individual.③Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics4. Basic information about the IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (Otto Jesperson France)IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.5. Three parameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless6.the categories of consonants according to the manner of articulation and the place of aritucatio7. English vowels can be divided into two large categories:Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 单元音Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元音8. Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description1. the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);2. the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);3. the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and4. lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).Phonology9. definition:1) Co-articulation: Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)2) broad /narrow transcription: When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription; The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.3)Phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)4) Phoneme: a sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)5)allophone phonic: variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.6)Minimal pairs:Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs: 1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.E.g. a minimal pair: pat-fat; lit-lip; phone-toneMinimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc7)Suprasegmental features: features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress（重音），length （音程）, rhythm（节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）juncture（音渡）．8) syllable:10.Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone..Phone（音素): the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)i) phonetic unit ii) not necessarily distinctive of meaningiii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ].Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaningiii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /..allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.:p ot, s p ot, cu p: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p¬ ] (unreleased)11. What are the differences between Phonetics and Phonology?Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in languageChapter 3 Morphology12. Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit.13.The classification of word. Using some examples to explain these classifications.Words can be classified in terms of:★(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)★(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)★(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words(封闭词/开放词)★(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词).The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;.the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv.(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词).the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article..the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)14. definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.2) Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.3) Affix: is the term for the type of form that can be used to add to another morpheme (root or stem) to form word. It can’t be used freely in sentence.prefix: change meaning eg: dis-; un-; mis-suffix: change part of speech eg: -ly; -ness; -tioninfix: some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.4) Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as tense, number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.5) word-formation①Compound: referring to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a new word. ②Derivation: the way to form words with a combination of roots and affixes.15. examples of Lexical change proper★(1) Invention 新造词Nylon★(2) Blending 混合词smoke + fog→ smog★(3) Abbreviation 缩合词TV → television★(4) Acronym 首字母缩略词NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)★(5) back-formation 逆构词editor edit★(6) analogical creation 类比造词p76★(7) Borrowing 借词、外来词Kong FuChapter 4 Syntax16. Definition:Syntax: is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.paradigmatic Relations:Syntagmatic Relations:Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, ther e is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice17.three kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.18. Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.19. Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.20. Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics21. Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning: Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. English word“river” →“江”and“河”Connotative meaning: The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It is the intensional meaning which a word suggests or implies. home: family, friends, warmth, cozy, comfortable, safety, love, free, convenience Social meaning:What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Affective meaning: --Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Reflected and meaning:--Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.Collocative meaning: --The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.Thematic meaning:--What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes themessage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Explain the semantic triangle by using some examples.23. Use some examples to explain three sense relations:Synonymy; Antonymy; HyponymySynonymy 同义buy/purchase thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/undergroundAntonymy 反义Gradable antonymy 渐次对立关系good ------------- bad long --------------- short big ---------------- smallComplementary antonymy 互补反义关系alive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty odd : even pass : failboy : girlhit : missConverse antonymy 逆向反义关系buy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife teacher : student above : belowbefore : afterhost : guestemployer : employeeHyponymy 上下义Superordinate （上义词）: the more general termHyponym （下义词）: the more specific termCo-hyponyms （同义词）: members of the same class24. Componential relations （成分分析）“Componential analysis”---- defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components25. Sense relations between sentences1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B ) 蕴含2 A Presupposes B (A presupposes B) 预设3 A is inconsistent with B 不一致4 A is synonymous with B 同义5 A is a contradiction 自相矛盾6 A is semantically anomalous 反常26. Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can be expressed by morethan one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus. Chapter 6 Psychology and cognitive lingusitics27. What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples.Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2.Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3.A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4.In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy the comparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of charact er of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain.Chapter 7 Language, culture and society28. the relationship between language and thought?29. What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages mayprobably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structuraldifferentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.30. What is the importance of culture in classroom teaching?Standard language.Chapter 8 Pragmatics31. Speech act theory32.What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Using one or two examples to discuss the voilationof its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1. Make your contribution as informative as is required.A: 昨天上街买了些什么?B: 就买了些东西。
personality words
Now let's get back to the original question, 'What is she like?' Here is an A-Z of adjectives we can use to answer this question:A- Active: she likes to play sport or do physical things.B- Bright: she is intelligent.C- Cunning: she uses her intelligence secretly/mysteriously to get what she wants.D- Diligent: she is hardworking.E- Extroverted: she is very outgoing. She likes to be the centre of attention.F- Funny: she makes people laugh.G- Generous: she likes to ‘give’ to help others.H- Honest: she tells the truth.I- Imaginative: she has a good imagination.J- Jealous: (negative) she wants what other people have. She doesn’t like others to succeedK- Kind: nice, gentle and helpfulL- Lazy: (negative) she doesn’t like to work or exercise. She’s happ y doing nothing.M- Moody: (negative) she often becomes angry and unfriendly because she is unhappy. N- Naughty: (negative): usually for children) her behaviour is bad.O- Optimistic: she is a positive person and positive about the future.P- Pessimistic: she is a negative person. She thinks things will end badly. The opposite of optimistic.Q- Quiet: she doesn’t say much. She prefers to listen.R- Rude: (negative) she is not polite and she offends people.S- Sensible: she has good common sense and judgment.T- Thoughtful: she carefully thinks about other people and how to help them.U- Upbeat: she is positive and in a good mood.V- Violent: (negative)she will hurt you. She is aggressive…so be careful!W- Wonderful: she is great!X- Xenophobic: she dislikes people from foreign countries. She is racist.Y- Youthful: she is young at heart.Z- Zany: she is a little crazy, but in a fun way.How would you describe your personality and why?Personality and JobSTEP TWO Choose from the list of personality traits that you think would make the ideal。
描写文-descriptive_writing
Task 3
Write a descriptive composition using the five senses, you can use one or two of them, or all of them. Our Campus in Early Spring Describe our campus (Shandong Jianzhu University) in early spring, not less than 120 words.
