lecture 10 cultural context and translation
Lecture 11 词语互借与文化
Dragon boat
是汉语“龙舟”字面的直译语。 “Dragon boat racing is now popular in Western countries with large Chinese communities, and in the eighties was officially established in Canada and the United Kingdom.” (E. Knowles, 1997:93) 以 上dragon-boat fleet (龙舟队)，dragon-boat festival (龙舟节)， dragon-boaters (龙舟赛 参加者)。
Lecture 11
Borrowing Words and Culture 词语互借与文化
Chinese and English Borrowing Words and Culture
汉语语言中借用了许多英语词汇，同样， 英语中也有不少汉语借用词 ，例 如: tea 茶； kowtow 叩头； cheongsam 旗袍； typhoon 台风；sampan 舢板； bohea 武夷 茶； kaolin 高岭瓷土；等等。
Special economic (development) zone
汉语“经济（发展）特区）”的直译，缩 写词为SEZ， 指：a region specially designated and with its own set of laws and regulations to facilitate and encourage economic development, normally by offering special concessions to foreign investors. (MDNW, p.339)“经济特区”是中国改革开 放的产物，这种经济区域模式在世界上有 较大影响。
文化知识讲座英语作文
文化知识讲座英语作文标题，A Lecture on Cultural Knowledge。
Culture is the essence of a society, shaping its values, norms, and behaviors. In a rapidly globalizing world, understanding diverse cultures becomes increasingly crucial for fostering harmony and cooperation among nations. Recently, I attended a thought-provoking lecture oncultural knowledge, which delved into the significance of cultural understanding in today's interconnected world.The lecture commenced with an exploration of theconcept of culture itself. Culture, as defined by the speaker, encompasses the shared beliefs, customs,traditions, and language of a particular group of people.It serves as the lens through which individuals perceivethe world and interact with others. Understanding cultural nuances is paramount in avoiding misunderstandings and conflicts, particularly in cross-cultural interactions.The speaker emphasized the importance of cultural competence, the ability to effectively navigate and communicate across different cultures. Culturally competent individuals possess empathy, open-mindedness, and a willingness to learn about and respect cultural differences. They recognize that what may be acceptable or even expected behavior in one culture could be deemed offensive or inappropriate in another.One of the key takeaways from the lecture was thenotion of cultural relativism. This principle asserts that all cultures are inherently valuable and should be understood within their own contexts, free fromethnocentric judgments. Embracing cultural relativism encourages individuals to appreciate the diversity of human experiences and challenge their own cultural biases.The lecture also addressed the role of language in shaping cultural identity and communication. Language not only facilitates communication but also embodies the collective history and values of a culture. Learning a new language can provide insights into the worldview andcultural nuances of its speakers, fostering greater empathy and connection.Furthermore, the speaker discussed the impact of globalization on culture. While globalization hasfacilitated the exchange of ideas and goods across borders, it has also led to concerns about cultural homogenization and the erosion of traditional practices. In response, there has been a growing movement to preserve and celebrate cultural heritage, recognizing its intrinsic value to human society.Throughout the lecture, various case studies and real-life examples were presented to illustrate the complexities of cross-cultural communication. From diplomatic negotiations to business transactions, cultural differences can profoundly