语言学笔记 Lecture5

语言学笔记陈银2014/4/5Lecture 5Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (Lecture 2)2.3.1 From Phonetics to PhonologyPretest⏹Q1. Define phonology⏹Q2. Explain the relation between phonetics and phonology.A1: Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.A2: Relation between Phonetics and Phonology:•Similarity: both studying speech sounds;⏹Dissimilarity:•Phonetics --- sounds‟ classification & description;•Phonology --- rules of sound system.Q3: why does “a” in “map” has a nasal quality?A: If a nasal consonant (such as [m]) precedes an oral vowel (such as [æ] in map) , some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel [æ] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of [æ] has begun.Coarticulation⏹When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the processcoarticulation.⏹If the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known asanticipatory coarticulation.⏹lamb⏹s eat / s oup⏹If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverativecoarticulation. mapPhonetic transcription⏹Nasalization•l a mb [ æ ]⏹(with a diacritic ~ to indicate the vocal [æ] has been nasalized.)⏹Aspiration•p eak[ph]⏹(with a diacritic h to indicate the voiceless bilabial stop [p] isaspirated.)•[p] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak.⏹Phonetic transcription⏹When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broadtranscription.⏹The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrowtranscription.⏹Diacritics: the set of symbols in IPA, which are added to the letter-symbols to bring outfiner distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.pit [phit]⏹ Broad transcription with letter-symbols only spit [spit]⏹Narrow transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. pit [p h it]e.g.clear [ l ] as in let, play ( before a vowel: clear)[ l ]dark [ ɫ ] as in tell, feel (after a vowel: dark)aspirated [ ph] as in pit, peak[ p]unaspirated [ p] as in spit, speed1. The space between the two vocal cords is called ______.2.The most flexible speech organ in articulation is the ______.3. When produced with somewhat obstruction of the airflow somewhere in the mouth, thesounds must be ______.4. Phoneticians apply two standards to classify consonants: one is _____________________,i.e. the part of the vocal tract at which the constriction, obstruction or block is formed; theother is____________________, i.e. the way that the airstream is blocked, constricted, or obstructed.5. The consonants that are produced by closing the two lips first and let them open with theburst of the airflow are called_________.6. The two interdentals in English are the voiceless ___ and the voiced ___ respectively.7. The English consonants are either ______ or ______ depending on whether thevelum is raised or lowered.2.3.2 Phonemes⏹Phonology is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speechproduction system.•Phoneticians are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced while phonologists are interested in the patterning of such soundsand the rules that underlie such variations.⏹Crystal: …Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changesin the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not‟.•Minimal pairs test•PhonemesMinimal pairs(最小对立体):Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word.e.g. [t] and [d]: tin/din, tie/die[i:] and [i]: beat/bit, bead/bidThese important units are called phonemes2.2.1 Minimal PairDefinition:• A minimal pair refers to two different words which are identical in every way in pronunciation except one sound that takes place at the same position.Examples:•[pit] vs. [bit]•[bet] vs. [bæt]Minimal pairs最小对立对⏹Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:•1) different in meaning;•2) only one phoneme different;•3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.⏹ e.g. p at vs. fat⏹Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.The phoneme theoryPhoneme: units of explicit sound contrast, built on the idea of contrastLanguages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.In English, the distinction between aspirated [ph] and unaspirated [p] is not phonemicBy convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed between slant lines (//), while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets ([ ]).In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the “broad” transcriptionPhone /phonemebead bean pit spit[bi:d] [b ĩ:n] [phit] [spit]⏹/b/ /i:/ /d/ /n/ /p//i/ /s/ /t/—phonemes⏹[b] [i:] [d] [ ĩ:] [n] [ph ] [p] [ i ] [t] [s]—phonesPhoneDefinition:A phone refers to the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechExamples:•[p], [e], [n] in [pen]•[b], [u], [l], [i], [t] in ['bulit];Phoneme音位⏹Any speech sound segments that can distinguish or contrast words in sound andmeaning are called phonemes.⏹ A phoneme is the minimal or smallest distinctive linguistic unit in a language.⏹Languages differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.