Task 1
Find the adjectives and adverbs in this paragraph and underline
them
I feel the delicate symmetry of a leaf. I pass my hands lovingly about the smooth skin of a silver birch, or the rough bark of a pine. In spring I touch the branches of trees hopefully in search of a bud, the first sign of awakening Nature after her winter’s sleep. I feel the delightful texture of a flower, and discover its remarkable folds; and something of the miracle of Nature is revealed to me. Occasionally, if I am very fortunate, I place my hand gently in a small tree and feel the happy quiver of a bird in full song. I am delighted to have cool waters of a brook rush through my open fingers.
态度单词总结之抽象单词
抽象单词（一）和写作有关1. allusive：characterized by indirect references即不直接指出，而是引经据典来解释。
在阅读题当中一定要注意只有当叙述的方式是indirect（比如从别人嘴里或者文献里记载得到），那么才可以称为allusive，或者allusion。
Eg：Readers previously__ by the complexity and__ of Joyce’s Ulysses will find Gilbert’s study of the no vel a helpful introduction.(A) charmed, obscurity(B) rejected, length(C) inhibited, intelligibility(D) daunted, allusiveness(E) enlightened, transparency2.analytical：分析性的，这个单词在阅读的写作手法题中碰到的机会特别多。
他的特点非常明显，即一定要有条件或者假设，然后由这些条件和假设按一定的推理逻辑得出某个结论。
3. argumentative：：descriptive，这两种一般很容易区分，但也有一些不容易区分的时候，argumentative是对别人已经表明了的观点进行（1）条件是否为真，（2）推理过程是否恰当这样一个过程，那么这样的文章就是argumentative，而descriptive的文章只是在叙述，或者会表达自己的感情（喜怒哀乐鄙视欣赏等），但没有分析感情是否为理性，也即感情背后的原因是模糊的。
4. assumption：假设，很简单。
现在阅读题经常会出一些逻辑题目，如下：OG-853-15The next to report is the psychologist, who proposes: “The inside of the barn should be painted green. This is a more mellow color than brown and should help induce greater milk flow. Also, more trees should be planted in the fields to add diversity to the scenery for the cattle during grazing, to reduce boredom.”Question: The psychologist’s remarks are based on the assumption thatA. any implied psychological similarity between cows and humans is inappropriateB. psychology derives insight from current theories of aestheticsC. individualized attention to cows will yield measurable increases in milkD. contented cows will produce more milk than bored or anxious onesE. each cow will respond differently to attempts to increase milk production前提：mellow color （mellow成熟的）结论：induce greater milk flow (注意should ,must这种单词后面都会引起结论，这样之前当然也就是前提了)推出方式： more mellow color－>induce greater milk flow什么叫假设呢？其实是这样的本来A－>B,但是由A推出B太突兀，所以说假设以起这样的功能A－>C－>B,C既是假设，所以假设一定是前提能推出来的，然后又能推出结论来这样一条链。
英语短文续写好词好句
以下是一些用于英语短文续写的好词好句：
1. Descriptive Words（描述性词汇）：
- Bright: 明亮的
- Tranquil: 宁静的
- Luminous: 发光的
- Serene: 宁静的
- Radiant: 光芒四射的
- Sparkling: 闪闪发光的
2. Comparisons（比较）：
- In the same way: 以同样的方式
- Just as: 正如
- Similarly: 类似地
- Likewise: 同样地
3. Transition Words（过渡词）：
- However: 然而
- Moreover: 此外
- Therefore: 因此
- Nevertheless: 尽管如此
- Additionally: 另外
4. Emotive Phrases（情感短语）：
- With a sense of: 带着……的感觉
-Filled with: 充满了
- Overflowing with: 洋溢着
- In the depths of: 在……深处
5. Descriptive Phrases（描述性短语）：
- A ray of sunlight: 一缕阳光
- A blanket of snow: 一层雪
- A tapestry of colors: 一幅彩色织锦
- A symphony of sounds: 一曲交响乐
希望这些好词好句能为你的英语短文续写提供一些灵感和帮助！当然，在使用时要根据上下文和语境进行适当的调整，使其自然流畅。
U1-3课件
Girl: And how were the people? Were they friendly?
Lisa: Yeah, they were really friendly. My parents have some friends there, and we had dinner
at their house.
---How was Lisa’s vacation to Hongkong ? ---She had a great vacation.
We can use different words to express similar meanings.
Well done！
While-listening
Circle adjectives.
Girl: Hi, Lisa. How was your vacation?
Lisa: It was great! I went to Hong Kong with my family.
Girl: Really? Wow!Did you do anything special there?
While-listening Listen again. Retell Lisa’s vacation experience.
Lisa’s vacation was__g_r_e_a_t___. She went to Hong Kong with her __f_a_m__il_y_. They went to a fun park. It was really__i_n_t_e_re_s_t_in_g___. They alsow__en_t__sh__o_p_p_in_g. The stores were very__e_x_p_e_n_s_i_v_e____, but Lisa bought___so_m__e_t_h_in_g____for her best friend. The people there were really___f_ri_e_n_d_l_y___. They _h_a_d_d_i_n_n_e_r__at her parents’ friends’ house. The food was____d_e_l_ic_i_o_u_s_. Lisa loved their home cooking. She had a good time and everything was _e_x_c_e_ll_e_n_t____.