influence the outcome of interactions. By developing cultural awareness and sensitivity, individuals can navigate these challenges more effectively and build stronger relationships across cultures.In conclusion, the lecture on cultural knowledgeprovided valuable insights into the importance of understanding and appreciating diverse cultures in today's globalized world. Cultivating cultural competence is essential for fostering mutual respect, empathy, and collaboration across cultural boundaries. As we continue to navigate an increasingly interconnected world, embracing cultural diversity will be key to building a more inclusive and harmonious global community.。
英语专业话题演讲跨文化交流逐字稿
跨文化交流的重要性Cross-cultural communication is the process of communication between people who interpret the information in different way because of their different cultural context.Culture and communication are closely related. The interaction of culture and communication is so pervasive that separating the two is virtually impossible. The way you communicate is deeply influenced by the culture in which you were raised. To a large degree, your culture influences the way you think, members of your society decode their message according to the assumptions of their culture. The greater the difference between cultures, the greater the chance for misunderstanding.With the development of globalization and the deepening of reform and opening up, the communication between China and other countries becomes deeper and wider. Therefore, it is becoming increasingly important for Chinese student to improve their English competence and promote their cross-cultural communication ability to achieve effective communicationHowever, in cross-cultural communication, breakdown often occur between speaker and hearer from different cultural background.The technical term for it is pragmatic failure. It occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve specific communicative purposes or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.There are some barriers which hinder us from communicating effectively. Therefore, it is critical to understand the barriers in cross-cultural communication and to know the techniques and strategies that can be employed to break down these barriers between two cross-cultural parties.There are 4 barriers for cross-cultural communications1.EthnocentrismEthnocentrism refers to the perception that one’s own culture is superiorto other cultures. It is natural to take pride of your own country and culture.However, this does not mean that you can claim superiority of your own culture over others. According to brown, all human being build sets of defense to protect the ego in their understanding of themselves. But the defense which we place between ourselves and others will create barrier in cross-cultural communication.2.StereotypingCultural stereotype refers to the oversimplified picture we form of other cultures in the bias of our own culture-bound world view. For example, American, British. it has negative effect, to judge.nguage barriersDifferent People may have level of language competence. The divergence of language competence is also likely to impede effective comprehension and communication. Besides, people from different part of the world use a variety of pronunciation and accents, which impede smooth communication and comprehension of others.4.Conflicting valuesEveryone has their own set of beliefs, attitudes and values. Failure to understand the differing beliefs and values will