⏹In English, the distinction between aspirated [ph]and unaspirated [p]is notphonemic. [fəuˈni:mik]⏹In Chinese, however, the distinction between /p/ and /ph/ is phonemic.Phone vs. phonemePhone:phonetic unit A phone refers to the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech.physical as heard or produced marked with [ ]Phoneme: phonological unit Any speech sound segments that can distinguish or contrast wordsin sound and meaning are called phonemes. /A phoneme is the minimal or smallest distinctive linguistic unit in a language. Abstract marked with / /2.3.3 Phoneme & Allophones⏹Definitions:A phoneme is the minimal or smallest distinctive linguistic unit in a language.Allophones are phonic variants of a phoneme, which share more phonetic features in common and which are phonetically conditioned each.Allophones are possible variants or realization of a phoneme in different phonetic environment. allophone 音位变体⏹allophone: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme⏹ A phoneme is realized as allophone1+allophone2+….• e.g. /p/=[ ph ] + [ p]⏹In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because theynever occur in the same context:⏹ALLOPHONES (音位变体): the variants of a phoneme⏹ALLOPHONY/ALLOPHONIC V ARIATION: the phenomenon of variation in thepronunciation of phonemes in different position⏹COMPLMENTARY DISTRIBUTION(互补分布): the allophones never occur in thesame context(1) /p/ [p=] / [s] __________[ph] elsewhere(2) /l/ [l] / _______ V[ł]/ V _______●Q: Are all the phones in complementary distribution allophones?⏹PHONETIC SIMILARITY (语音相近): allophones of a phoneme must bear somephonetic resemblanceE.g. [l, ł] lateral approximants only differing in places of articulation●NOTE: Allophy: complementary distribution + phonetic similarity⏹FREE V ARIANTS: the pronunciation difference may be caused by dialect, habit, region,or individual preference, instead of by any distribution ruleIndividual differenceE.g., cup: [khΛph], [khΛp┐]┐: no audible releaseDialectical differenceE.g., either: [i:ðə], [aiðə]2.4 Phonological processes and phonological rules2.4.1 AssimilationNasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.1.If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressiveassimilation.2.If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, it is known as progressiveassimilation.⏹These changes exhibit PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES in which a TARGET orAFFECTED SEGMENT undergoes a structural change in certain ENVIRONMENTS or CONTEXTS.⏹In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound.⏹Any phonological process must have three aspects to it:⏹A) a set of sounds to undergo the process⏹B) a set of sounds produced by the process⏹C) a set of situations in which the process applies⏹/v/ ◊ [f] /z/ ◊ [s] etc.⏹voiced fricative ◊ voiceless / ____ voiceless⏹This is a PHONOLOGICAL RULE.⏹ A voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when itappears before a voiceless sound.⏹Nasalization rule:[-nasal] ◊ [+nasal] / ____ [+nasal]⏹Dentalization rule:[-dental] ◊ [dental] / ____ [dental]⏹Velarization rule:[-velar] ◊ [+velar] / ____ [+velar]⏹DEVOICING(清音化): a process by which voiced sounds become voiceless, in suchcontexts does not occur with other sounds (such as stop and vowels)E.g., [f, v; θ, ð; s, z; ʃ; ʒ; t ʃ; dʒ]●/v/ [f]V oiced fricatives are transformed into voiceless fricatives before voiceless segments.●voiced fricative voiceless/ ________ voiceless“A voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.”⏹PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES :a process in which a TARGET or AFFECTED SEGMENT undergoes a structural change in certain ENVIRONMENTS or CONTEXTS⏹Three aspects of phonological processa set of sounds to undergo the process;a set of sounds produced by the process;a set of situations in which the process applies.⏹PHONOLOGICAL RULE“/” : to specify the environment in which the change takes placeFocus bar (焦点横线): to indicate the position of the target segmentE.g., Nasalization rule[- nasal] [+nasal]/_____[+ nasal]Dentalization, velarization rule2.4.2 Epenthesis, Rule Ordering and Elsewhere ConditionEx.a. a hotel, a boy, a white houseb. an apple, an honour, an old lady●NOTE: It is the lack of a consonant that requires the nasal [n] to be added to the article“a”.⏹EPENTHESIS : the process of inserting a nasal soundØ [n] / [ə] ________ V●NOTE: The regular plural and past tense forms also exhibit similar rules.Ex.a. desk [dεsk] desks [dεsks]b. chair [tʃeə] chairs [tʃeəz]c. bus [bΛs] buses [bΛsəz]⏹-(e)s: [s], [z], [əz] (See pp. 45)⏹/s/ is found after /t, k/ (the preceding sound is a voiceless consonant other than / s, ʃ, tʃ/)⏹/z/ appears after: /l, ə, n, b, d, g, əu/ (the preceding sound is a vowel or a voiced consonant)other than /z, ʒ, dʒ /⏹/əz/ occurs after /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ /SIBILANTS(咝擦音): a speech sound (consonant) which is produced with friction and which has an s-like quality, e.g., /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ /For the plural forms:⏹The /s/ appears after voiceless sounds.⏹The /z/ appears after voiced sounds.⏹The /əz/ appears after sibilants.UNDERLYING FORM / UNDERLYING REPRESENTATION (UR): the basic form (or the form which appears in most cases), e.g., /z/SURFACE FORM / SURFACE REPRESENTATION (SR):the derived form, e.g., /s, əz/⏹z s/[-voiced, C]________⏹Ø [ə]/sibilant _____ [z]a. //si:t + z//b. //bε d + z//c. //keIs + z//s N/A *s Devoicing N/A N/A N/A Epenthesissi:ts bεdz *keIss Outputa. //si:t + z//b. //bε d + z//c. //keIs + z//N/A N/A ə Epenthesiss N/A N/A Devoicingsi:ts bεdz keIsəz OutputConclusion:Epenthesis is applied before devoicing.