语言学重点难点
一、语言和语言学1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language任意性 arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性 duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性 creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性 displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能（不是很重要）信息功能 informative人际功能 interpersonal施为功能 performative感情功能 emotive function寒暄功能 phatic communication娱乐功能 recreational function元语言功能 metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学 phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音音位学 phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学 morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学 syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则语义学 semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学 pragmatics 在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学 macrolingustics心理语言学 psycholinguistics 社会语言学 sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学 computational linguistics5语言学中的重要区别规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学 auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对立体minimal pairs2、音位 phoneme3 音位变体 allophones4 互补分布 complementary distribution5 自由变体 free variation6 区别特征 distinctive features7 超音段特征 suprasegmental feature音节 syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation四形态学1 词的构成语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇 inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation首字母缩写词 acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词 borrowing五句法学1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系 syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起聚合关系 paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分 construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分分析法 immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。
Finddescriptivewords
Find descriptive words描述性语言（descriptive words）指详细写出事物状态或事情始末的语言，比如对名词进行定义或对事物进行解释、介绍、说明的语言。
在“TU YOUYOU AWARDED NOBEL PRIZE”这篇新闻报道中，作者介绍屠呦呦本人及其团队的研究工作时，使用了大量的描述性语言，现举几例进行分析。
新闻导语This year's Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine has been awarded to Tu Youyou (cowinner)直击关键信息，紧随其后的非限制性定语从句whose research led to the discovery of artemisinin补充说明了屠呦呦研究的重大发现，而接下来的同位语a crucial new treatment for malaria则向读者解释了专有名词artemisinin。
导语中的定语从句及同位语均为描述性语言，让读者从简练的语言中尽可能多地获取细节性信息。
文章第二、三段介绍屠呦呦的求学经历及青蒿素的研制过程。
在第二段第一句中，作者使用并列形容词短语mitted and patient描述屠呦呦的品质，这正解释了她能够获得诺贝尔奖的主观原因。
在介绍研究过程时，作者采用列数字的方法，如：examined over 2, 000 old medical texts、evaluated 280, 000 plants、tested 380 distinct ancient Chinese medical treatments，充分展现了研究过程的艰辛、科学与严谨。
第三段中的After failing more than 190 times则展现了屠呦呦及其团队屡败屡战，永不言弃的精神。
由此可见，描述性语言能够提高语言的表达力度，建议同学们在阅读过程中多观察、多积累，然后将其运用到自己的写作中，提升表达效果。
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5、风度(bearing/demeanour)彬彬有礼refined and courteous / well-mannered / be gentle and polite不拘小节not bother about trifles / not stick to trifles不修边幅not care about one’s a appearance / be slovenly从容不迫at leisure / take it leisurely and unoppressively / take one’s time粗俗不堪extremely vulgar大大咧咧careless / casual风度翩翩graceful bearing憨态可掬charmingly naive举止文雅refined in manner / agreeable in manner举止造作affected manners狂妄自大be arrogant and conceited落落大方be natural and graceful / be liberal and dignified满不在乎not worry at all not care in the least / not care a rush朴实无华simple and unadorned盛气凌人overbearing / domineering / be pushy and overbearing书生气bookishness俗不可耐unbearably vulgar / too vulgar to be endured堂堂正正impressive or dignified in personal appearance / open and aboveboard / be fair and square土包子clodhopper / (country) bumpkin文静gentle and quiet温文尔雅gentle and cultivated / with pleasant and courteous behavior文质彬彬gentle / suave / with elegant manners稳重steady / staid / sedate文绉绉genteel潇洒natural and unrestrained小家子气appearing nervous in public洋气foreign flavour / Western style / outlandish ways仪态端庄dignified appearance朝气蓬勃be full of vigour and vitality6、才智（ability and wisdom）（1）学识、才干博览群书well-read/be very widely read德才兼备have both ability and political integrity才华横溢brim with talent/scintillating with wit出口成章Words folw from the mouth as from the pen of a master./make a polished impromptu speech出类拔萃stand out from one’s fellows/be distinguished from one’s kind后起之秀a promising young person/the bright younger generation机敏alert and resourceful见多识广experienced and knowledgeable/have a wide range of experience料事如神predict like a prophet/foretell things accurately敏感sensitive明辨是非make a clear distinction between right and wrong/distinguish between truth and falsehood能说会道have a glib tongue/with a ready tongue/have the gift of the gab神机妙算wonderful foresight(in…)神通广大be infinitely resourceful/have great magic power文武全才be well versed in both polite letters and marial arts/man of toth literary and military无所不知omniscient/know every subject心领神会understand tacitly/take somebody’s meaning/readily take a hint胸有成竹have a well-thought-out plan beforehand学识过人excel another in knowledge学有专长have specialized knowledge of a subject远见卓越foresight and sagacity/have farsightedness崭露头角begin to show