prevent effective cross-cultural communication.How to overcome theses barriers in cross-cultural communication?Improving the Cross-Cultural CompetenceCross-cultural competence is described as the ability understand people from different cultures and engage with them effectively. The cross- cultural competence could be improved through the following methods:1.Cross-cultural knowledge learningWe need to understand and accept the fact that there is a gap between different culture.we need to concede that there is differences between societies and that these differences include values, beliefs and convictions. Therefore, we need some fundamental intercultural knowledge learning which allows us to be aware andmindful of the differences in cultures.nguage TrainingLanguage barriers are often the most common issues experienced in multicultural groups. Therefore, providing language training should be given for individuals so that there is more of a chance of effectively communicating in a cross-cultural environment.3.Keep your personal beliefs personalEach person has his/ her own religious or other beliefs. Consequently, it is vital to respect and not judge one another’s beliefs and not impose one’s own values, attitudes and beliefs.4.Building trust across cross cultureIf people from different culture backgrounds can build and earn trust among each other and appreciate the differences, a healthy relationship may be formed which will play a critical role in developing effective cross-cultural communication.。
英语专业四级翻译文化差异
英语专业四级翻译文化差异Cultural Differences in English Professional TranslationIntroductionTranslation is the process of converting written or spoken communication from one language to another while preserving its meaning. In the field of professional translation, cultural differences play a crucial role in accurately conveying the original message. This article aims to explore the cultural differences in English professional translation and their impact on the accuracy and effectiveness of translation.1. Cultural ContextIn English professional translation, cultural context refers to the deeper meaning and cultural references embedded in a text. Cultural context varies across different countries and regions, leading to potential challenges for translators. For example, idiomatic expressions, proverbs, and metaphors can be deeply rooted in a specific culture, making it difficult to find equivalent expressions in the target language.2. Linguistic NuancesLanguages often have linguistic nuances that do not directly translate into another language. This poses a significant challenge for English professional translators. For instance, the use of honorifics in Asian languages, such as Japanese and Korean, to show respect and hierarchy can be hard to convey accurately in English. Translators must consider culturalnuances while selecting appropriate alternatives to maintain respect and hierarchy.3. Body Language and GesturesNon-verbal communication, including body language and gestures, differs significantly across cultures. Translators must be aware of these differences and accurately convey them in their translations. For instance, a gesture that is considered polite in one culture may be offensive or inappropriate in another. A skilled translator should be mindful of such cultural differences to avoid miscommunication or misunderstanding.4. Socio-cultural TaboosSocio-cultural taboos can greatly impact translation choices. Certain topics or words that are acceptable in one culture