Chapter 2 Lecture 2 语言学
英语语言学第二章讲课ppt课件
allophone音位变体
and
A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.
认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才 能开始 对症下 药，然 后药到 病除。 近年来 国家对 扶贫工 作高度 重视， 已经展 开了“ 精准扶 贫”项 目
Broad transcription 宽式标音: the transcription with letter-symbols only.
Narrow transcription 严式标音: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics 变音符. Diacritics are a set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.
认识到了贫困户贫困的根本原因，才 能开始 对症下 药，然 后药到 病除。 近年来 国家对 扶贫工 作高度 重视， 已经展 开了“ 精准扶 贫”项 目
Bilabial 双唇音 Labiodental 唇齿音 Dental 齿音 Alveolar 齿龈音 Palatal 腭音 Velar 软腭音 Glottal 喉音
of how speech sounds are produced. (2) Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 studies how
英语语言学教程Chapter 2 精品PPT课件
Its main principles were that
there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and
that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.
The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.
These principles continue to be followed today.
Questions for the students:
Do you know that human beings are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system?
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
Teaching aims: Let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.
Teaching difficulties: Manner of articulation ; (发音方法） Place of articulation ; （发音部位） The criteria of vowel description （元音的描述 ）; Broad and narrow transcription （宽式 / ; 窄式标音） allophone（音位变体）; minimal pairs（最小对立位）; assimilation（同化）
语言学chapter 2
1. Lips 2. Teeth 3. Teeth ridge (alveolus) 4. Hard palate 5. Soft palate (velum) 6. Uvula 7. Tip of tongue 8. Blade of tongue 9. Back of tongue 10.Vocal cords 11.Pharyngeal cavity The speech organs 12.Nasal cavity
How to pronounce [p] & [ph]
Where will the sound [p] and [ph] occur
[p] occurs after [s] [ph] occurs at the beginning of a word
Phone
Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. [p] [ph] [t] [s] [k ] [f] [e] [a] [u] It does not necessarily distinguish meaning [si ׃m ] [ti ׃m] [spi ׃k] [ph i ׃k]
Classification of vowels
---- English vowels can be divided into two large categories:
monophthongs: individual vowels diphthongs: one sound glides to another [ ][ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] [ ][ ]
Exercises: describe the following sounds
[ [ [ [ [ ] front close unrounded short ] central semi-open unrounded short ]central semi-close unrounded long ]back open unrounded long ] back close rounded long
语言学导论第二章
lodger
calling
singing robber
utter
2)classification of English vowels: monophthongs单元音: 1.the part of the tongue that is held highest: front: [i:, i, e, æ , ɑ ] central: [ə: , ə, ʌ ] back: [u:, u, Ɔ: , Ɔ, ɑ:] 2.width of the mouth: open: [ æ , ʌ , Ɔ, ɑ, ɑ:]
2.in terms of place of articulation: bilabial双唇音: [p, b, m, w] labiodental唇齿音: [f, v] dental齿音: [, ] alveolar齿龈音: [t, d, s, z, n, l, r] palatal腭音: [ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, j] velar软腭音: [k, g, ŋ ] glottal喉音: [h]
D pull shot park hock hot cop much cut
Sound discrimination: A B C peer pair fear dear dare sheer spear spare really poor pull found town tone sell red raid men less lace wet seal sail feel
(2)articulatory phonetics: 1)speech organs: 1.three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity (the pharynx/throat) the oral cavity (the mouth) the nasal cavity (the nose) 2.the throat glottis(声门) vocal cords(声带) larynx---Adam’s apple
语言学教程第二章ppt课件
The categories of consonant, therefore, are
established on the basis of several factors.
.
a. the actual relationship between the
tongue curled up and back in a retroflex gesture
and then striking the roof of the mouth in the
post-alveolar region as it returns to its position
behind the lower front teeth. In some forms of
humans, meaningful in human
communication and with which linguists
are concerned.
.
.
Phonetics and ittics is the science
which studies the characteristics of
vocal organs(发音器官).