ability or talent/make oneself conspicuous真才实学genuine talent/true skill and genuine knowledge真知灼见real knowledge and deep insight/profound insight多才多艺versatile/gifted in many ways（2）平庸、草率才疏学浅have little talent and less learning粗枝大叶crud and rareless/be done in broad strokes of rough outline/sloppy/slapdash粗制滥造manufacture in a rough and slipshod way/turn out in large quantity with-out any regard for quality丢三拉四miss this and that/forgetful/scatterbrained敷衍了事muddle through one’s work/do things carelessly虎头蛇尾fine start and poor finish井底之蛙a person with a very limited outlook/be but a frog in a well/a person of narrow view目光短浅be shortsighted/nearsighted7、品行性格(moral character)（1）正直干脆straightforward公事公办do official business according to official principles光明正大just and honorable/open and aboveboard豁达open-minded/broad-minded开诚布公frank and sincere说一不二mean what one says堂堂正正impressive or dignified/open and above-board心地单纯simple-minded心直口快frank and outspoken胸襟开阔open-minded/broad-minded仗义执言speak out from the sense of justice正直无私without partiality直截了当straightrorward-simple and direct直言不讳speak without reservation（2）诚实表里不一think and act in one and the same way诚心诚意earnestly and sincerely绝无二心sbsolutely faithful全心全意whole-hearted身体力行practise what one preaches实事求是seek truth from facts/be practical and realistic实心实意honest and sincere推心置腹confide in sb./repose full confidence in sb.心口如一say what one thinks言必信行必果Promise must be kept an action must be resolute.言行一致be as good as one’s words真心实意genuinely and sincerely忠诚老实loyal and honest（3）善良安分守已abide by the law and behave oneself淳朴honest好心好意with good intention和蔼可亲amiable和颜悦色be all smiles and sweetness急人之难wo rry about other’s misfortune既往不咎forgive sb’s past misdeeds平易近人amiable and easy to approach任劳任怨work hard regardless of criticism/work hard and not be upset by criticism通情达理sensible/reasonable/showing good sense推已及人put oneself in the place of another以德报怨return good for evil助人为乐ready to help others/take pleasure in helping others（4）勇敢不到黄河心不死not stop until one reaches one’s goal/refuse to give up until all hope is gone 不甘失败unreconciled to one’s defeat持之以恒persevere初生牛犊不怕虎Young people are fealess.打抱不平take up the cudgels for the injured party/defend sb. Against an injustice胆大心细great courage and insight胆识过人great courage and insight顶天立地of indomitable spirit/of gigantic stature奋不顾身dash ahead regardless of one’s safety/be daring regardless of personal danger果断resolute/dacisive坚忍不拔firm and indomitable/persistent and dauntless见义勇为have the courage to do the right thing/ready to take up the cudgels for a just cause前仆后继no sooner has one fallen than another steps into the breach全力以赴spare no effort/go all out舍生取义lay down one’s life for a just cause义无反顾be duty bound not to turn back勇挑重担be brave to take on heavy responsibilities自告奋勇offer to undertake(a difficult or dangerous task )/volunteer(to do sth. difficult) （5）廉洁不偏不倚even-handen/impartial大公无私selfless/unselfish公文不取not charge a cent公而忘私so devoted to public service as to forget private interests毫不利已，专门利人utter devotion to others without any thought of oneself廉洁奉公be honest in performing one’s official duties两袖清风have clean hands/remain uncorrupted铁面无私impartial and incorruptible/strictly impartial先人后已put others before oneself先天下之忧而忧，后天下之乐而乐plan and worry ahead of the people, and enjoy the fruit after the people/be the first to show concern and the last to enjoy oneself一尘不染spotless/not solied by a speck of dust主持正义uphold justice（6）勤奋不甘落后not content to lag behind吃苦耐劳bear hardships and stand hard work发愤图强work with a will to make the country strong分秒必争seize every minute and second奋起直追od all one can to catch up坚持不懈persistent/unremitting克勤克俭be hardworking and thrifty呕心沥血work one’s heart out’shed one’s heart’s blood/take infinite pains起早贪黑work from dawn to dusk日理万机attend to numerous affairs of state every day煞费苦心cudgel one’s brains/take great pains始终如一consistent/constant/persistent夜以继日round the clock/day and night知难而退advance in the face of difficulties孜孜不倦assiduously/diligently/indefatigably自强不息constantly strive to become stronger/making unceasing efforts to improve oneself （7）谦虚不骄不躁not conceited or rash不居功not claim credit for oneself甘拜下风bow to sb’s superiority戒骄戒躁guard against arrogance and rashness谦虚谨慎modest and prudent取长补短learn from each other to make up deficiencies/learn from other’s strong points to offset one’s weaknesses小心谨慎cautious/careful一丝不苟be scrupulous about every detail/be conscientious and meticulous/not be the least bit negligent有头有尾start sth. And finish it字斟句酌choose one’s words with care（8）懒惰不求上进have no desire for progress不求有功但求无过seek no merits but no errors有一天和尚撞一天钟do the least that is expected of one得过且过muddle along/drift along苟且偷安be content with temporary ease and comfort好逸恶劳love ease and hate work麻木不仁insensitive/apathetic/unfeeling三天打鱼，两天晒网work by fits and starts/lack perseverance窝囊annoyed/stupid/good-for-nothing消沉downhearted/depressed消极negative/passive虚度年华、虚度光阴idle away one’s time自暴自弃give oneself up as hopeless自甘堕落abandon oneself to vice（9）傲慢盛气凌人humiliate a person with his haughty temper不可一世consider