may be considered offensive or inappropriate in another. Translators should be vigilant about socio-cultural taboos and ensure that their translations align with the cultural norms of the target language. Failure to do so may lead to misunderstandings or even legal consequences.5. Humor and WordplayHumor and wordplay often rely heavily on cultural references and linguistic nuances. Translating humor can be particularly challenging as jokes and puns may not have direct equivalents in another language. A skilled translator needs to possess a deep understanding of both cultures to effectively translate humor and wordplay while maintaining the original comedic impact.6. Historical and Literary ReferencesCertain texts, such as historical documents, literature, or religious texts, contain significant cultural and historical references. Translators must have a comprehensive knowledge of the cultural and historical context to accurately convey these references in the target language. Lack of cultural understanding can result in misinterpretation or loss of essential meaning.7. Ethical ConsiderationsEthical considerations are vital in professional translation, especially when dealing with sensitive topics or subject matters. Translators must adhere to professional ethics and respect the cultural values and beliefs of both the source and target languages. They should navigate cultural differences with sensitivity and ensure that their translations do not offend or misrepresent any culture.ConclusionCultural differences in English professional translation demand a deep understanding of not only language but also the social, historical, and cultural context of both the source and target languages. Skilled translators should possess cultural sensitivity and awareness to accurately convey the original message while adapting it to fit the target culture. By acknowledging and embracing cultural differences, translators can bridge communication gaps and enhance global understanding and collaboration.。
武汉理工大学 文化与翻译课程讲义
《文化与翻译》课程教案目录1 文化与语言的关系 (3)1.1 Definition of Culture (3)1.2 The Relationship between Culture and Language (4)1.3. Definition of Translation (5)1.4. The Relation between Culture and Translation (6)2 中英思维与语言比较 (7)2.1 The Relation between Thought and Language (7)2.1.1. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (8)2.1.2 Piaget...s Cognitive Hypothesis （假说） (9)2.1.3 Traditional Chinese Opinions (9)2.2 The Comparison between Chinese and English Thought Patterns (10)2.2.1 Synthetic Thought Pattern and Analytic Thought Pattern (10)2.2.2 Imaginative Thought Pattern and Abstract Thought Pattern (12)2.2.3 Circular Thought Pattern and Linear Thought Pattern (12)2.2.4 Subjective Thought Pattern and Objective Thought Pattern (13)2.2.5 Intuitional （直觉的）Thought Pattern and Rational Thought Pattern (14)2.2.6 Collectivistic Thought Pattern and Individualistic Thought Pattern (15)2.3 Reflections of Chinese and English Thought Patterns on Language Expressive Forms (15)2.3.1 Thought Patterns and Sentence Structures (16)2.3.2 Thought Patterns and Alignment of Information (19)2.3.2.1 English Peacock Pattern and Chinese Lion Pattern (19)2.3.2.2 English Anticlockwise Order and Chinese Clockwise Order (20)2.3.3 Thought Patterns and Diction (20)2.3.4 Thought Patterns and Discourse Patterns (21)2.3.41 Circular and Linear (21)2.3.4.2 Subjectivity and Objectivity (22)2.3.4.3 Parataxis and Unity (23)3 文化差异简述 (24)3.1 Values (24)3.2 Religion Background (25)3.3 Historical Background and Historical