The articulatory apparatus of a
human being are contained in
three important areas: (1) the
pharyngeal cavity(咽腔) – the
throat
(2) the oral cavity(口腔) – the
through easily and the sound produced
语言学第二章chapter2电子教案
Language
Number of speakers
1. Chinese/Mandarin 1,300,000,000
Affricates VL
破擦音 VD w
Nasals
鼻音 VD p b
Liquids 流音 VD
f v θδ f v θδ
td
kg
s z ∫З
h
t∫ dЗ
n
η
I
r
j
td
kg
s z ∫З
h
Classification of vowels 元音分类
English vowels can be divided into two large categories:
The manner of articulation：
• Stops/plosives 爆破音: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g] • Fricatives 摩擦音:[f] [v] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ] [h] • Affricates 破擦音:[tʃ] [dʒ] • Liquids流音: [l] [r] • Nasals鼻音: [m] [n] [ŋ ] • glides/semivowels半元音: [j] [w]
The place of articulation：
• bilabial: [p], [b], [w] • labiodental :[f] [v] • dental: [θ] [ð] • alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r] • palatal: [ʃ] [ʒ] [tʃ] [dʒ] [j] • velar: [k], [g] • glottal: [h]
英语语言学 Lecture 2 - speech sounds
A New Seaghsounds of spoken English≠letters of written English↓InternationalPhonetic Alphabet →IPAIPA is a standardized and internally accepted system of phonetic transcription.Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sounds. With minor modification it is now still used by phoneticians and linguists.The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2005)only some of the sounds →units in the language system.study from various perspectives ↓PhoneticsPhonologyPhonetics -studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Articulatory Phonetics- the study of the production of speech sounds.Acoustic Phonetics- the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics - concerned with the perception of speech sounds.- the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. Aim- discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.1- analyze an individual language, say English, in order to determine itsphonological structure, i.e. whichsound units are used and how they are put together.2- compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rulesthat underlie the use of sounds inthem, and3- ultimately discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of alllanguages.nasal cavityoral cavitypharyngealcavityThe three resonating cavitiesSpeech Organs 1.lips 2.teeth 3.teeth ridge (alveolar) 4.hard palate 5.soft palate (velum) 6.uvula 7.tip of the tongue 8.blade of the tongue 9.front of the tongue 10.back of the tongue11.vocal cords1 2 1 234 567 8 910 11MouthConsonants are produced ‘by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction’.By contrast, a vowel is produced without such ‘stricture’ so that ‘air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose’.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.Consonants - any place between the lips and the vocal folds.Bilabial双唇音*[w] tongue body raises to velum →labia-velar[f], [v]Upper teeth & Lower lip 唇齿音[ð], [θ]Tongue tip/blade & teeth 齿音[t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l] , [ ]tongue tip/blade&alveolar ridge齿龈音[ſ],[3],([tſ],[d3])tongue tip&back of the alveolar ridge 后齿龈音[j][k], [g], [η], [w] [h] Palatal 硬腭音Velars 软腭音Glottal 声门音[ ] - 书[ u] [ ][ ] [ ] Retroflex 卷舌音Uvular 小舌音Pharyngeal喉音Place of Articulation Bilabial [p], [b], [m], [w] Labiodental [f], [v]Dental [ð], [θ]Alveolar [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], Post-alveolar [ſ], [3],Palatal [j]Velar [k], [g], [η], [w] Glottal [h]RetroflexUvularPharyngealComplete closure(articulators)→ airstreamcannot escapethrough themouth.1.Closing phasepression3.release [p], [b], [k], [g], [t], [d]爆破音（plosive）Most sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing air flow from entering the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and the airstream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce sounds -nasals. [m][n][η]鼻音air stream partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced [f], [v] [ð], [θ] [s], [z] [ſ], [3] [h]摩擦音one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed for turbulent air stream[w][j]无摩擦延续音（半元音）obstruction in the incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth [l]边音塞擦音a stop followedimmediately by africativean articulator is set vibrating by the airstream [r] ( )颤音only one vibration is produced [ ]触音/闪音[p] [b] [f] [v] [m] Voiceless bilabial stopVoiced bilabial stopVoiceless labiodental fricative Voiced labiodental fricative Bilabial nasal。
语言学Chapter 2
II. Phonology
Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.