oneself unexcelled in the world/be insufferably arrogant不知天高地厚not understand thing s/have an exaggerated opinion of one’s abilities大言不惭talk big/brag unblushingly胆大妄为bold and reckless独断专行act arbitrarily骄傲自大swollen with pride/conceited and arrogant居功自傲become arrogant because of one’s achievements蛮不讲理persist in being unreasonable/be impervious to reason旁若无人act as no one was nearby/self assured or superciious神气十足looking very dignified/putting on grand airs/very arrogant肆无忌惮unbridled/brazen/unscruulous唯我独尊consider oneself as the only important person夜郎自大parochial arrogance自高自大self-important/arrogant/conceited自命不凡consider oneself no ordinary being自我吹嘘self-glorfication吃里爬外liveoff one person while secretly helping another翻脸不认人tirm agaomst a friend卖友求荣seed power and wealth by betraying one’s friends自食其言go back on one’s own word（10）凶残残酷无情cruel and kindless草菅人命act with utter disregard for human life倒行逆施go against the trend of times/try to put the clock back狗仗人势be a bully with backing of a powerful person/be a bully under the protection of a powful person横冲直撞barge about/push o ne’s way by shoving or bumping刻薄unkind/mean/harsh狼心狗肺heartless and ungrateful欺压善良bully the meek伤天害理do things offensive to God and reason/do things that are against reason and nature/ruthless and devoid of human feelings无法无天become absolutely lawless心狠手辣be cruel and evil/wicked and merciless一手遮天hide the truch from the masses以强凌弱the strong attacking the weak仗势欺人bully people on the strength of one’s powerful connection or position/take advantage of one’s or sb. Else’s power to bully people（11）拍马吹捧flatter吹吹拍拍boasting and toadying低三下四humble/degrading阿谀奉承flatter and toady/try to get sb. ’s favor by flattery逢场作戏join in the fun on occasion拍马屁lick sb’s boots/soft-soap/flatter/fawn on趋炎附势curry favor with the powerful/play up to shoes in ower/be a follower of the rich and powerful势利小人snob顺风转舵trim one’s sails随波逐流dirft with the tide投其所好cater to sb’s likes左右逢源gain advantage from both sides（12）卑鄙搬弄是非sow discord/tell tales/make mischief乘人之危take advantage of sb’sprecarious position颠倒黑白confound black and white/confuse right and wrong/stand facts on their heads颠倒是非confound right and wrong/burn things upside down/confuse truth and falsehood腐败corrupt混淆黑白mix mp blackand white混淆是非confuse right and worong以小人之心，度君子之腹gauge the heart of a gentleman wi th one’s own mean measure明目张胆brazenly/flagrantly伤风败俗corrupt public morals恬不知耻shameless/not feel ashamed/have no sense of shame推波助澜add fuel to the flames/make a stormy sea stormier无中生有fabricated/purely fictitious二、表情(facial expression)1、笑(laugh, smile)安祥的微笑a serene smile/unruffied smile淡淡的微笑with a faint smile/smile faintly放声大笑burst into laughter/laugh outright尴尬的笑embarrassed laugh/awkward laugh哄堂大笑the whole room rocking with laughter讥笑sneer at /jeer/ridicule/deride紧张不安的笑a nervous laugh冷嘲热讽的微笑a cynical smile满面笑容be all smiles/a smile lit up one’s face迷人的微笑a winsome smile/a winning smile捧腹大笑shake one’s sides with laughter破涕而笑turn tears into smiles/turning from grief to joy歉意的微笑an apologetic smile傻笑laugh foolishly/giggle/smirk天真浪漫的笑an innocent smile微微一笑smile faintly/give a wee smile笑得合不拢嘴grin from ear to ear笑出眼泪来smile tears up笑掉大牙ridiculous enough to make people laugh their heads off笑容满面grin from ear to ear/smile all over one’s face2、哭(cry, weep)掉下几滴眼泪shed a few tears感动得流下热泪be moved to tears泪如泉涌tearserllinh up onr’d ryrd/Tears gush out like a spring.男儿有泪不轻弹，只是未到伤心时Men only weep when deeply hurt; A man does not easily shed tears until his heart is broken泣不成声choke with sobs/sob too bitterly to speak热泪盈眶one’s eyes brimming with tears/eyes glistening with tears洒泪而别take a tearful leave/in tears to bid each other farewell痛哭流涕weep bitterly/cry one’s heart out/cry bitterly眼含热泪eyes brimming with tears眼泪汪汪eyes full of tears/one’s eyes filled with tears三、感情(emotion, feeling)1、欢乐(happiness, joy)欢欣鼓舞be filled with exultation/dance with joy极度高兴be elated/extremely happy开心的feel happy/rejojce/joyful/be delighted可喜的gratifying/heartening乐不可支be overwhelmed with joy/overjoyed/beside oneself with happiness满怀喜悦之情be overflowing with joy飘飘然smug/self-satisfied/complacent赏心悦目find the scenery pleasing to both the eye and the mind无忧无虑be light-hearted/free from care/without sorrow and anxiety喜出望外be overjoyed/be pleasantly surprised/be overcome with unexpected joy/delighted with unexpectedly good results喜上眉梢One’s delight appears on the end of the eyebrow./light up with joy喜闻乐见love to see and hear/be what one would like to see and to hear心旷神怡relaxed and happy/carefree and joyous/refreshed in spirit心满意足be perfectly content(satisfied)心情舒畅have ease of mind/be free from anxiety欣喜若狂be wild with joy/go into raptures/be in an ecstasy of delight兴高采烈in high spirits/in great delight兴致勃勃full of zest悠闲自在be happy and contented/leisurely and carefree正在兴头上at the height of one’s happiness or enthus iasm自得其乐be content with one’s lot/take delight in doing sth. As a pleasurable occupation2、愁苦(worry)唉声叹气have great sighs/sigh and moan/sigh in despair多愁善感sentimental/always melancholy and moody叫苦不迭pour out endless grievances /cry bitterness without ceasing痛心疾首with bitter hatred/deplore greatly心烦意乱be cofused in mind out of sorts/confused and worried心灰意懒be dosjeartened/be downhearted/very much discouraged辛酸sad/bitter/miserable忧心忡忡heavyhearted/care-laden/laden with anxieties/be full of anxiety3、愤怒、怨恨(hatred)抱恨终天regret sth. To the end of one’s days/regret forever大发雷霆be furious/fly into a rage/become very angry赌气feel wronged and act rashly发火get angry/flare up/lose one’s ermper发脾气lose one’s temper/get angry愤愤不平be indignant/feel aggrieved/be resentful愤世嫉俗detest the world and its ways/highly critical of society敢怒而不敢言be forced to keep one’s resentment to oneself/suppress one’s rage/choke with silent fury/feel indignant but not dare to speak out红了眼become infuriated火冒三丈fly into a rage/burst into a fury悔恨regret deeply/be bitterly remorseful疾言厉色look fierce and talk boisterously/harsh words and stern looks满腹牢骚be full of griecances/be full of resentment/be full of complaints闹情绪be disgruntled/be in low spirits腻烦be bored/be fed up/loathe/hate怒气冲冲in a great rage气冲冲furious/beside oneself with rage撒气vent one’s anger or ill temper生气take offence/get angry羞愤ashamed and resentful厌烦be sick of /be fed up with一失足成千古恨Asingle slip may cause lasting sorrow./The error of a moment becomes the regret of a lifetime怨声载道Cries of discontent rise all round./Complaints are heard everywhere.4、爱(love)爱不释手fondle admiringly/be too fond of something to let go of it比翼双飞pair off wing to wing/fly side by side/go with each other all the time as lovers慈爱love/affection/kindness肝胆相照，荣辱与共show utter devotion to(a friend, etc)/loyal-hearted-share honour or disgrace with sb海枯石烂心不变The sea may run dry and the rocks may crumble, but our hearts will always remain loyal.恋恋不舍be reluctant to part with/hate to see sb. Go/unsilling to give up莫逆之交bosom friends/friends with complete mutual understanding难舍难分loath to part from each other/can hardly bear to tear oneself away千里送鹅毛，礼轻情意重a goose feather sent from a thousand li away/send the feather of a swanone thousand li/The gift itself may be light as a goose feather, but sentfrom afar, it conveys deep feeling亲密无间be on very intimate terms with each other情同手足like brothers/with brotherly love for each other/be closely like brothers同甘共苦share joys and sorrows/go through thick and thin together同心同德be of one heart and one mind/be delicate heart and soul to the same cause珍爱treasure/love dearly/be very fond of真情true feelings/real sentiments真情实意truly and wholeheartedly/genuinely and sincerely/out of genuine friend ship四、语言(language)帮腔speak in support of somebody避而不谈evade the question/avoid the subject表白vindicate oneself/assert one’s sincerity/bare one’s heart不经之谈sbsurd statement/a cock-and-bull story/baseless talk不言而喻It goes without saying./It is self-evident./understand without being told不知所云not know what somebody is driving at/not to have the slightest idea about the meaning of some remarks/be at a loss as to what to way不着边际wide of the mark/not to the point/irrelevant长篇大论a lengthy speech or article畅所欲言speak one’s mind fr eely陈词滥调hackneyed and stereotyped expressions/clichés/old stuff出口成章words flow from the mouth as from the pen of a master/make a polished impromptu speech出言不逊make impertinent remarks/use offensive language/talk disagreeably/use rude language/utter insulting remarks辞不达意one’s words fail to express his idea答非所问give an irrelevant answer大言不惭brag unblushighly/talk big/boast without shame道听途说market gossip/steet gossip and hearsay颠三倒四，语无伦次utter words that do not hang together/talk incoherently东拉西扯drag in all sorts of irrelevant matters/talk at randcm/talk aimlessly/ramble泛泛而谈talk in generalities肺腑之言words from the bottom of one’s heart沸沸扬扬bubbling sith noise/in a bubble/give rise to much discussion高谈阔论indulge in loud and empty talk含糊其词talk ambiguously/in vague terms豪言壮语brave of proud words/heroic utterance好话说尽，坏事做绝say every fine word and do every foul deed胡言乱语talk nonsense/rave/talk through one/s hat花言巧语sweet words/deceiving words哗众取宠try to please the public with claptrap/talk big to impress people绘声绘色vivid/lively/described to the life/true to nature缄口不言keep silent and say nothing/hold one’s tongue简明扼要brief and to the point/terse and concise交头接耳speak in each other’s ears/whisper to each other/exchange confidential whispers津津乐道talk delight in talking about/talk with great relish/dwell upon…with great relish据理力争argue strongly on just grounds开门见山come straight to the point/declare one’s intention immediately空话连篇fill endless pages with empty talk口口声声say again and again/keep on saying/talk repeatedly夸大其词make an overstatement/exggergte冷嘲热讽freezing irony and burning satire/scornful words and jeering smiles冷言冷语sarcastic comments/ironical remarks/cold words慢条斯理leisurely/unhurriedly名正言顺come within one’s jurisdiction/be perfectly justifiable/right ti tles and proper words 排难解纷mediate a dispute/settle difficulties/settle disputes平心而论in all fairness/give somebody his due平心静气calmly/dispassionately奇谈怪论fantastic stories and theories轻描淡写describe with a delicate touch/mention casually/touch on lightly人多嘴杂Agreement is difficult if there are too many people.