Culture (27)3.4 Geographical and Natural Environment (29)3.5 Social Customs and Habits (31)4 中英互译中的翻译腔 (31)4.1. Definitions of Translationese (31)4.2. Features of Translationese (32)4.3. Causes to Translationese (33)4.3.1 The Translator's Ignorance of Differences in Modes of Thinking (34)4.3.2 The Translator's Neglect of Differences between Chinese and English (35)4.3.3 The Translator's Unawareness of Stylistic Equivalence (38)4.4 Strategies for Avoiding Translationese (40)4.4.1 To Improve Translator's Translating Proficiency (40)4.4.2 To Study the Original Text Carefully (42)5 翻译理论和策略简介 (43)5.1 Equivalence Theory (43)5.1.1 Equivalence-based Linguistic Approach (44)5.1.2 Equivalence-based Cultural Approach (44)5.1.3 Nida‟s Formal Equivalence vs. Dynamic/Functional Equivalence (45)5.1.5 Baker‟s Approach to Translation Equivalence (47)5.1.6 Venuti‟s Foreignization （异化）and Domestication (归化) (48)5.2 Functional Translation Theory (49)5.2.1 Reiss‟ Text Typology (类型学) Theory (49)5.2.2 Vermeer‟s Skopostheorie (翻译目的论) (50)5.2.2.1 Skopos Rule as a Guiding Principle (50)5.2.2.2 Coherence Rule and Fidelity Rule as Subordinate (从属的) Principles (51)5.3 Summary (51)6 翻译中文化负载词的处理 (52)6.1 Practical Principles for the C-E Translation of CLCTs (52)6.1.1 Adoption of the Established Translations (53)6.1.2 Full Consideration of Cultural Differences and Achieving Cultural Equivalence . 536.1.3 Considering the Purpose of Text and Purpose of Translation (53)6.2 Suggested Approaches (55)6.2.1 Transliteration (55)6.2.2 Transliteration with Explanation (56)6.2.3 Literal Translation (57)6.2.4 Literal Translation with Explanation (57)6.2.5 Paraphrasing (58)6.2.6 Adaptation (59)6.2.6.1 Addition (59)6.2.6.2 Subtraction /Deletion /Omission of Clichés /Redundant Expression andRhetoric (60)7 翻译案例分析 (65)7.1 Principles Guiding Subtitle Translation (65)7.1.1 Conciseness (65)7.1.2 Immediate Comprehensibility (65)7.1.3 Promoting the Portrayal of Character (66)7.1.4 Emotion Provoking (67)7.2 Introduction of subtitle translation strategies (68)7.3 Subtitle translation strategies (69)7.3.1 Condensation (69)7.3.2 Deletion (69)7.3.3 Expansion (70)7.3.4 Paraphrase (70)1 文化与语言的关系1.1 Definition of CultureIf we look back upon the historical origin of culture, we can find that the word culture was first used in Chinese ancient books. Its meaning is opposite to uncivilized, pristine and wildness, and has great differences with the meaning of culture which we use today. Nowadays, the word culture is original from the Latin word "cultus" which stems from "colere" (tend, cultivate). In late Middle English, the sense was "cultivation of soil" and from this (early 16th century) arose the present meaning of "cultivation of the mind, faculties and manners". The meaning of English culture is related to politics, law, and education etc. From the end of the 19th century, scholars around the world tried to give a definite definition to culture.However, the definitions vary a lot from each other by now.The earliest and the most widely acknowledged definition of culture was given by the British anthropologist Edwar Tylor in his Primitive Culture (1871). He puts forward the first important anthropological definition of culture.Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society(Tylor,1871:1)More specifically concerned with language and translation, in A Textbook of Translation, Peter Newmark defines culture as "the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression" (Newmark, 1988:94) Daniel Bates and Fred Plog propose a descriptive definition "Culture is a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors and artifacts that the members of a society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning" (Samovar & Porter, 2000:36)Vermeer focuses more on norms and conventions as the main features of a culture. For him, a culture is the entire setting of norms and conventions that an individual as a member of his society must know in order to be like everybody or to be able to be different from everybody. (Nord, 2001:33)Using these descriptions as a starting point, Samovar and Porter advance to the following definition:The deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and groupstriving. (Samovar&Porter, 2000: 36)In China, Deng Yanchang and Liu Runqing hold the view that "culture refers to the entire way of life of a society", that is, "the total pattern of beliefs, customs, institutions, objects, and techniques that characterize the life of human community".(Deng&Liu,1989:3)According to Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia (2002), culture, in anthropology, is the patterns of behavior and thinking that people living in social groups learn, create, and share. Culture distinguished one human group from others. It also distinguished human from other animals. A people's culture includes their beliefs, rules of behavior, language, ritual, art, technology, styles of dress, ways of producing and cooking food, religion, and political and economic systems.According to the above definitions given by famous experts and the dictionary, we can see that culture is a quite universal, multi-dimensional, complex and all-pervasive concept. Based on the features of culture mentioned above, the meaning of culture can be understood from the following aspects: (1) ideological culture, which refers to psychological structure, ways of thinking and value system; (2) system culture, which comes down from the past generation, or changes continuously, or exists by all sorts of codes and regulations; (3) material culture, which is made by people and serves people, such as house, clothes, etc.1.2 The Relationship between Culture and LanguageIt has been widely recognized that language and culture are inseparable. Nida points out "Since culture is defined succinctly as totality of beliefs and practice of a society, nothing is of greater strategic importance than the language through which its beliefs are expressed and transmitted and by which most interaction of its members takes place. When it is used in contexts of communication, it is bound up with culture in multiple and complex ways:' (Nida, 2000:105) The anthropologist Huckhohn also thinks that human culture without language is unthinkable. I would like to analyze the relationship between culture and language from the following three aspects.First, language is a part of culture. According to the definition of culture given by Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, a people's culture includes their beliefs, rules of behavior, language, ritual, art, technology, style of dress, ways of producing and cooking food, religion, and political and economic systems. We can draw a conclusion that language is a component of culture. Secondly, language is the carrier of culture and language reflects culture. As Mr. Xu Guozhang says that“语言是人类特有的一种符号系统，当它作用于文化的时候，它是文化信息的载体和容器。
《文化语言翻译》PPT课件
分析语的特征是不用形态变化而用词序及虚词来 表达语法关系。
汉语
English uses hereditary inflection, relatively fixed word order, and plentiful function words to express grammatical relationships.