ord …
Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements: compound: ’blackbird; ’greenhouse; ’hotdog… noun phrase: black ’bird; green ’house; hot ’dog…
2. Phone phoneme alloerm Phone Phoneme Property Transcription phonetic unit , [p]、[ph] specific phonological unit, /p/ abstract [p] + [ph]
Underline the words that end with a sound as required:
A fricative:
pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave message A nasal: train bang leaf limb A stop: drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tip An affricate: rack such ridge booze
语言学chapter2
语言学chapter2Chapter 2 phonology1,what are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?The two major media of communication are speech and writing. Speech is more basic than writing. Because the writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises, and in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds that is called voicing. It is caused by vocal cords which may also be held together tightly so that the air stream vibrates hem at different speeds .3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ.Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics,which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone can possible do. For example, in broad transcription, the symbol[l]is used for the sound[l]in the four words leaf[li:f],feel[fi:l], build[bild],and health[helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l]in all these four sound combination differ slightly. The [l]in[li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called clear[l], and no diacritic is need to indicate it; the [l]in[fi:l]and[bild]occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and innarr ow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sou nd [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ]. Another example is the consonant [p]. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broadtranscription, but i n narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiratio n, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4.How are the English consonants classified?English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth , the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. According to which part of the tongue is held highest, vowels may bedistinguished as front, central, and back. And according to the openness of the mouth, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels , semi-open vowels and open vowels. According to the shape of the lips, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, and all the back vowels, with the exception of[a:],are rounded vowels. According to the length of the sound, vowels can be classified into tense and lax vowels.6. Give the phonetic symbol fro each of the following sound descriptions:(1)voiced palatal affricate:[?] (2)voiceless labiodental fricative:[f](3)voiced alveolar stop: [d] (4)front, close, short: [i](5)back, semi-open, long: [?:] (6)voiceless, bilabial stop: [p]Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:(1)[d]: voiced alveolar stop (2)[l]: voiced alveolar liquids(3)[?]: voiceless palatal affricate (4) [w]: voiced bilabial glides(5) [?]: back, close, short (6) [?]: front, open, short7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.The difference between these sounds is what the phonetician are interested in. Because phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, but phonetician isinterested in how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess.8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophones are the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.Sequential rules refer to the ways the phonemes can be combined. Sequential rules regulate which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other. They are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].Deletion rule is when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.In the pronunciation of such wordsas sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter[g]. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented bythe letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Deletea [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?Suprasegmental features refer to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, and intonation.There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.。
Chapter 2语言学第二章
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[☐ ♌ ♦ ♎ ♑] are stops and [❍ ⏹ ☠]are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[♐ ❆ ♦ ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[♦ ❑ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearingon the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[♓], CV2[♏], CV3[☪], CV4[♋], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[☐],CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[☜] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme /☐/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak/☐♓/, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /☐/ occurs in theword like speak /♦☐♓/, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Boththe aspirated [☐♒] in peak and the unaspirated [☐=] in speak have the same phonemicfunction, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /☐/ and not as /♌/; they are bothallophones of the phoneme /☐/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/. It shouldn’t be / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ or / ✈⏹♦❑♓/ according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
? Complementary distribution: When two or more than
two sounds never occur in the same environment, they
h
=
_
are said to be in complementary distribution. [p , p ] [l, l ]
Phonological processes
? Assimilation: The process by which one sound takes on some or all the features of its neighboring sound, thus making the two sounds similar, the process is called assimilation. ? Regressive assimilation: There are two possibilities of assimilation: if a preceding sound is influenced by a following sound, making the two sounds similar, it is called regressive assimilation. ? Progressive assimilation: The converse process of regressive assimilation, in which a following sound is influenced by a preceding sound, making the two sounds similar, the process is known as progressive assimilation.
Phonemes and allophones
? Phone： phone, as a basic unit of phonetic study, is a minimal sound segment that human speech organs can produce.
? Phoneme : phoneme, as a basic unit of phonological study, is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning.
Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.
Phonological analysis
? Phonetics and Phonology phonetics studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted,
and received. Phonology, on the other hand, is the study of the sound systems of languages. It is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.
? Phonemic contrast: It refers to two phonemes in a minimal pair occur in the same place and can distinguish meaning, these two phonemes are said to be in phonemic contrast.
? Allophones: the different realizations of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments are called
allophones. For example, [p , p ] are two
h
=
different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.
Chapter 2
Speech Sounds
Study Contents
? Phonological analysis ? Phone, phonemes and allophones ? Phonological processes ? Distinctive features ? Syllable ? suprasegmental features
Phonemes s: When two different forms are identical
in every way except for one sound segment in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. beat—bit; bin—tin