人言可畏Gossip is a fearful thing人云亦云repeat word for word what others say/parrot/echo the views of others试问We should like to ask/May we ask?说东道西make irresponsible and carping comments说教preach/deliver a sermon说三道四make irresponsible remarks说一不二mean what one says/stand by one’s word随声附和echo what others say/follow the majority blindly谈吐文雅talk in polite and cultivated language谈吐幽默talk with a sense of humor谈笑风生talk cheerfully and humorously谈笑自若go on talking and laughing as if nothing had happened滔滔不绝talk on and on in a flow of eloquence/incessant talk添枝加叶embellish a story/falsify a story by coloring it up头头是道clear and logical/closely reasoned and well argued脱口而出say something unwittingly/escape one’s lips婉言相劝gently persuade婉言谢绝graciously decline/politely refuse违心之论words uttered against one’s conscience/obviously insincere talk娓娓动听speak with absorbing interest/talk in an impressive way无稽之谈fantastic talk/sheer nonsense/baseless gossip(talk)相提并论mention in the same breath信口开河talk irresponsibly/talk nonsense/shoot off one’s mouth叙别have a farewell talk叙述narrate/recount/relate训斥reprimand/rebuke/uress down哑口无言be left without an argument/be rendered speechless/shut up when defeated in argument 言不尽意speak with reticence言不由衷speak insincerely/speak with one’s tongue in one’s cheek言而无信fail to keep faith/go back on one’s word第二部分景(scenery)一、春(spring)百花争艳Flowers blossom in a riot of colour./Flowers vie with each other in splendor春回大地Spring returns to the earth./Spring is here again./Spring has come back to the ecrth!春光和煦a warmlyu spring scenery/Spring fills the air with warmth.春色满园a garden full of the beauty of spring/The garden is full of spring flowers.春光明媚a sunlit and enchanting scene of spring春暖花开Flower blossoms in warm spring/In the warm spring,flowers are out with a rush.春意盎然Spring is very much in the air./Spring is evident everywhere.大地回春Spring returns to the earth./Spring is here again柳暗花明Green weeping willows and beautifully bright flowers set each other off.明媚的春天a radiant and enchanting spring scene群芳争艳flower vying with each other in beauty洋溢着生机brimming with life vitality二、夏(summer)赤日炎炎the scorching sun初夏early summer酷夏the intense heat of summer酷夏难熬difficult to endure the intense heat of summer热气蒸人people suffering heat盛夏the height of summer/midsummer万里无云There is no cloud in the sky.炎夏hot summer炎热scorching/blazing/brining hot炎暑hot summer炎炎烈日the scorching sun仲夏second month of summer三、秋(autumn)初秋early autumn大秋harvest season in autumn/crops harvested in autumn金秋golden autumn立秋the beginning of autumn暮秋late autumn/late in the autumn秋风autumn wind秋色autumn scenery/autumnal tints秋雨the autumn rains秋分Autumn Equinox秋高气爽The autumn sky is clear and the air is crisp/The autumn air was fresh.秋色宜人charming autumn scenery/a bright and beautiful autumn scene秋风扫落叶Autumn wind clears away fallen leaves./(like)the sweeping away the withered leaves 三秋the three autumn jobs(harvesting,ploughing and sowing)深秋late autumn/in deep autumn晚秋late autumn/late in the autumn中秋the Midautumn Festival四、冬(winter)初冬early winter寒冬chilly winter/severe winter寒冬腊月dead of winter/severe winter深冬late winter严冬hard winter/rigorous winter/severe winter五、早、中、晚(morning, noonand evening)傍晚toward evening/ at nightfall/at dusk薄暮dusk/twilight晨曦first rays of morning sun春夜spring night东方发白The east is dawning/The eastern sky is turning fish-belly grey.冬夜winter night拂晓before dawn将近黄昏almost dusk烈日当头with the scorching sun directly overhead暮色苍茫deepening shades of dusk/The dusk is gathering深夜late at night三更半夜in the depth of night/late at night天刚破晓The day was just dawning.万籁俱寂All is quiet./Silence reigns suprems/All sounds are hushed夕阳西下The setting sun is going down.六、日、月、星（the sun, the moon and the stars）火热burning hot / fervent / fiery / intimate骄阳似火scorching/The sun is shining fiercely落日setting sun烈日当空with the scorching sun directly overhead/The hot sun is high in the sky.烈日炎炎burning sun/scorching sun/The sun is shining fiercely.满天星斗 a star-studded sky/The sky was full of stars.群星灿烂the brightness of the stars in crowds冉冉升起rise slowly热浪扑面Heat waves blow on one’s face.旭日东升the sun rising in the eastern sky/The red sun is rising over the eastern horizon霞光万道 a myriad of sun rays / Glowing rays shine in all directions.星罗棋布scattered all over like stars in the sky or chessmen on a chessboard/spread all over the place/scatter here and there一轮明月 a bright moon/a full moon月悬碧空the moon hanging in a clear blue sky月明如昼moonlit night as bright as daytime/ The moon was shining as bright as day一弯明月 a crescent moon/a new moon银河the Milky Way朝阳face the sun/have a sunny sun/ morning sun七、冰、雪、霜（ice, snow, frost）薄冰thin ice冰冻三尺(It takes more than one cold day for the river) to freeze three feet deep冰天雪地all covered in ice and snow / a world of ice and snow冰消雪化ice-dissolving and snow-melting初雪the first snow大雪纷纷Heavy snow fluffs. / It was snowing thick and fast. / The snow fell in a whirl.鹅毛大雪large snowflakes / fluffy snow / snow in great flakes纷纷扬扬flurry积雪accumulated snow瑞雪纷纷swirl of the auspicious snow霜叶知秋Autumnal tints tells the arrival of autumn.