She had such a kindly, smiling, tender, gentle, generous heart of her own.
她心地厚道，为人乐观，性情温柔，待人 和蔼，器量又大。
4.2 语法形态的差异
王力（1984: 53, 141）“就句子的结构而论， 西洋语言是法治的，中国语言是人治的。”所 谓“法治”，即句子的形式严格受到语法的制 约，如句子必须有主语和谓语动词，及物动词 必须有宾语，这些“不管用得着用不着，总要 呆板地求句子形式的一律”。所谓“人治”， 即句子比较不受形式的约束，可以因表意的需 要而加以变通，词语的分合伸缩比较灵活， “用得着就用，用不着就不用”，只要双方意 思明白，就可以了。
现在所说的“文化”与古文中的“文化” 涵义有较大的差异。今天我们所用的文化 一词是外来语的意译，是19世纪末从日文 中转译过来的。文化一词源于拉丁文 cultus，是由colere 演化而来，而英语中 的culture和德语中的kultur同由拉丁语的 cultus转化而来。文化一词拉丁文原义是 “开发，开化”的意思。德语kultur本义指 精神文化，实指宗教文化而言。英语 culture的意义则与政治、法律、教育等社 会生活有关。
经过一系列实验之后，弄清了许多重要现 象。
英语语言与文化lecture
American Social Culture
The American Dream
The idea of individual success and happiness through hard work and selfreliance
Diversity and Multiculturalism
Australia
Canada
New Zealand
The unique blend of British and Original cultures, as well as the influence of migration from Asia and Europe
The sentiment of French and English cultures, as well as the contributions of Indigenous people and immigrants from around the world
Culture determines language learning and teaching: The approach to language learning and teaching is often influenced by cultural beliefs and practices For example, some cultures emphasize rot learning while others focus on communicative skills
• Old English (450-1100): Characterized by a highly impacted grammar and a vocabulary derived from German roots, Old English was the language of the Anglo Saxons
中译外--文化与汉英翻译-10
年糕 Nian-gao; rice cake; New Year cake 团圆饭 family reunion dinner 年夜饭 New Year’s Eve dinner 饺子 Jiao-zi (stuffed) dumplings Chinese meat ravioli([,rævi'əuli],意大利小方饺) 汤圆 Tang-yuan -- dumplings made of sweet rice, rolled into balls and stuffed with either sweet or spicy fillings
烟花 fireworks 爆竹 firecrackers 红包 red packets -- cash wrapped up in red paper, symbolizing fortune and wealth in the coming year 舞狮 lion dance -- The lion is believed to be able to dispel evil and bring good luck. 舞龙 dragon dance -- to expect good weather and good harvests
传统的中国婚礼仪式包括6个必备步骤，它们是：说 媒、定亲、聘礼、迎娶、拜堂（三鞠躬）、喝交杯酒等 六步。此外，如今一个标准的中国婚礼会如下进行：在 一对新人订婚后，接下来就是挑选吉日成亲。 The traditional Chinese marriage ceremony usually involves 6 necessary procedures, namely: match-making, engagement, betrothal([bi‘trəuðəl] 婚约) presents, meeting the bride, three bows and drinking cross-cupped wine. In addition, a typical Chinese wedding nowadays goes like this: when a new couple is/gets engaged, what follows is a choice of the date of their marriage.
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Lecture 10 Cultural Context and Translation一、语言与文化1．文化的定义也许在同学们的阅读当中见过很多文化的定义。
英语中的culture 来源于拉丁文cultura,这个词的最早的基本意义是耕作种植作物。
随着社会文明的发展，人类认识的深化，culture 一词的外延不断延伸，内涵不断丰富，据大英百科全书统计，在各国的正式出版物中关于文化的定义达160多种。
其实各个研究领域的人对文化都有不同的认识。
人类学家会认为文化是无处不在、无所不包的人类知识和行为的总体，文化学者则认为文化是人类社会“艺术、政治经济教育修养文学语言思维的总和，跨文化交际学家W. H. Pearce 则认为文化是冻结了的人际交流，而交际是流动着的文化。
但是现在最具权威性的定义还是英国19世纪人类学家Edward Tyler 在1871年出版的primitive culture 一书中提出的‘文化是一种复杂体，它包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗、以及其余社会上习得的能力和习惯。
’泰勒的定义主要强调了精神方面的文化，现在各国的学者都认识到了物质的文化也是很重要的。
所以一些学者就对这个定义进行了修订：“文化是复杂体，包括实物、知识信仰艺术道德法律风俗以及其余社会上习得的能力和习惯。
”从这个定义我们可以看出文化的概念范围极其广阔，内涵十分丰富，大到宇宙观时空观人生观价值观，小到衣食住行婚丧嫁娶一切社会的生活方式行为方式思维方式语言方式。
总之文化是人类社会文明的全部成果。
文化具有时空性。
世界上任何一种文化都处在历史的纵坐标和地域的横坐标的时空坐标系中。
从时间角度看，文化是社会历史发展的综合反映，社会发展的各个历史时期产生了具有时代特征的原始文化奴隶制文化封建文化资本主义文化和社会主义文化，后一时期的文化是对前一时期的过滤和积淀，现代文化是对历史文化的继承和发扬。
从空间角度来看，各个民族各个国家在不同的生态和人文环境下形成了各具特色的民族地域文化，如本土文化外来文化都市文化乡村文化东方文化西方文化等，因此从时空坐标系统考察文化具有历时性和共时性的双重特征。
从历时的角度看，文化随着社会的发展而不断进化，从共时的角度看各个国家各个民族都有着各具特色的民族文化，并相互影响相互渗透。