⏹Rule ordering⏹Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applies first.2.4.3 Distinctive features⏹The idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) inthe 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds.Distinctive Feature Theory⏹Distinctive feature theory was proposed by Roman Jakobson in the1950s.⏹The core of it is binary opposite.⏹The purpose of it to reduce the number of phonemic features to the minimum so thatsome main features can be used to explain all the oppositions of phonemes in all the languages in the world.⏹For example, aspiration is a distinctive feature in Chinese . While voicing is a distinctivefeature in English.⏹Distinctive features⏹phonetic features :contrast meanings of words / distinguish onephoneme from another.Distinctive featurese.g. [±voiced]Examples:•[b it]vs.[p it]•[d ip]vs.[t ip]•[g id]vs.[k id]Nondistinctive featurese.g [ ±aspirated ]; [ ±nasal ]Examples:•[spit] [phit];•[stik] [sthik];•[skip] [skhip];•[b i:n] [sbĩ:n]Distinctive features⏹Some of the major distinctions include [consonantal], [sonorant], [nasal] and [voiced].•[consonantal] : consonants [+consonantal]vowels [–consonantal]•[sonorant] : obstruents [–sonorant]•others [+sonorant]⏹[sonorant] distinguishes between obstruents (stops, fricatives andaffricates) and sonorants (all other consonants and vowels)⏹These are known as binary features denoted by ‘ + ’ and ‘–’.ReviewDistinctive features Exercises⏹Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using features.⏹l.[l] [ɫ] 2.[ph] [p] 3.[ tʃ] [d3] 4.[k] [g] 5.[i] [u]2.5 Suprasegmentals⏹Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than singlesound segments.⏹The principal suprasegmentals are:2.5.1 The syllable structurec.f. Chinese and English syllable structure⏹Chinese: MONOSYLLABIC (with one syllable)⏹English: MONOSYLLABIC or POLYSYLLABIC (with more than one syllable)⏹NUCLEUS/PEAK (核心/峰): vowel or consonant, e.g., table [teibl]:[tei], [bl]⏹RHYME (or RIME) (韵基), ONSET (节首)⏹NUCLEUS (核心): the vowel within the rhyme⏹CODA (节尾): the consonant(s) after the nucleus⏹Open syllable: bar, tie⏹Closed syllable: bard, tied⏹Maximal Onset Principle (MOP)•When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.•This explains the question of why /l/ in telling is pronounced as the clear [l].2.5.2 Stress⏹Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, araised vertical line [│] is often used just before the syllable it relates to.• A basic distinction i s made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter, which means that stress is a relativenotion.⏹At the word level, it only applies to words with at least two syllables.⏹At the sentence level, a monosyllabic word may be said to be stressed relative to otherwords in the sentence.⏹The stress pattern in English is no easy matter. In principle, the stress may fall on antsyllable. They also change over history and exhibit regional or dialectal differences. Changing English Stress PatternBecoming norm⏹inTEGral⏹coMMUNal⏹forMIDable⏹conTROVersy⏹INtegral⏹COMMunal⏹FORmidable⏹CONtroversyRP vs. GARP⏹laBORatory⏹DEBris⏹GARage GA⏹LABoratory⏹deBRIS⏹gaRAGEV vs. NVerb⏹conVICT⏹inSULT⏹proDUCE⏹reBEL Noun⏹CONvict⏹INsult⏹PROduce⏹REbelCompound vs. PhraseCompound Phrase⏹BLACKboard ⏹BLACKbird ⏹black BOARD ⏹black BIRDPrimary vs. Secondary StressepiphenomenalunsatisfactorydiscriminationstandardizationcommunicationindustrializationSentence Stress⏹Sentence stress is much more interesting. In general situations, notional words arenormally stressed while structural words are unstressed.⏹Sentence stress is often used to express emphasis, surprise, etc. so that in principle stressmay fall on any word or any syllable.e.g.John bought a red car.JOHN bought a red car.John BOUGHT a red car.John bought a RED car.John bought a red CAR.2.5.3 Intonation⏹Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which isused with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.For example, the fall-rise tone in English typically involves the meaning of a contrast within a limited set of items stated explicitly or implicitly.(Isn’t her name Mary?) No / ∨ Jenny⏹The old man didn‟t come / whereas the ∨young man / did come and actually enjoyedhimself⏹∨I didn‟t do it2.5.4 ToneChinese tone changes are used in a different way, affecting the meanings of individual words.Languages like Chinese are known as tone languages.Study Questions1. Define the following terms:coarticulation phonemeallophone assimilationstress intonation2. What is the difference between an allophone and a phoneme?3. Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs?ban, fat, pit, bell, tape, heat, meal, more, pat, pen, chain, vote, bet, far, bun, goat, heel,sane, tale4. What is assimilation and what is a phonological rule?5. What is the difference between an open and a closed syllable?6. Individual sounds are described as segments. What are suprasegmentals? Group WorkGroup 5 Chapter 3 3.1。