小雪light snow雪花snow / flake / snow crystals雪人snowman (or snow image)雪花飞舞Snowflakes are dancing.八、风、雨、雷、电(wind, rain, thunder, lightning)暴风骤雨violent storm / hurricane / tempest北风呼啸The north wind howls.春风拂面spring breeze caressing one’s face顶头风head wind东风劲吹The east wind is strong.大雨滂沱the rain coming down in sheets电闪雷鸣The thunder roared and the lightning flashed.风吹草动the rustle of leaves in the wind和风细雨fine rain with soft wind / a gentle breeze and a mild rain寒风刺骨The cold wind chilled one to the bone.狂风大作The wind howled.凉风习习The clear breeze blows gently. / A fresh light breeze is stirring. / A cool breeze is blowing雷电交加lightning accompanied by the peals of thunder雷声轰鸣the rumble of thunder牛毛细雨drizzle / fine drizzling rain瓢泼大雨pelting rain / heavy rain / torrential / downpour秋风antumn wind秋风送爽Antumn breezes cool somebody (on his way).晴天霹雳 a bolt from the blue闪电lightning / flashing lightning微风gentle breeze阴雨连绵cloudy and drizzly for days on end / an unbroken spell of wet weather阵雨shower阵雷roll of thunder第三部分事(human related activities)一、经济（economy）贬值depreciation of value吃大锅饭eat in the canteen the same as everyone else促进promote多劳多得，少劳少得more pay for more work, less pay for less work繁荣昌盛thriving and prosperous风调雨顺good weather for the crops浮动工资floating wage浮动价格floating price富强prosperous and strong富足plentiful / abundant / rich供不应求under supply for demand / supply falls short of demand / demand exceeds supply 货真价实genuine goods at a fair price集资raise funds / collect money / pool resources奖勤罚懒rewarding the diligent and good and punisbing the lazy and bad讲价haggle / drive a bargain over the price物价上涨Price rises物美价廉cheap and fine / excellent quality and reasonable price消费consume欣欣向荣thriving / flourishing / prosperous一穷二白poor and blank蒸蒸日上becoming more prosperous every day / flourishing / thriving二、社会关系(social relations)八拜之交sworn brothers宾朋满座the house is full of guests称兄道弟be on intimate terms / call each other brothers串通一气gang up / collaborate / work hand in glove促膝谈心have a heart-to-heart talk / have intimate chat together寸步不离follow sb. clssely / keep close to打成一片become one with / merge with / identify oneself with打得火热be on terms of intimacy / be as thick as thieves打交道come into contact with / make contact with / have dealings with打招呼greet sb. / say hello / tip one’s hat待人接物the way one gets along with people访友call on friends肝胆相照show utter devotion to (a friend, etc.) / be devoted to each other heart and soul 各奔前程Each pursues his own course. / Each goes his own way海内存知已，天涯若比邻 A bosom friend afar brings a distant land near.和睦相处live in harmony患难与共go through thick and thin together / share weal and woe交际social intercourse / communication交友make friends井水不犯河水I’ll mind my own business, you min yours酒肉朋友fair-weather friends / wine-and meat friends拉关系try to establish a relationship with sb.拉拉扯扯exchange flattery and favors良师益友good teacher and helpful friend六亲不认refuse to have anything to do with all one’s relatives and friends明来暗往have overt and covert contacts with sb.难兄难弟fellow sufferers / two of a kind攀亲道故claim ties of blood or friendship平起平坐be on an equal footing千丝万缕countless ties / a thousand and one links / interrelated in innumerable ways亲密无间be on very intimate terms with each other亲如手足as close as brothers人地生疏be unfamiliar with the place and the people若即若离be neither friendly nor aloof / keep sb. at arm’s length生死与共share a common destiny / go through thick and thin together势不两立mutually exclusive / extremely antagonistic水火不容be incompatible as fire and water素不相识be strangers to each other天南地北far apart / from different places or areas天涯海角the ends of the earth / the remotest corners of the earth同床异梦be strange bedfellows同甘苦，共患难share somebody’s joys and sorrows / share happiness and sufferings / share weal and woe同呼吸，共命运share a common fate / throw in one’s lot with sb.同流合污associate with an evil person同心同德with one idea and will / be dedicated to the same cause同心协力work in full cooperation and with unity of purpose / work together with one heart / make concerted efforts同舟共济pull together in times of trouble忘年之交friendship between generations息息相通be closely linked / be closely bound up相知恨晚regret that one has not got to know sb. sooner心心相印have mutual affinity / be kindred spirits形影不离inseparable as body and shadow / always together臭味相投People of the same ill like each other. / have the same tastes一唱一和sing the same tune / echo each other一见如故feel like old friends at the first meeting / become intimate at the first meeting一面之交be casually acquainted一拍即合fit in readily / chime in easily一言为定That’s settled then.有福同享，有难同当share joys and sorrows / share weal and woe / stick together through thickand thin沾亲带故be related somehow or other / have ties of kinship or friendship朝夕相处be closely associated / be together from morning to night志同道合have a common goal cherish the same ideals and follow the path至亲好友close relatives or good friends三、教育、学习（education, study）百读不厌be worth reading a hundred times饱食终日，无所用心be well-led and care about nothing else / eat one’s fill and idle about all。