随着我国的改革开放的不断深入，科学技术的发展特别是新闻媒体的传播介绍和互联网的日益普及，西方文化的价值观念生活方式生活方式等广泛影响着我国社会生活的各个领域，人们早已习惯了穿西装系领带，年轻人更习惯穿T恤衫和牛仔裤，人们购物开始刷卡，过圣诞节和情人节也已经不再新奇，周末人们会去吃西餐，大学生们也开始修学分。
另一方面，中国的中草药和针灸也越来越受到西方人士的欢迎和认同，不少西方人来华学习气功太极拳，中国特色的餐馆现在也已经遍布了世界各地，中国的饺子春卷豆腐等传统食品也深受一些西方人的喜爱。
当然以上这些反映在衣食住行乃至言语等方面的文化表层结构的变化无论从速度还是范围来说都远远超过反映宗教信仰伦理道德世界观等深层文化结构方面的变化。
2．文化与语言的关系语言与文化是一个互为依存密不可分的整体。
德国语言学家洪堡特早就指出：语言是自我的表达，也是文化的反映。
世界上没有哪一种语言能离开特定的文化，任何语言都充满了人类文化活动的痕迹，不仅体现了本民族的自然环境、历史原因、风土人情传统习惯而且业透视着该民族的宗教信仰、文化心态思维方式价值观念，等等。
所以我们说语言是文化的一部分，又是文化的映像。
语言和文化互相影响，互相作用，理解语言必须了解文化理解文化必须了解语言。
A．地理环境气候对语言的影响欧美的春夏秋冬是从春分夏至秋分冬至开始的，中国的春夏秋冬是从立春立夏立秋立冬开始的，相差一个半月。
因而英国的夏天风和宜人，所以莎士比亚的作品有 a midsummer night’s dream 和shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? 的诗句。
中国人和英国人对于west wind 的理解也很不相同。
当西风吹起来的时候，在英国正是春天来临、万物复苏的季节，而在中国则正是深秋或隆冬，天气变冷树木调零。
所以west wind 对于英国人和西风对于中国人所产生的联想是截然不同的。
英国大诗人雪莱在西风颂中就对west wind 进行了高度的赞颂，把它作为希望和力量的象征。
在对西方文化影响较大的希腊神话中，西风还有一个拟人的称呼叫Zephyrus ，他的妻子是花之女神，儿子是果实之神，从这一点也可看出在西方文化中西风是和春天、生命紧紧联系在一起的。
在文学作品中也有反映Chaucer in The Canterbury Tales the prologue 坎特伯雷故事的引子中写到When also Zephyrus with his sweet breathExhales an air in every grove and heathUpon the tender shoots and the young sun.这种美好的形象在汉语中都成了凄凉萧条的代名词。
如李白的忆秦娥：咸阳古道音尘绝，音尘绝，西风残照，汉家陵阕。
马致远的天静沙秋思中古道西风瘦马，夕阳西下，断肠人在天涯。
在中国普遍的河流是河水向东流。
所以有一江春水向东流，请君试问东流水，抽刀斩水水更流和大江东去，浪淘尽，千古风流人物。
的诗句。
但在欧洲，河流大多向西北方向流入海，所以李白《江上咏》的诗句:功名富贵若常在，汉水亦应西北流。
只好译成But sooner could flow backward to is fountains/ this stream, than wealth and honor can remain. 译者Fletcher 把它做了变通处理，用了flow backward 来避免东西方向河流走向而引起的翻译问题。
四面临海的英国自古以来重视航海事业，因而有be left high and dry 陷入困境（船只搁浅）any port in a storm （风暴到来不择港）on the rocks ( 触礁，处于困境) odd fish （怪物/怪鱼）fish wife （骂街的泼妇/渔妇）trim the sails to the wind （顺着大势前进）in smooth water (在平静的水域/诸事平安) be in the same boat with （与…共患难）sink or swim (孤注一掷) to sail through （一路顺风）在中国，东部和南部林大海，内陆人面对海洋的浩渺有神秘莫测的敬畏之感。
所以有海水不可斗量、海阔天空、海角天涯、海底捞针、海枯石烂、海誓山盟、海市蜃楼、海内存知己，四海之内皆兄弟等体现汉民族对海洋的心理状态的词语。
B．动物与植物对语言的影响汉语中有许多与竹有关的成语，如胸有成竹势如破竹节外生枝寄人篱下等等，这与中国的生活环境有关。
但竹子在英语里几乎没有什么联想意义，甚至bamboo一词都是从其他语言里面借来的。
英国森林里的蘑菇很多，因此如雨后春训在英语中的相应成语自然成了spring up like mushrooms . 还有grapevine news 小道消息，英国多黑莓所以就有了as plentiful as black berries 而中国人则说多如牛毛。
daffodil，汉语里就是黄水仙，仅仅是一种花而已，但在英国它是春天、欢乐的象征。
一些文学家诗人都以daffodil来描写春天以及春天所带来的欢愉的心情。
诗人华兹华斯在I wandered lonely as a cloud 中的描写堪称是对这种花的最典型的描写，反映了诗人当时愉快的心情。
Rose 和玫瑰在西方文化和中国文化中都象征着爱情。
但在英语成语under the rose 中却是秘密和沉默的象征，这反映了在会议桌上方悬挂玫瑰花意味着所有与会人员必须保守秘密的古老习惯。
这一习惯源于希腊神话：Cupid给了沉默之神Harpocrates一支玫瑰以防止它泄露Venus的不检点的行为。
在中国文化中人们用带刺的玫瑰来比喻那些容貌美丽却不太好接近的姑娘。
柳树在汉语里通常被赋予分离、思念的联想意义。
在《诗经》中就有：昔我往矣，杨柳依依，今我来思，雨雪霏霏的描述，它比较形象地概括了戍边战士思念家乡和亲人的感情。
而willow在英语中却与中国文化中的柳树有着不同的文化内涵。
它常能使人联想起悲哀和忧愁，失去亲人等等。
如在莎士比亚的奥赛罗中，Desdamona 戴斯德蒙娜就唱过一首柳树歌，表达她的悲哀，同时暗示了她的死。
英语中的cricket 和汉语中的蟋蟀同指一种小昆虫，但却有迥然不同的文化内涵。
蟋蟀在中国文化里常给人以忧伤凄凉孤独寂寞的联想。
自古以来，很多文人墨客喜欢结蟋蟀来烘托这种气氛，岳飞在《小重山》里写到：昨夜寒恐不住鸣，惊回千里梦，已三更欧阳修的《秋声赋》里但闻四壁虫声唧唧，如助余之叹息。
杜牧在《寝夜》里恐唱如烟波，更深似水寒。
但蟋蟀的这种忧伤的形象在英美文化中就不存在，而成了快乐的小蟋蟀。
英国民俗也认为在圣诞夜听到蟋蟀鸣叫的人将会无比幸运。
C. Kingsley’s Two Years Ago : I have not had all the luck I expected; but … am as merry as a cricket.C．神话传说寓言对语言的影响神化传说和寓言对语言的影响主要体现在成语上。
伊索寓言希腊神话荷马史诗等在英语里留下了大量成语。
如a Herculean task艰巨的任务, Achilles’ heel致命的弱点Samson’s hair 致命点a sword of Damocles 达摩克利斯之剑the Gordian’s knot难解之结between Scylla and Charybdis腹背受敌sour grapes 酸葡萄cry wolf狼来了谎报军情Pandora’s box潘多拉的盒子the cat’s paw猫爪子被别人利用的人。
汉语的神话传说寓言也给我们留下了很多成语守株待兔、请君入瓮、郑人买鞋、天衣无缝、铁杵磨成针、愚公移山、女娲补天、夸父追日、柳毅传书、叶公好龙等等。
D．历史对语言的影响中国历史分为古代史近代史现代史古代史指1840年以前，近代史指1840-1919年的五四运动，现代史1919到文化大革命。
英语里怎么表示呢？提到ancient times 英美人想到的是古罗马，古希腊。
Modern English 指莎士比亚以来的英语。
而我们的1919 年白话文以前的文章均为古文。
所以这个modern 覆盖的时间可以是我们的古代，近代现代。